INDIAN MYTHOLOGY & MUSIC

Mythological references of musical instruments and vocal traditions in

ancient Indian texts

URMI VAZ
Paper I, PG Diploma in Comparative Mythology, 2013-14
Dept. of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai

INTRODUCTION
Music is inherent to humankind. Since the beginning of documented culture, there has been
evidence of music. Music has emerged spontaneously and in parallel in all known human
societies. Archeological evidence shows a continuous record of musical instruments, dating
back to at least 30,000 years (DErrico et al., 2003). Thus, music is an ancient capacity rather
than the recent creation of a single intelligence. Music appears to transcend time, place, and
culture.
Music is ubiquitous yet mysterious in the way it manifests and perpetuates. Since music has no
apparent evolutionary function,
this product of pure culture has
always roused curiosity. The
human capacity for music has
often been attributed to higher
sources, and consequently, a
whole body of mythology
surrounding music has been born.
This paper attempts to explore
the effects music and mythology
have had on each other over time
in India.
History of Indian music
The ancient Indians believed in the
divine origin of music. The purest
form of sound was considered
equal to cosmic energy. As a
result, music and religion were
always closely intertwined.
Classical music tradition was
probably evolved from the
religious poems and chants of the
Vedic period. It was later codified
by Bharata Muni. Indian music has
developed through very complex
interactions between different
peoples of different races and
cultures over several thousand
years.

The following timeline traces the evolution of the musical tradition in India:
Date
2500 BC - 1500 BC
1500 BC - 500 BC

500BC - 200BC

200 BC - 300 AD

300 AD - 600 AD

600 AD - 1200 AD

1200 AD - 1700 AD

1700 AD onwards

Significant musical developments

Several musical instruments, drums and dancing statuettes (including one of
Rudra) found at Indus Valley Civilization excavations.
* Arrival of Aryans, beginning of Vedic tradition, especially the rhythmic
compositions and chanting of the Vedas.
* Introduction of the first instruments like veena, dundubhi, tunav, talav and
bhoomi-dundubhi.
* Drinking of Soma-ras as part of Vedic sacrifices.
* Shiksha literature where ritual and mantra became basis of music.
* Guru-Shishya parampara
* Ramayana, with its rhythmic shlokas, composed
* Introduction of Pathya Sangeet educative, instructional musical tales
* Mahabharata composed with ample references to music, dance and singing
* Musical references in early Buddhist and Jain scriptures
* Mahabharata epilogue, Harivamsha, mentions Chhalikya and Hallisaka.
Chhalikya was a form of ancient Indian music and Hallisaka was a dance form.
* Natyashastra composed
* Golden age of arts Gupta period
* Composition of important Kalidasa plays
* Kamasutra, with varied musical references, composed
* Samaj, ghata-nibandhan and other forms of music introduced
* Music mentioned in Puranas like Vayupurana, Markandeyapurana and
Vishnudharmottarapurana.
* Dattilam, a text about ragas, composed
* Brihaddeshi, text on Indian classical music, composed
* Concepts of sargam, tala and Deshi music introduced
* Significant changes in 11th century Hindustani art music
* Beginnings of Sufi and Persian music
* The rise of Amir Khusros poetry
* Emergence of music forms like qawali, qalbana, qasida, naqsh and rags like
Turushka, Zeelaph and Sarpada
* Drupad, a genre of Hindustani Classical music, introduced
* Beginning of Hindi songs like Vishnupadas, in lieu of Sanskrit ones
* Rise of the Bhakti cult with devotional music about Rama and Krishna,
especially Meerabai
* Legendary musicians like Tansen lived and sang
* Rise in popularity of 16th century court music
* This period marks the beginning of modern Indian music
* Birth of musical forms like Khayal, Thumri, Tappa and formation of Gharanas
* Publishing of Hindustani music in English and other regional languages

Scriptural references The Vedas

Music originated from chanting of Vedas from the Aryan age. The Indus Valley civilization
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declined around the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, giving way to Vedic civilization. An
important aspect of Vedic religious life was the bard-priest who composed hymns, in praise of
the gods, to be sung or chanted at sacrifices.
This tradition continued until a sizable body of oral religious poetry had been composed. The
Rigveda came into being between 1500 BC and 500 BC. It was not committed to writing, but
the text and the chanting formula were carefully handed down by word of mouth from one
generation to the next, up to the present period. The poems in the Rigveda are arranged
according to the priestly families who chanted and, presumably, had composed the hymns.
'Nada' the source of sound turned into Chandas. The priests chanted hymns in a musical tone
with the pronunciation according to the tune. Vocalising syllables called Sthobhaksaras were
added. Melody and rhythm created the music. Priests used to perform group chanting at the
sacrifices. There are many legends about the origin of music.

Priests chanting during a Vedic sacrifice

The Yajurveda and the Samaveda were composed after the Rigveda The Yajurveda, with portions
in prose, is a manual, describing the procedures to be followed in the sacrifice. The Samaveda
contains hymns to be sung by those who did the chanting. It is this Veda which is specifically
connected with music in India. A fourth Veda, the Atharvaveda, replete with magical chants and
incantations, was accepted as a Veda considerably later and is quite unrelated to the other
three.
SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES
A. The Vishnudharmottara Purana The Vishnudharmottara Purana (or the
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Vishnudharmottara) is a Hindu text, encyclopedic in nature. It is considered as a

supplement or appendix to the Vishnu Purana. It is included in the list of eighteen
Upapuranas given in the Brihaddharma Purana. Among other things, it has chapters
dedicated to grammar, metrics, lexicography, metrics, rhetoric, dramaturgy, dance, vocal
and instrumental music and arts. The extant text is divided into three khandas (parts).
The first khanda comprises 269 adhyayas (chapters), the second khanda comprises 183
adhyayas and the third khanda comprises 118 adhyayas. Chapter I of the third khanda
deals with the origin of image making and the interdependence of arts. Chapters 2-17
deal with grammar, lexicography, metrics and rhetoric. Chapters 18-19 deal with vocal
and instrumental music. Chapters 20-34 deal with dance and dramaturgy.

B. The Epics
Ramayana - The first Indian epic, Ramayana, was composed by the sage Valmiki. It was written
in shloka form. The word shloka refers to a particular kind of metrical composition known for its
brevity, easy tempo and lilting rhyme.
From the lavish use of musical metaphors in the epic, it is evident
that the precise concept of music or sangeet had been adequately
established and appreciated. For example, when Rama describes
Kishkindha, Sugreeva's kingdom, to Laxmana, he refers to the
lute-like resonance of the bees, the rhythmic croaking of frogs and
the mridang-like sounds of clouds. Rama was an expert in
gandharva, the 'classical' music of the time.
The term Marga Sangeet is also used in the epic to denote the
accepted and prestigious mode of music. There were three
important features of Marga Sangeet. It was created and
propagated by Brahma and other deities. It was not meant for
entertainment. It was presented before the Gods to please them.
The epic tells us that musical instruments were collectively
mentioned as atodya. Four major types of instruments were
identified. A wide variety of instruments were used such as the Veena, Venu, Vansha, Shankha,
Dundubhi, Bheri, Mridang, Panav and Pataha.
The knowledge of music was widespread. Ravana the demon-leader was proficient in music. So
was Sugreeva, the monkey-leader. Occasions of festival music were known as samaj. There were
professional classes of musicians such as Bandi, Soota, Magadha and others, whose repertoire
included songs in praise of heroes, their deeds, their clans or dynasties.
Ramayana, as an oral epic, was also propagated according to the musical norms perfected in the
oral tradition. This was the pathya mode of music making, ideal for narration. This was the form
employed by Rama's sons Kush and Lava, when they sang a narrative song in Rama's praise at
his court accompanied by only a lute. Even today, the story of Rama, when traditionally narrated
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in India in different languages and regions, follows the norms laid down by the ancient Sage.
The use of technical terms in popular literature signifies that knowledge in the concerned field
of study is widespread in society. Musical terms such as pramana, laya, tala, samatala , kala ,
matra and shamya regularly feature in the epic.

Mahabharata - Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa composed the epic Mahabharata in 24000 shlokas.

There is less about music in the Mahabharata than in the Ramayana. Possibly human life had
become more complex and problem-ridden during the time of the Mahabharata, leaving less
time for music.
Mahabharata used the term gandharva instead of sangeet. The epic, therefore, referred to a
more specific kind of music. Musicology, or the science of music was called Gandharvashastra.
Superhuman beings called Gandharvas were the expert practitioners of this music. Both
gandharvas and their consorts, the apsaras were experts in singing, playing musical instruments
and dancing.
Arjuna, one of the heroes in the Mahabharata had learnt these musical arts from Chitrasen
gandharva. Kings maintained their own music schools to train princesses and their
maids-in-waiting in the performing arts.
The names of the seven basic musical notes (shadja) have been clearly mentioned in the
Mahabharata, which was composed around 400 BC. The epic therefore bears testimony to the
long living tradition of Indian Classical music.
The use of music in festivals and other social occasions brings out the importance given to
music in human life. There were, in fact, many classes of professional musicians like the
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gandharvas who catered to various musical and cultural needs.

C. The Kalidasa plays and others

In ancient India, music used to be a part of the famous
Sanskrit dramas like Mirchakatika and Abhijnana
Shakuntalam. The origin of the ancient Indian music
began in the age of the Aryans, with the chanting of the
Vedas. It was seen as an excellent means for realization
of god. Music was considered as a source of culture and
civilization. It was an integral aspect of Sanskrit dramas
like Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Mirchakatika. The fourth act
of Vikramoryasiya by Kalidasa used different musical
compositions like Aksiptika, Dvipadika, Jambhalika,
Khandadhara, Carcarj, Khandaka, and other such.
D. Natyashastra
The Natya Shastra is an ancient Indian treatise on the
performing arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music. It was written during the period
between 200 BCE and 200 CE in classical India and is traditionally attributed to the Sage Bharata.
The Natya Shastra is incredibly wide in its scope. While it primarily deals with stagecraft, it has
come to influence music, classical Indian dance, and literature as well. It covers stage design,
music, dance, makeup, and virtually every other aspect of stagecraft. It is very important to the
history of Indian classical music because it is the only text which gives such detail about the
music and instruments of the period. Natya Shastra heralds the foundation of Indian fine arts.
The GODS OF MUSIC
Each of the abovementioned scriptures acknowledges and explains the divine origins of music,
attributing certain arts to certain gods. One cannot help but draw parallels with the Muses and
Apollo in Greek mythology, who were reigning gods of music. However, unlike the Greek gods,
Indian gods have been more associated with instruments rather than the crafts, with the
exception of Shiva, who is considered the God of (cosmic) dance. Here are some of the major
Indian deities majorly associated with music.

Brahma: The origin of the universe is often attributed to

the Nada Brahma, or the primeval sound energy. On more
concrete terms, Brahma, the deity, is associated with the
barrel drum, or Mridangam, which is one of the most
significant instruments in Indian music. Brahma is said to
have created the mridangam (mritha being clay and
anga being body) from the blood soaked earth when he
killed the demon, Tripura.

Vishnu: Vishnu holds the shankha or conch in one of his four hands. This sankha is said to have
created the primordial sound of Om, which is the source of all other sounds in the universe.
The sankha is held sacred to this day in Hindu temples and rituals.

Shiva/ Rudra: Of all Hindu gods, Shiva has the most significant place in the world of music and
dance. As Shiva, he holds the damru, a small drum that plays the beats of life and death. As
Nataraja, he dances the cosmic dance, forever maintaining the balance of the universe. Shiva is
also said to have invented the first five of the six main ragas. Of the five faces of Lord Shiva the
eastern face gave birth to raag Bhairav, the
western face to Raag Hindol, the Northern
face to Raag Megh, the Southern face to
Raag Deepak and the fifth face, which was
directed towards the sky gave birth to
Raga Shree. Goddess Parvati is said to have
created the Raga Kaushik. Shiva is also said
to have created the Rudraveena, a string
instrument, inspired by the voluptuous
supine form of his wife, Parvati.

Saraswati: Like Brahma, his consort Saraswati is associated with music. Not just music,
Saraswati is considered the patron goddess of all arts. She is seen holding a classical Veena in
one of her four hands (as seen on the first page of this paper) and is credited with the invention
of the 7-toned scale or swara. Interestingly enough, each one of the seven swaras is associated
with one Hindu deity viz. Sa with Ganesha, Re with Agni, Ga with
Rudra, Ma with Vishnu, Pa with Narada, Dha with Sadashiva, and
Ni with Surya.
Krishna: Krishna, one of the most popular Hindu deities, has
strong musical connections, especially as depicted in the
Bhagvatam. The young Krishna of Vrindavana is always depicted
as carrying a flute and playing mesmerising tunes with it. Krishna
is comparable to Apollo and the muses in Greek mythology, a
charming god that he is, surrounded by gopis and immersed in
song and dance.
Other characters
Narada: The Vedic sage Narada, (in)famous for perpetuating divine
gossip, also has some musical associations. He is depicted as
carrying the tanpura, which he uses as an accompaniment to the
devotional songs he sings in Vishnus praise. He is also credited
with the invention of the Mahari Veena, the aristocrat among
Indian instruments. The Mahathi Veena is said to have fallen out of
favour in the modern times due to the sheer difficulty of playing it.
Ravana: The biggest antagonist of Hindu lore, Ravana, was also
known to be a master of many crafts. Popular iconography often
has Ravana holding a veena (See pg 5). There is, in fact, a
rudimentary string instrument named after him. Called the
Raavanastram, Raavanastron, or Raavanhaath, this ancient bowed
instrument consists of a bamboo stick as a body to which two
wooden pegs are fixed for tuning the strings and a half hollowed
coconut shell is used as a belly and covered in dried skin. A bow
having a string of horse hair and belts attached to it is used as a
fiddle stick. According to legend, Ravana was an ardent devotee of
the Hindu god Shiva, and served him using the ravanahatha. In the
Hindu Ramayana epic, after the war between Rama and Ravana,
Hanuman picked up a Ravanahatha and returned to North India.
Gandharvas: The Gandharvas or celestial musicians, led by
Chitrasena were the guardians and practitioners of the arts,
especially music and dance (image on page 6). They guarded the
Soma and made beautiful music for the gods in their palaces.
Gandharvas are frequently depicted as singers in the court of Gods.

Ragas: An important component of music is the melody or Raga, as they are known in Indian
music. The powers of swaras (individual notes within a Raaga), and Ragas are attributed to divine
agency. In the 13th century, Sarangadeva assigned a patron deity to each Raga in his musical
treatise called Sangita Ratnakara. Later, the ragas themselves were represented as semi-divine
beings. The Ragamala miniature paintings from the 16th-17th century india illustrate the ragas
personified. In fact, fully developed mythologies around ragas purported the principal male ragas
having wives and children! Of the Ragas in Ragamala, six are male (parent) ragas; the thirty
raginis are their wives and the remaining forty-eight are their sons.

Ragamala miniature paintings of Sarang Ragini, Raag Deepak, Ragini Asavari and Raga Sri

In a famous story from the Brhaddharma Purana, the musician Narada is taken to heavenly
realms to confront the souls of the ragas and raginis cruelly injured by his inept performances.
When Shiva sings them correctly, the ragas and raginis present themselves to him in person.

CONCLUSION
The influence of mythology on Indian music has been undeniable and extensive. From the Vedic
times down to the modern day, songs about gods have been central to the music of India.
Whether it is naming of the Ragas, or the invention of music instruments, Hindus have always
turned to scriptures and mythology for inspiration. We do not just tell stories about our gods
and heroes, but sing them, for music is divinity manifest!

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