TOPIC TWO

THE ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT

Contextual Outline
Acidic and basic environments exist everywhere. The human body has a slightly acidic skin
surface to assist in disease control and digestion occurs in both acidic and basic environments
to assist the breakdown of the biopolymers constituting food. Indeed, micro-organisms found
in the digestive system are well adapted to acidic or basic environments.
Many industries use acidic and basic compounds for a wide range of purposes and these
compounds are found in daily use within the home. Because of this, an awareness of the
properties of acids and bases is important for safe handling of materials. Currently, concerns
exist about the increased release of acidic and basic substances into the environment and the
impact of these substances on the environment and the organisms within those environments.
This module increases students understanding of the history, nature and practice of chemistry,
the applications and uses of chemistry and implications of chemistry for society and the
environment.

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Section ONE
Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of some
flowers depends on soil composition

-2-

Classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral

Acidic Substances
Vinegar
Citric juices
Lemon juices
Carbonated soft drinks
Lactic acid

Basic Substances
Ammonia cleanser
Caustic soda solution
Washing Soda
Oven cleaner
Drain Cleaner

Neutral Substances
Water
NaCl solution
Glucose solution
Lactose solution

Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein,

methyl orange and bromothymol blue can be used to
determine the acidic or basic nature of a material over a
range, and that the range is identified by change in indicator
colour
Identify data and choose resources to gather information
about the colour ranges of a range of indicators

An indicator is a chemical dye that changes colour depending on the concentration of hydrogen
of the solution.
Indicator

Colour in

Colour in

Colour in

acidic solution

pure water

basic

pH range

Suitable
titration

solution
Methyl orange

Red

Orange

Yellow

3.1 4.4

strong acid

yellow

Bromothymol

Yellow

Green

weak base

Blue

6.2 7.6

strong acid
strong base
---------

blue
Litmus

Red

--------

Blue

6.0 8.0

Phenolphthalein

Colourless

Colourless

Crimson

8.3 10.0

Weak acid
strong base

These indicators specialise in the classification of certain acids and bases. E.g. Methyl orange
would be able to distinguish between a strong acid and a weak acid, whereas phenolphthalein
would be able to distinguish between a weak base and a strong base.
However these indicators also have limitations e.g. methyl orange cannot distinguish between
a neutral and a base.

Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators

including the testing of soil acidity/basicity

-3-

Indicators provide a cheap and convenient way to determine the acidity or alkalinity of
substances

Indicators are used to test the soil acidity/basicity

o

Some plants grow best in slightly acidic (azaleas and camellias) soil while others prefer
slightly alkaline soils(most annual flowers and vegetables)

A sample of soil to be tested is mixed with water and then white barium sulfate powder
added to the soil sample. This allows the colour changes of the indicators to be seen.

Testing home swimming pools

o

These need to be approximately neutral to prevent eye or skin irritation

Monitoring wastes
o

Discharges to the sewerage system must be nearly neutral as wastes can cause sinks
and pipes to corrode e.g. photographic solutions are highly alkaline

Chemical analysis
o

Indicators are often used in analytical work such as titration

Perform a first hand investigation to prepare and test a

natural indicator
Solve problems by applying information about the colour
changes of indicators to classify some household substances
as acidic, neutral or basic

Red cabbage was chopped up and then grinded with a pestle in a mortar. As this was done,
methanol was added to the mixture. The resulting clear purple solution was extracted and used
as an indicator. This indicator turned green in a base e.g. oven cleaner and pink in an acid e.g.
lemon juice

-4-

Section TWO
While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere
naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The
concentrations of these acidic oxides have been increasing since the
industrial revolution

-5-

Identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and

describe the conditions under which they act as acids

The oxides of non-metals are usually acidic oxides which

Reacts with water to form an acidic solution or/and

Reacts with bases to form a salt and water

Carbon dioxide

CO2 (g)

water

Carbon dioxide

H2O

CO2 (g)

carbonic acid

H2CO3 (aq)

(l)

sodium hydroxide

NaOH

sodium carbonate +
Na2CO3 (aq)

(aq)

+ H 2O

water
(l)

The oxides of metals are usually basic oxides which

Reacts with water to form a basic solution or/and

Reacts with acid to form a salt and water

Sodium oxide

Na2O(s)

water

Sodium oxide

H2O(l)

Na2O(s)

Sodium hydroxide

2NaOH(aq)

hydrochloric acid

HCl

(aq)

Sodium chloride + water

2NaCl(aq)

+ H2 O

(l)

The oxides of semi-metals are usually amphoteric

This means they can react with an acid or a base

Zinc oxide

ZnO(s)

Zinc oxide

ZnO(s)

hydrochloric acid
HCl

(aq)

sodium hydroxide
2NaOH

(aq)

+
+

Zinc chloride + water

ZnCl2 (aq)

water
H 2O

(l)

H2 O

(l)

sodium zincate
Na2[Zn(OH)4] (aq)

Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic

Table and outline the relationship between position of
elements in the Periodic table and acidity/basicity of oxides

Acidic oxides are generally oxides of non-metals.

o

They are all covalent compounds.

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These are elements towards the right and top of the periodic table

Basic oxides are generally oxides of metals

o

They are ionic compounds

These are elements towards the left and bottom of the periodic table

Oxides of semi-metals are amphoteric

In going down a group of the periodic table, the oxides of the elements become more basic
due to the increasing metallic character of the elements

In going across a group from left to right of the periodic table, the oxides of the elements
become more acidic to the decreasing metallic characteristic of the elements.

Define Le Chateliers principle

Le chateliers principle states that if a system at equilibrium is disturbed then the

system will adjust itself in such a measure to counteract this disturbance

Identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible

reaction

Chemical equilibrium is a particular state of a reversible reaction when

The rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction

The concentrations of the reactants are constant (not necessarily equal)

It is in a closed system

It has the following properties of

Macroscopic properties such as colour, concentration, pressure etc remain unchanged

The same equilibrium is obtained both ways (evident in graph)

Factors that affect chemical equilibrium are

Temperature

Pressure

Concentration

Concentration

Increasing the concentration of one sides shifts it to the other by Le Chateliers principle
-7-

Decreasing the concentration of one side shifts it to the same side in order to produce more
of it
2NO2
o

N2O4 (g)

(g)

Increasing the concentration of NO2 would shift the equilibrium to the right while
increasing the concentration of N2O4 would shift it left*

Decreasing the concentration of NO2 would shift the equilibrium to the left and
similarly decreasing N2O4 would shift it right

*Note: Even though increasing the concentration of either gases increases the pressure, the
concentration shift is more significant!!!
*Gases have concentration!!!

The addition or removal of solid and/or liquid has no effect on an equilibrium as the
concentration has not changed

Pressure

Varying the pressure of an equilibrium only affects it if

o

There exists gaseous molecules within the equilibrium

The total number of moles of gases on each side is different

Increasing the pressure would shift the equilibrium to the side with less gas molecules by
LCP in order to counteract the change by producing less gaseous molecules.

Decreasing the pressure of the system would shift it to the side with more gas molecules
2NO2

(g)

N2O4 (g)

Increasing the pressure would shift it to the right

Decreasing the pressure would shift it to the left

Temperature

Increasing the temperature would cause the system to favour the endothermic reaction and
shift to that side accordingly. This is to decrease the heat energy by using it up in the
reaction

Decreasing the temperature would cause the system to favour the exothermic reaction and
shift it to that side. This would increase the temperature from the heat given off by the
exothermic reaction

N2 (g)

+ 3H2(g)

2NH3 (aq)

+ 92 KJ/mol

OR
N2 (g)

+ 3H2(g)

2NH3 (aq)

H = - 92 KJ/mol

-8-

This signifies the forward reaction is exothermic while the backward reaction is endothermic.
Therefore if the temperature is increased, then the system shifts left, if the temperature is
decreased, the system shifts right.

Describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various

conditions as an equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le
Chateliers principle

The reaction between carbon dioxide and water reaches equilibrium

CO(g) + H2O(l)

H <0

H2CO3 (aq)

If the temperature increases, the reaction shifts to the left in order to use up the extra heat
energy and hence the solubility of carbon dioxide decreases. This accounts for the extra
fizzling when the temperature has increased

If the temperature decreases, the reaction shifts right and hence the solubility increases

When a bottle of soft drink is opened, the system goes from high pressure to lower RTP,
thus the system shifts left and causes fizzing

If the pressure is increased, the solubility increases and shifts left due to there being less
gaseous molecules

Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and

oxides of nitrogen
Describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions
which release sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen

Sulfur dioxide

Naturally
o

Volcanoes and geothermal hot springs are a major source of natural SO2, Since
volcanic activity varies, the concentration of SO2 also varies

The oxidation of H2S produced during the decay of organic matter

2H2S(g)

+ 3CO(g)

2SO2 (g) + 2H2O(g)

Industrially
o

Sulfur dioxide is produced from the combustio of fossil fuels in power plants due to
sulfur impurities present in coal
S(s) + O2(g) SO (aq)

The smelting of sulfide ores

2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g)

ZnO(s)

+ SO2 (g)
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Nitrogen Dioxide

Naturally
o

Lightning generates very high temperatures in which causes N2 and O2 to form

nitrogen monoxides which slowly oxides to form nitrogen dioxide
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)

The action of bacteria

Industrially
o

Both in power stations and vehicles releases both NO and NO2 provide the high
temperatures

Assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric

concentration of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen

Since the industrial revolution, levels of acidic oxides in the atmosphere have greatly
increased. This is evident from
o

The increase burning of coal and fossil fuels in order to meet societies demands
from a larger population

The usage of motor vehicles have increased levels of nitrogen oxides

The pH of lakes and rivers have increased over time

The quantitative analysis of trapped air bubbles in Antarctic ice and measurement of
carbon isotopes in old trees, grass seeds in museum collections and calcium
carbonate in coral.

However
o

It is extremely difficult to have global areas and thus tests are done in a localised
basis

Technology to measure low concentrations were only available in the past 30 years

Emission controls have stabilised the concentration of acidic oxides

Assessment: Therefore the evidence is unreliable to an extent

Calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in

reactions, and calculate masses of substances given gaseous
volumes in reactions involving gases at 0oC and 100kpa or 25oC
and 100kpa

When measured at the same temperature ad pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the
same number of molecules. At STP, the volar volume of gases is 22.74L while at RTP, it is
24.79L
Moles

Volume
Molar Volume
-10-

Identify data, plan and perform a first hand investigation to

decarbonate soft drink and gather data to measure the mass
changes involved and calculate the volume of gas released at
25oC and 100kps

The bottle of soft drink was weighed, then shook and opened. This was done repeatedly over
intervals of 10 minutes with the decrease in mass recorded. The mass change was due to the
CO2 being released in the air as a result of the equilibrium decreasing in pressure as the bottle
opened.
The validity of the experiment could have been repeated by using the salt method that uses
the stronger attraction soluble salt ions have for water than dissolved gas molecules have for
water. However the results were not totally accurate as a new equilibrium was established,
thus not all the gas removed from the bottle

Explain the formation and effects of acid rain

Analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the
industrial origins of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and
evaluate reason for concern about their release into the
environment

There was a great increase in emissions of sulfur dioxide in growing industrial cities as a result
of the development of motor cars and an increasing population leading to greater demand
The release of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen can cause considerable harm to both
humans and the environment

These oxides are soluble and form acidic rain

o

Acid rain is rain that has a pH of less than 7

The pollutants of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen form sulfuric and nitric acids
when dissolved in the rain

S(s) + O(2) SO2 (g)

N2(g) +

2SO2(g) + O2 (g) 2SO3(g)

2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)

SO3(g) + H2O

2NO2(g)

(l)

H2SO4(aq)

O2(g) 2NO(g)

+ H2O(l)

HNO2(aq) +

HNO3(aq)
Effects of Acid Rain

Increasing acidity of lakes and rivers which has a detrimental effect on fish population and
hence affects other parts of the ecosystem e.g. the humans that feed on them

Damage to forests

Decrease in soil that ruins crops and plants as some can only grow in certain conditions

Erosion of the marble and limestone of building surfaces because they contain primarily
CaCO3
-11-

Corrosion when it comes into contact with metals, paints and similar substances

Health Issues

SO2 irritates the respiratory system and causes breathing difficulty

NO2 irritates the respiratory tract and causes breathing discomfort

o

Can do extensive tissue damage

Photochemical smog causing poor visibility

Unpleasant odour

Produces O3 with sunlight

Section Three
Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our stomaches.

-12-

Define acids as proton donors and describe the dissociation of

acids in water

Acids in aqueous solutions are proton donors. The arrhenius definition describes acids as
producing hydrogen ions when dissolved in water, however H+ does not exist in aqueous
solution. When acids dissolve in water, they react and ionise to form H3O+ ions.
e.g.

HCl(aq)

H2O(l)

H3O+(aq)

+ Cl-(aq)

Identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric
acid
Identify data, gather and process information from secondary
sources to identify examples of naturally occurring acids and
bases and their chemical composition

Naturally Occuring acids

Acetic acid (ethanoic acid) CH3COOH is present in vinegar which is commonly made from
wine by the oxidation of ethanol
Citric acid (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid) This acid is found in citrus fruits
Hydrochloric acid This acid is produced by the glands in the lining of our stomaches to form
an acidic environment for the efficient operation of enzymes that break food molecules into
other molecules for easy transportation to the intestine and so on.
Industrial acids
Sulfuric acid This acid is manufactured worldwide more than any other chemical. It is used to
make synthetic fibres, industrial ethanol, fertilisers and car batteries
Naturally occurring Bases
Ammonia This is present in the stale urine of humans
Amines (NH2CH3) these are formed during the anaerobic decomposition

Describe the use of pH scales in comparing acids and bases

Identify pH as log10[H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1
means a ten-fold change in [H+]

pH = -log10[H+]

and thus [H+] = 10-pH

In measuring the concentration of acids and bases, a pH scale is used because it is a lot more
convenient
If the pH is <7 then the substance is an acid
-13-

If the pH is > 7 then the substance is a base

If the pH = 7 then the substance is neutral
From the equation it can be seen that increasing the a change in pH of 1 means a 10- fold
change in [H+] due to the log10

Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of

the terms strong, weak, and concentrated and dilute.

A strong acid is one which is fully ionised in solution. There are no neutral acid molecules
present
HCl(aq) H+(aq)

+ Cl-(aq) (this shows HCl has fully ionised)

A weak acid is one which is partially ionised in solution. These acids are involved in an
equilibrium process

CH3COOH(aq)

CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

A concentrated solution is one which there is a large number of particles of the solute
compared to water molecules e.g. 1M HCl
A diluted solution is one where there is a small amount of particles compared to the water
molecules. E.g. 0.00001M HCl

Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric,

acetic and hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree
of ionisation of their molecules

The following table contains the pH of acids for equal 0.1M concentrations of their solutions

Acid

Hydrochloric acid

Acetic acid

Citric acid
-14-

pH
1
2.9
2.1
This is because hydrochloric acid is a strong acid meaning it will completely ionise, hence the
pH of 1. Since Acetic and Citric acids are both weak acids, they will both partially ionise,
accounting for their lower pH of equal concentrations. Citric acid is stronger than acetic acid
and thus ionises more, producing more hydrogen ions and having a lower pH.

HA

Describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in

terms of an equilibrium between the intact molecule and its
ions
+ H2 O

H3O+

A-

The stronger an acid is, then the stronger the dissociation and thus the equilibrium will lie
to the right. Strong acids such as HNO3 and HCl will completely ionise, thus HCl(aq) H+(aq)
+ Cl-(aq)

The weaker an acid is, then the lower the dissociation percentage and thus the equilibrium
will lie to the left. Weak acids such as CH3COOH will partially ionise and thus have more
intact molecules than HCl. As a result an equilibrium is formed
CH3COO

(aq)

+H

CH3COOH(aq)

(aq)

Solve problems and perform first-hand investigation to use pH

meters/probes and indicators to distinguish between acidic,
basic and neutral chemicals
Plan and perform a first hand investigation to measure the pH
of identical concentrations of strong and weak acids
Gather and process information from secondary sources to
write ionic equations to represent the ionisation of acids

How does a pH meter work?

Millivoltmeter and a pH electrode which is sensitive to the concentration of hydrogen ions

The pH electrode is a concentrated cell consisting of 2 silver-silver chloride electrodes.

The outer of 2 electrodues is in contact with a 0.1M HCl solution saturated with silver
chloride and makes electrical contact with a thin glass membrane

The difference in hydrogen concentration causes changes in voltages between the two
electrodes and the mV scale converts the pH into a scale on the motor

The pH electrode must be calibrated with a known solution, thus a buffer (usually 7)

Aim: to use indicators and a pH meter to distinguish between acidic, basic and neutral
chemicals and measure the pH of substances with equal concentration

Method:

-15-

A couple of drops of universal indicator were added to the substances and the colour changes
were observed. These colour changes were compared against a chart and thus the pH was
estimated
Also, by using a pH meter, the pH measured was much more accurate. However between each
substance being tested, the pH probe needed to be washed to remove remnants from the
previous substance tested. This is also a non-destructive means of measuring pH
250ml of 0.1M solutions were gathered and poured into individual beakers.
Results:
Substance
Hydrochloric acid
Ethanoic acid
Citric acid
Sulfuric acid
Sodium hydroxide
Water

Strength
Strong
Weak
Weak
Strong
Strong
Neutral

pH meter
1.5
3.5
2.81
1.88
12
6.67

Universal indicator
Red
Red/orange
Red/orange
Red
Blue/purple
Green

Discussion:

Strong acids have low pH because they completely ionise, thus having a large amount of
hydrogen ions in the solution. Weak acids partially ionise, thus have higher pH

Gather and process information from secondary sources to

explain the use of acids as food additives

Acids are frequently added to food in order to

Improve the taste by giving a sharper taste e.g. in drinks, sweets, tarts, jams

Preserve the food by increasing its acidity because many bacteria cannot survive in acidic
conditions e.g. canned fruits, vegetables

-16-

Section Four
Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been
used and studied for hundreds of years. Over time the definitions of
acid and base have been refined

-17-

Outline the historical development of ideas about acids

including those of:
o Lavoisier
o Davy
o Arrhenius

Lavoisier
o

Proposed that acids were substances that contained oxygen. He proposed this after
observing acids such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid, but his theory was soon disproved by
basic substances containing oxygen and others such as HCl
SO3

+ H2O H2SO4

Davy
o

Suggested that acids contained replaceable hydrogen. This was proposed from
observations where hydrogen gas was released from the reaction between a metal and
an acid

However it did not explain the properties of the acids and it did not explain why
methane was not acidic
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2

+ H2

Arrhenius
o

Proposed that an acid was a substance which ionised in solution to produce hydrogen
ions.

It was important in explaining the differences between strong and weak acids and the
development of the pH scale

However there existed oxides that were acidic and did not fit the definition or
substances such as NH3

Outline the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

Bronsted and Lowry proposed that an acid is a substance that donates a proton and a base
is one that accepts a proton. Thus in a neutralisation reaction, the acid donates a proton to
the base. In this way, the Bronsted Lowry concept relates acidity and basicity to the
structure of both the substances and the solvent.

Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate

base and a base and its conjugate acid
Identify conjugate acid/base pairs

An acid gives up a proton to form its conjugate base. Similarly a base accepts a proton to
form its conjugate acid. They differ by that proton
e.g.

H3O+ / H2O

The hydronium ion is the acid and the water is the conjugate base

-18-

HCl
acid1

H2O
base2

Cl+
H 3O +
conjugate base1 conjugate acid2

Hydrochloric acid and chloride ion is a conjugate acid-base pair.

Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic of neutral

solutions and explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature

Salts can be acidic, basic or neutral depending upon the nature of the anions or cations
formed
Acidic salts

These salts are formed from a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base
e.g.

NH4Cl
NH4+

+
+

NH4+ + Cl-

H2 O

NH3

H3 O +

The salt formed contains a cation being a weak acid, this causes it to react with water to
form the hydronium ions accounting for its pH being less than 7
Basic salts

These salts are formed from a reaction between a weak acid and a strong base

The salt formed contains an anion which is a weak base and thus tends to react with water

CH3COONa CH3COOCH3COO

+ H2 O

Na+

CH3COOH + OH-

This hydroxide ion causes the solution to have a pH of greater than 7

Neutral salts

These are formed by reacting a strong acid and a strong base or a weak acid with a weak
base

Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to

describe their behaviour in acidic and basic solution

An amphiprotic substance is one that can accept or donate a proton

HCO3-

+ H 2O

H2CO3

HCO3-

+ H 2O

CO32-

+
+

OHH3 O

Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is

exothermic

-19-

Neutralisation is a proton transfer reaction that consists of an acid donating a proton to a

base which produces salt and water. This reaction releases energy and thus is exothermic

Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and

preparation of standard solutions

Preparation of a primary standard solution

A primary standard solution is one with an accurately known concentration. It is the one
that goes in the conical flask and is titrated with a solution of unknown concentration.

Properties of a primary standard

o

Must be available in pure form

Mass must not change when exposed to air

Must be soluble in water

Molecular mass should be relatively high to minimise weighing error

Its chemical formula must be accurately known

Firstly weigh the required mass of dried primary standard solid (after baking in a
desiccator)

Dissolve a small amount of distilled water

Add to a clean volumetric flask rinsed before hand with distilled water

Wash the remnants from the beaker into the flask

Fill the flask with more water and shake/invert until the solid has completely dissolved

Add more water up until the graduated mark

*Note: some substances are not suitable to be a primary standard solution as

Concentrated HCL fumes and loses it as gas

Concentrated sulfuric acid absorbs water from the atmosphere

NaOH reacts with CO2 or deliquescences

Acid standards
Potassium hydrogen phthalate
Benzoic acid
Oxalic acid

Base standards
Sodium carbonate
Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Borax

Secondary standard solutions

These are solutions whose concentrations are unknown and will be determined by titrating
against a primary standard
Using the equipment
Burette

-20-

This is an accurate piece of equipment used to transfer a large amount of solution. It is

used for the titrant and thus must be rinsed firstly by distilled water to remove any residue
waste and then with the titrant solution to prevent dilution and thus affecting the accuracy
of the results

Pipette

This is an accurate piece of equipment used to transfer small amounts of solutions of the
secondary standard solution to the conical flask. It must be rinsed out by distilled water
and then the secondary standard to avoid dilution

Indicators

The indicator used depends on the titration reactants. This is due to the different
equivalence point of the titration. The equivalence point is the point where the acid and
base neutralise. However due to the varying pH of salt solutions, it is not necessarily 7 and
thus an indicator with an end point within the range of the equivalence point is needed.

Type
Strong acid strong base
Strong acid weak base
Weak acid strong base

Indicator
Bromothymol blue 6.2-7.6
Methyl orange
3.1 4.4
Phenolpthalein
8.3 10

Colour change
Yellow -> Blue
Red -> Yellow
Colourless -> crimson

Note: Weak acid weak base titrations are not done because there is no rapid change in pH,
thus we cannot detect the equivalence point using indicators because there will be a gradual
colour change
Techniques

The first titre is a rough measurement and thus discarded when using calculations

The end point is where the indicator changes colour

A white sheet of water was placed under the conical flask to see the colour change more
evidently

Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a

specific example in a natural example

A buffer solution is one which contains a comparable amount of a weak acid and its conjugate
base which is therefore able to prevent a rapid change in pH.
Blood is an example of a buffer solution that maintains a pH of approximately 7.4 to allow the
proper functioning of enzymes. It consists of the buffer H2CO3 / HCO3- along with haemoglobin
to prevent rapid pH changes during cellular respiration

-21-

H2CO3

H2 O

HCO3-

H3 O +

If a strong acid is added the increase in H+ ions will cause the equilibrium to shift to the left
and maintain the pH

If a strong base is added to decrease the H+ ions, it will cause the equilibrium to shift to the
right

Gather and process information from secondary sources to

trace developments in understanding and describing acid/base
reactions

Lavoiser stated that acids contained oxygen. This was wrong, but stimulated research into the
composition and properties of acids
Davy defined an acid as containing replaceable hydrogen. His definition helped to classify
substances in terms of its properties and reactions
The Arrhenius definition increased our understand by interpreting acid properties in terms the
hydrogen ions they produced and explained weak and strong acids in terms of the extent to
which the ionisation reaction proceeded.
The Bronsted Lowry definition increased our understanding further by showing that acidity
depends on both the structure of the substance itself and also those of the other reactant in
the solution. It showed neutralisation proceeded directly by a proton transfer and showed that
the hydrolysis of salt produced pHs different from 7 was nothing more than a simple acid or
base reaction
Each theory successively refined the previous

Choose equipment and perform a first hand investigation to

identify the pH of a range of salt solutions

A 0.1mol/L 50ml solution of the following were gathered in beakers

Sodium hydrogen carbonate - acidic

Sodium chloride - neutral

Sodium acetate - basic

A pH meter was used to measure the pH of these solutions

HCO3- + H2O

CO32-

+ H3 O +

This hydronium ion causes sodium hydrogen carbonate to be acidic

CH3COO-

H2 O

CH3COOH

+ OH-22-

This hydroxide ion causes sodium acetate to be basic

Perform a first hand investigation and solve problems using

titrations and including the preparation of standard solutions
and use available evidence to quantitatively and qualitatively
describe the reaction between selected acids and bases
Perform a first hand investigation to determine the
concentration of a domestic acidic substance using computer
based technology

Titration 1

Preparation of a standard solution

o

Firstly solid sodium hydrogen carbonate was baked in a desiccator to dry and
then weighed on a mass balance. It was then transferred into a volumetric flask
where water was added to dissolve the solid by shaking and inverting. Once all
the solid had dissolved, more water was added to the graduated mark

Titration
o

Nitric acid was titrated against a 0.05 mol/L primary standard of sodium
hydrogen carbonate

The indicator used was methyl orange since the equivalence point was
approximately 3 5 due to the titration being a weak base + strong acid

The concentration of nitric acid used was approximately 0,108 moles

Titration 2

NaOH was titrated against a primary standard solution of vinegar with a pH meter used
instead of an indicator

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Analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use

of neutralisation reactions as a safety measure or to minimise
damage in accidents or chemical spills

Neutralisations reactions are widely used for safety in laboratories and factories where acids or
bases are used since they are very corrosive.
Sodium carbonate is widely used to neutralise acid/base spills or effluents because

It is a stable solid which is easily and safely handled and stored

It is the cheapest alkali

If too much of it is used there is less danger than if a stronger acid/base was used to
neutralise it

It is amphiprotic and can neutralise both acids and bases

It neutralises at a moderate speed so the release of energy from neutralisation being an

exothermic reaction is gradual

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Section Five
Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be performed
in the laboratory

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Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid

functional group in carbon compounds

Alkanols are alcohols derived from alkanes that contain the hydroxyl group
e.g.

methanol CH3OH
ethanol C2H5OH

(General formula of CnH2n+1OH)

Alkanoic acids contain the carboxylic functional group (COOH)
e.g.

methanoic acid H-COOH

ethanoic acid CH3 COOH

(General formula of

Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused

by straight chained alkanoic acid and straight chained primary
alkanol structure

The boiling and melting point of molecular substances depend upon the strength of the
intermolecular forces. The stronger the forces, the higher the boiling point.

For the equivalent molecular mass alkanol and alkanoic acid

The molecular forces displayed in alkanol are

o

dispersion forces

dipole-dipole forces due to the high electronegativity of the oxygen atom

hydrogen bonds due to the presence of the oxygen and the hydrogen.

There are similar forces displayed in the alkanoic acid, however there exists a greater degree
of hydrogen bonding due to the presence of two oxygen atoms. Thus this accounts for a
greater boiling and melting point of the equivalent massed alkanol and alkanoic acid
Alkanol

alkanoic acid

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Note: for the equivalent number of carbons in the alkanol and alkanoic acid, the alkanoic acid
will have a greater molecular mass, thus stronger dispersion forces and hence a greater MP
and BP

Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an

alkanol and describe using equations, examples of esterification
Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters
produced by reactions of straight chained alkanoic acids from
C1 to C8 and straight chained primary alkanols from C1 to C8

Esterification:
An ester is a substance that contains the R-OO-R chain

Alkanoic acid

alkanol

Alkyl Alkanoate (ester)

water

Note: The alkanol forms the alkyl part and the alkanoic acid forms the alkanoate
e.g.

Ethanoic acid

+ methanol

Ethanoic acid

+ ethanol

Butanoic acid

+ propan-1-ol

methyl ethanoate
ethyl ethanoate

propyl butanoate

+
+

water

water

water

Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalyst

6 mol/L sulfuric acid is normally used as a catalyst during esterification because

o

It acts as a catalyst by reducing the activation energy and thus increasing the
rate of reaction

It acts as a dehydrating agent and absorbs the water, thus shifting the
equilibrium to the right and increasing yield of the ester
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Explain the need for refluxing during esterification

Identifying data, plan, select equipment and perform a first
hand investigation to prepare an ester using reflux
Refluxing is the process of heating a reaction mixture in a
vessel with a Liebig condenser to prevent loss of any
volatile reaction or product while allowing the reaction to be
carried out at a higher temperature. This is down by the
volatile components becoming a gas and then condensing
in the condenser to run back down
Reflux is used in esterification since it increases the rate of
reaction and also increases the yield by LCP as
esterification is a endothermic reaction
Reflux conditions also improves the safety of the operation
as the volatile components may be flammable e.g. the
alkanol
A stopper was not used at the top as it may cause an
explosion

10 ml of pure pentan-1-ol and 12ml of 1M ethanoic acid were added to a round flask with 3
drops of 6M sulfuric acid.
C5H11OH(aq)

+ CH3COOH(aq)

Pentan-1-ol + ethanoic acid

water

->

water

C4H11C-OO-C-CH3

+ pentyl ethanoate

This mixture was heated under reflux for about 10 mins and then allowed to cool. The mixture
was then transferred to a separate funnel with 100ml of water added and shaken. The lower
layer was then discarded. Then 50ml of 1M Na2CO3 was added to remove the excess acid
Na2CO3

+ CH3COOH

Na2CO3

+ H2SO4

2NaCHCOO +

Na2SO4 +

CO2

CO2

+ H2 O

+ H2 O

The lower layer was then discarded once again. The remaining mixture was transferred into a
beaker with a few pellets of CaCl2 to absorb the water. The remaining liquid was then distilled
with temperatures maintained at 130. Pentyl ethanoate is a banana flavoured ester
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Outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses

of esters
Process information from secondary sources to identify and
describe the uses of esters as flavours and perfumes in
processed foods and cosmetics

Esters have pleasant and fruity odours and occur widely in nature as perfumes and flavouring
agents.
Ester present
Methyl butanoate
Pentyl ethanoate
Ethyl heptanoate
Butyl ethanoate

Flavour
Apple
Banana
Grape
Raspberry

Esters are developed artificially for use in flavouring and perfumes and are often cheaper than
natural extract. The natural odour and combination of crude taste contributes to the flavour of
the ester. Ethyl ethanoate is also used as a solvent in industry and is the common solvent in
nail polish remover.

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