9.

2 Space

9.2
Space

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9.2 Space

9.2.1

1. The Earth has a gravitational field that exerts a force on objects

both on it and around it.
Describe weight as
the force on an object
to a gravitational
field.

Mass: is the amount of matter an object contains and is dependent

on the nature and amount of matter.
Weight: the force on an object due to a gravitational field.
Note: weight is not the force of gravity itself but rather the reaction
force opposing the force of gravity.
Weightlessness: occurs when the only force acting on an object is
gravity (i.e. in freefall). For example:
- A space shuttle orbiting the earth
- a person in a lift with a broken cable
- a person at the top of a rollercoaster ride
- a free-falling aeroplane
Note: Common bathroom scales measure force, but are calibrated
so that the measured force is divided by 9.8, giving the user their
mass in kilograms. Therefore, common bathroom scales will not
work properly anywhere other than Earth.

Revising Newtons
Laws of Motion.

Law 1: an object will remain at rest or continue to move in a

straight line with a constant velocity unless acted on by an
unbalanced (net) force.
Law 2: if an unbalanced force acts on an object, it will accelerate.
The magnitude of the acceleration is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the force and in the same direction.
F: Force (Newtons, N)
F = ma
m: mass of object (kilograms, kg)
a: acceleration (m.s-2)

Explain that a change

in gravitational
potential energy is
related to work done.

Remember direction!

Law 3: For every action (force) there is an equal in magnitude but

opposite in direction reactions force. (Note: the force and reaction
force do not cancel each other out because they act on different
objects)
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work.
Work is done on an object when a force applied to it causes it to
move.
Law of Conservation of Energy states that, in any isolated system,
energy cannot be created or destroyed, just transformed from one
form to another.
W = Fd

W: Work (Joules, J)

F: Force (Newtons, N)
d: distance (metres, m)
To change the gravitational potential energy of an object, work
must be done on it.
- Lifting an object further away from the Earth requires work
to be done. This kinetic energy is then transformed into
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9.2 Space

9.2.1

gravitational
potential
energy stored
in the object.
When the
Earth pulls an
object towards
it, it is doing
work on the
object. The
gravitational
potential
energy is
transformed
into kinetic
energy.

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9.2 Space
Define gravitational
potential energy as
the work done to
move an object from a
very large distance
away to a point in a
gravitational field.

9.2.1
Gravitational potential energy is the energy of a mass due to its
position within a gravitational field
Or
Gravitational potential energy is the work done to move an object
from a very large distance away to a point in a gravitational field.
Ep= Gravitational potential energy (Joules, J)
Testing
-Gm1m2
mathematical
Ep =
r
models:
- graphing
- experimental
G: Universal
Gravitational Constant
m1, mdata
2: masses of objects
- repetition for r: distance between the cores of the two objects.
reliability

Perform an
investigation and
gather information to
determine a value for
acceleration due to
gravity using
pendulum motion or
computer-assisted
technology and
identify reason for
possible variations
from the value 9.8
m.s-2

This value is always negative. By convention the Ep of an object an

infinite distance away from the Earth is zero. As the object moves
closer towards the Earth, its Ep decreases. Therefore, since its
initial Ep was zero, as it gets closer to the Earth, its value
decreases, becoming negative.
Aim: to determine a value for acceleration due to gravity using the
oscillatory motion of a pendulum.
Method: (Draw a diagram)
1) Set up a retort stand with a bosshead and clamp
2) Attach a string to a pendulum bob and tie the other end
securely to the clamp.
3) Measure the length from where the string is connected to the
clamp to the centre of mass of the pendulum bob.
4) Hold the pendulum from at an angle between 0 to 10 from its
normal position, release it and time 10 oscillations and record
the time.
5) Repeat step 4) five times, ensuring the angle if constant.
Results and Analysis:
With individual results:
- Divide the time for 10 oscillations by 10 for the period.
- Find the average period of the pendulum.
- Substitute the period and length of the pendulum into the
following formula to find g.

T 2

l
g

With a compilation of class results (different lengths involved):

- Divide the time for 10 oscillations by 10 for the period of each
group.
- Graph T vs. , which is a horizontal parabola.
- This suggests the relationship T is proportional to , so graph
T2vs.
- Rearrange the formula to the T2 = k, and equate k with the
gradient of the line.
- Rearrange to find g.
Discussion:
Maintaining:
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9.2 Space
-

Reliability
o Repeated
measurement
of 10
oscillations
o Having a
person from a
different group
cross-checking
the
measurement
of the string.
Accuracy:
o Timing 10
oscillations to
reduce the
effect of
reaction time
errors since
time is longer.

9.2.1
Analyse information using the expression F=mg to determine the
weight force for a body on Earth and for the same body on other
planets.
F = mg

Gather secondary
information to predict
the value of
acceleration due to
gravity on other
planets.

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9.2 Space
Reducing
parallax error
by reading the
measurements
properly
o Using an
accurate ruler
with millimetre
markings.
Validity
o Measuring
from the top of
the string to
the centre of
the mass of
the bob.
o Averaging out
data
establishes
validity as it
would be
closer to the
intended
value.
o Using an angle
between 0
and 10
o

Variables:
- Independent
variable: length of
pendulum
- Dependent
variable: period of
pendulum
- Constant variable:
mass of bob, angle
of swimming,
timer and
stopwatch used.

9.2.1
as Microsoft Excel) to graph points and drawing a line of best
fit.
Superiority of graphical method over averaging results:
- It offered a greater range of values.
- Graphing provided a general representation of results and
inconsistent (unreliable) results could be identified and
ignored.
Conclusion: The acceleration due to gravity was found to be ____.
By equating F = Gm1mE/r2 and F = m1g, where m1 is the mass of a
person standing on Earth, and mE is the mass of the Earth, the
following equation can be produced to calculate the acceleration
due to gravity on another planet:

g=

/r

Gm

g: acceleration due to gravity of a body

r: radius of the body

m: mass of the body considered
G: Universal Gravitational Constant (6.67 x 10-11)
Determining the weight force:
F: Force (Newtons, N)
m: mass (kilograms, kg)
g: acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)
Remember direction! (For example, towards the centre of the
Earth)

Improvements using
technology:
- Using a motion
sensor and data
logger, the period
of the pendulum
can be calculated
using the
distance-time
graph the
produced by the
data logger.
- Using a force
sensor and data
logger with the
above-mentioned
reason.
- Using computer
technology (such
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9.2 Space

9.2.2

2. Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful

rocket launch, maintain a stable orbit and return to Earth.
Describe the
trajectory of an object
undergoing projectile
motion within the
Earths gravitational
field in terms of
horizontal and vertical
components.

Describe Galileos
analysis of projectile
motion.

Explain the concept of

escape velocity in
terms of the:
- gravitational
constant
- mass and radius of
the planet

Projectile: any object launched into the air.

Trajectory: the path a projectile follows during its flight.
The trajectory of a projectile is parabolic.
Its vertical motion is accelerated (as it is affected by gravity).
Its horizontal motion is uniform.
Note: for the trajectory to be parabolic, it assumed air resistance is
negligible and acceleration due to gravity is constant.
Galileo deduced the following about projectile motion:
- The motion can be resolved into vertical and horizontal
motions, which are independent of each other.
- Vertical component is accelerated motion.
- Horizontal component is uniform motion.
Escape velocity: the minimum velocity that must be imparted on
an object at a specific location to cause it to completely escape
from the gravitational pull of the planet.
The formula for calculating an objects escape velocity can be
derived by equating the kinetic energy (mv 2) and gravitational
potential energy (Ep=Gm1m2/r). This gives the formula:
2

v =

/R

2GM

v: escape velocity (m.s-1)

G: Universal Gravitational Constant

M: Mass of the planet (kg)
R: Distance from the centre of the planet (m)
Escape velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the
planets mass.
Escape velocity is inversely proportional to the square root of the
planets radius.
Escape velocity is independent of the mass of the object.
The Universal Gravitational Constant does not affect the relative
magnitude of the escape velocity.
Why this equation is unrealistic for satellites launched on the
Earths surface:
- Satellites are launched by rocket rather than being fired like a
bullet from a gun.
- Satellites are used to orbit the Earth, and so do not need to
escape the Earths gravitational field- it is needed for them to
stay in orbit.
Why this equation is unrealistic for launching rockets:
- The escape velocity for Earth is approximately 40 000 km.h -1.
- Accelerating a rocket to 40 000 km.h-1 would crush it because
of the high g-forces involved.

9.2 Space
-

A rocket travelling
through the
Earths
atmosphere at 40
000 km.h-1 would
generate a lot of
heat and burn up
before it even
escapes it.

9.2.2

9.2 Space
Outline Newtons
concept of escape
velocity.

9.2.2
Newton proposed the idea that an object launched horizontally
from a very high point above the Earths surface, with a sufficient
velocity, will orbit the Earth and will never fall to its surface.
Newton proposed that:
- If a cannonball was fired horizontally, it would follow a parabolic
trajectory back to the Earth.
- If the cannonball was fired with a greater velocity, it would fall
further away.
- If the cannonball was fired with enough speed, the Earths
surface would curve away, and the cannonball would orbit the
Earth, never landing on the ground.

Identify why the term

g forces is used to
explain the forces
acting on an
astronaut during
launch.

G-force: is a force that arises in accelerated frames of reference

and expresses the apparent weight as a proportion of true weight.
The actual force acting on an astronaut during launch is dependent
on their mass- this makes comparisons very difficult. Since g-forces
are a multiple of their true weight, it allows the forces on different
astronauts to be comparable. Thus, g-forces are preferably used
when explaining the forces acting on an astronaut during launch.
G-force =

a+g

/g

a: acceleration of the astronaut

g: acceleration due to gravity

Note: remember direction for a (i.e. it can be positive or negative)
G-force is positive when accelerating upwards and negative when
accelerating downwards.
Note: A force of 2g is equivalent to accelerating at 2 times the
acceleration due to gravity (i.e. 19.8m.s-2 on Earth), and so on.
Humans can easily tolerate g-forces up to 4g. Forces of around
10g can be tolerable if the direction of acceleration is
perpendicular to their long axis. (This prevents black outs or red
outs)
8l6ok,em
On Earth, a person would experience 1g.

9.2 Space
For horizontal motion,
g-force = a/g

9.2.2

9.2 Space
Discuss the effect of
the Earths orbital
motion and its
rotational motion on
the launch of a rocket.

9.2.2
Orbital motion
The Earth orbits the sun in an elliptical orbit at a velocity of
approximately 30km/s.
The orbital motion of the Earth is useful because:
- This means that any rockets being launched also travel at a
speed of 30km/s relative to the sun.
- The Earths orbit can be exploited by launching rockets when its
direction corresponds to the destination (called the launch
window). The launch is planned so that the rocket enters an
elliptical orbit around the sun, which intersects with the orbit of
the planet. (see diagram below)

These are useful because it saves fuel, which makes the launch:
- more cost-effective
- able to carry more equipment etc.
- more environmentally friendly as it doesnt burn as fuel and so
not as much greenhouse gases are emitted
Rotational motion
The Earth rotates on its axis towards the east at 465.1m/s. This
velocity decreases as you move away from the equator.
Launching a rocket to the East and closer to the equator means it
already possesses the Earths rotational velocity. This means it
requires less fuel to reach its escape velocity/orbital velocity.
Advantages of requiring less fuel include:
- reducing costs
- more environmentally friendly
- a larger satellite/rocket can be launched (as less space is
used by fuel)
Launching a rocket to the west will require much more fuel as it
has to overcome the Earths rotational velocity before it can start
to achieve its own required velocity.

9.2 Space
Analyse the changing
acceleration of a
rocket during launch
in terms of the:
- Law of Conservation
of Momentum
- Forces experienced
by astronauts

9.2.2
Rockets carry fuel and oxygen in their tanks. The combustion of the
fuels is what propels the rocket forward. This is a direct result of
Newton 3rd Law of Motion- the gases from the fuels combustion is
being pushed out by the rocket engine, and the gases push back
on the rocket engine, propelling the rocket forward.
Law of Conservation of Momentum
Law of Conservation of Momentum: the total momentum in an
isolated system is conserved unless acted upon by an external
force.
Because of the Law of Conservation of Momentum, the momentum
of the gases shooting out of the rocket is equal but opposite in
direction to the momentum of the rockets forward motion.
p = mv

p: momentum (kg.m.s-1 or N.s)

m: mass (kg)
v: velocity (m.s-2)
As the rocket consumes fuel, its overall mass will decrease. So,
according to the above formula and since momentum is conserved,
the rockets velocity will increase. Therefore, the rocket will
accelerate.
The rockets acceleration will also increase. This can be shown
through Newtons Second Law of Motion: F=ma. The thrust remains
constant because of the conservation of momentum and the mass
decreases due to fuel consumption, and so the acceleration
increases.
Forces experienced by astronauts
The acceleration of the rock increases, so the force experienced by
astronauts increases too (F=ma).
Analyse the forces
involved in uniform
circular motion for a
range of objects,
including satellites
orbiting the Earth.

To reduce the excessive g-forces experienced by the astronauts

because of the increased acceleration, rockets are designed with
multi stages. The sequential shut down of rocket engines avoids
excessive peaks of g-forces experienced by the astronauts.
Uniform circular motion: the motion undertaken by an object when
it travels in a circular path with a constant speed.
An object moving in a circle is accelerating since its direction of
motion is always changing.
Centripetal force: a force which causes an object to move in a
circular path.
Common examples of uniform circular motion and the centripetal
force include:
Uniform circular
motion
Satellite orbiting Earth
Object swinging at the

Centripetal Force
Gravity
String tension

9.2 Space
end of a string
Car turning at a corner

9.2.2

9.2 Space
Compare qualitatively
low Earth and geostationary orbits.

9.2.2
Low Earth Orbit: an orbit that lies above the Earths atmosphere
but below the van Allen radiation belts.
Geostationary orbit: an orbit that has an orbital period of 24 hours
and lies on the earths equatorial plane
Feature
s
FC
Orbit
Altitude

Low Earth Orbit

Earths gravitational attraction

Nearly circular
100s -1000s km
36 000 km
Varies but faster than
Slower than that of low
that of geostationary
earth orbits (approx.
(approx. 28000km.h-1)
11000km.h-1)
Varies but shorter than
that of geostationary
24 hours
(approx. 90min)
Not significantly
Significantly affected by
affected by atmospheric
atmospheric drag
drag

Orbital
speed
Orbital
period
Drag and
orbital
decay
Position
in sky
Possible
uses
Define the term
orbital velocity and
the quantitative and
qualitative
relationship between
orbital velocity, the
gravitational constant,
mass of the central
body, mass of the
satellite and the
radius of the orbit
using Keplers Law of
Periods.

Geostationary

Varies

Fixed

Surveillance and
pictures

Communication (though
a disadvantage is the
time delay)

Orbital velocity: the velocity required by an object to remain in

orbit at a certain distance from a central body.
A satellite is kept in orbit by the centripetal force supplied by
gravity. So, the gravitational attraction between the Earth and
satellite is equivalent to the centripetal force. Therefore, we can
equate F= GMm/r2 and F=mv2/r and by rearranging, we get the
v2 =

/r

GM

formula for orbital velocity:

v: Orbital velocity (m.s-1)
G: Universal Gravitational Constant
M: Mass of central body (kg)
r: Radius of the orbit (m)
From this, we can conclude that the orbital velocity is:
- directly proportional to the square root of the mass of the
central body
- independent of the satellites mass
- inversely proportional to the square root of the radius of the
orbit
- is not affected by the Universal Gravitational Constant when
considering its relative magnitude
By equating the same equations as above, and substituting
v=2r/T, we get Keplers Law:
r: orbital radius (m)
T: orbital period (s)
G: Universal Gravitational Constant
M: Mass of central body
From Keplers Law, it can be concluded that:

9.2 Space
-

The square of the

orbital period is
directly
proportional to the
cube of the orbital
radius.
The mass of the
central body is
inversely
proportional to the
square of the
orbital period.
The mass of the
central body is
directly
proportional to the
cube of the orbital
radius.
The Universal
Gravitational
Constant does not
affect the relative
magnitude of the
other variables.

9.2.2

9.2 Space
Account for the orbital
decay of satellites in
low Earth orbit.

9.2.2
Low Earth orbits occur at low altitudes (300-1000km) where the
atmosphere, though still thin, significantly affects their orbit. There
is friction between the satellite and atmosphere. This atmospheric
drag decreases the satellites velocity and causes it to go into a
downward spiral. As the satellite descends, the atmosphere
becomes thicker, increasing the atmosphere drag. So, the satellite
will accelerate towards and crash into the Earth.
The friction between the satellite and atmosphere can generate a
lot of heat and may cause the satellite to burn up and vapourise.

Discuss issues
associated with safe
re-entry into the
Earths atmosphere
and landing on the
Earths surface.

The issues involved with safe re-entry into the Earths atmosphere
and landing on the Earths surface include:
- The heat generated by the friction between air molecules and
the rocket.
- Keeping tolerable g-forces.
- Preventing the spacecraft from bouncing off the Earths
atmosphere and back into space.
Heat generated by friction
Heat is generated by the friction that occurs between the rocket
and air molecules in the Earths atmosphere. Space crafts used to
have an exterior made of an ablative material, that would burn up
to prevent the space craft from overheating. Nowadays, space
shuttles have glass fibre tiles covering its exterior which acts as a
thermal insulator.
Tolerable g-forces
G-forces must be kept within safe limits for astronauts. By having a
small angle of re-entry, the space shuttle travels a greater distance
before it lands. By extending the re-entry, they can slow the rate of
descent, lowering the acceleration and thus g-forces involved.
Bouncing off the Earth

Identify that there is

an optimum angle for
safe re-entry for a
manned spacecraft
into the Earths
atmosphere and the
consequences of
failing to achieve this
angle.

If the angle of re-entry is less than 5.2, the space shuttle will
bounce off the atmosphere and travel back into space. Therefore, a
safe and correct angle of re-entry must be measured and initiated.
During re-entry a spacecraft decays its orbit to slow it down by
firing their rockets in front of them. The time, direction and
duration of the firing of the rockets must be taken into careful
consideration to create an optimum angle of re-entry of 5.2 to
7.2.
If the angle is too shallow, the spacecraft will bounce off the
Earths atmosphere. This is due to the compression of the
atmosphere beneath the spacecraft. A shallow angle will have it
moving so quickly that the gravitational force will not be able to
overcome the frictional forces it has with the atmosphere.
If the angle is too steep, the spacecraft will burn up due to
excessive heat because of quick deceleration during re-entry and it
will generate g-forces intolerable by astronauts.

v = u + at

v2x = u2x

v2y = u2y + 2ayy

9.2 Space

9.2.2

Solve problems and

analyse information to
calculate the actual
velocity of a projectile
from its horizontal and
vertical components
using formulas.

y = uyt + ayt

x = uxt

v: velocity (m.s-1)
u: initial velocity (m.s-1)
a: acceleration (m.s-2)
t: time (s)
x: horizontal displacement
y: vertical displacement
Note: subscripts x and y refer to the horizontal and vertical
respectively

Perform a first-hand
investigation, gather
information and
analyse data to
calculate initial and
final velocity,
maximum height
reached, range and
time of flight of a
projectile for a range
of situations by using
simulations, data
loggers and computer
analysis.

Things to take into account when solving problems:

- The time taken to go up is the same as the time taken to come
back down.
- Objects at their maximum height have a vertical velocity of
zero.
- The initial vertical velocity of an object being horizontally
projected is zero.
- Acceleration due to gravity is 9.8m.s-2
Aim: to measure and calculate the initial velocity, range and time
of flight of a horizontally launched projectile and to establish a
relationship between the first two.
Method:
1) Set up the following apparatus and measure the indicated
height.

2)
3)
4)
5)

Initiate the rangefinder and roll the ball off the table.
Measure the range of the ball using a metre ruler.
Record the initial speed of the ball from the rangefinder.
Repeat 5 times.

Results:
Analysis:
-

Graphing initial speed vs. range gives a straight line.

The graph is consistent with the formula x = uxt
Find the gradient to find the time of flight.

Discussion:

9.2 Space

9.2.2

Variables:
- Independent
variable: initial
velocity of the
projectile.
- Dependent
variable: range of
the projectile.
Constant variable:
location, maximum
height.

Identify data sources, gather, analyse and present information on

the contribution of one of the following to the development of
space exploration: Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie,
ONeill or von Braun.

Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the

centripetal force acting on a satellite undergoing uniform circular
motion about the Earth using: F=mv2/r
F=
mv2
r

Solve problems and analyse information using Keplers Law.

9.2 Space
Maintaining:
- Accuracy of:
o Initial velocity
was accurate
because of the
CBR.
o Tables height
was accurate
because of the
use of a metre
ruler with
millimetre
markings.
o Accuracy of
range was not
as accurate
because
humans by
nature cannot
perform the
task as in the
method.
- Validity:
o Measurements
were valid as
students were
aware of what
the range and
height were.
o CBRs
measurements
were assumed
to be valid.
- Reliability: could
not be established
because the initial
velocity and range
of the projectile
could not be
replicated. But,
lots of different
measurements
were taken to
differentiate
between reliable
and unreliable
results when
graphing.
Improvements:
- Using computer
technology to
produce a line of
best fit.
- Technology to
accurately pin
point the range of
the projectile and
measure it.

9.2.2
-

Using carbon paper on the floor to mark the landing point.

Conclusion:
- The range of a projectile is directly proportional to its initial
velocity and independent of the time of flight.
- The time of flight was found to be _____.
Gerard ONeill
ONeill may be considered the father of space colonisation.
While teaching at Princeton University, he began to study the
colonisation of space. He wrote a book called The High Frontier in
1977. His proposals of living in free space in an orbit between Earth
and the moon, using extra-terrestrial materials for the colonies
construction and utilising solar power were a paradigm shift in
thinking.
In 1977, ONeill also founded the Space Studies Institute (SSI) - a
private institute which studied the technicalities of space
colonisation, including how to mine extra-terrestrial materials,
transportation of them and construction of large, solar powered
cylindrical habitats.
ONeill, unlike others, strived to ensure there were positive human
implications from space colonisation as he believed it was a source
of opportunity that would allow humans to reach their full potential.
The formula for calculating the centripetal force is:
F: Centripetal force (N)
m: mass (kg)
v: velocity (m.s-1)
r: radius (m)

Keplers Law:
r: orbital radius (m)
T: orbital period (s)
G: Universal Gravitational Constant
M: Mass of central body

9.2 Space

9.2.3

3. The Solar System is held together by gravity.

Describe a
gravitational field in
the region
surrounding a
massive object in
terms of its effects on
other masses in it.

Gravitational field: the region of space around an object that has

mass, within which another object that has mass experiences the
force of attraction.
The formula for calculating the acceleration due to gravity due to a
large mass is:

g=

/r

Gm

g: acceleration due to gravity of a body

r: radius of the body

m: mass of the body considered
G: Universal Gravitational Constant
See page 3 for more.
The gravitational force surrounding a massive object often causes
other smaller objects to move towards it.
Define Newtons Law
of Universal
Gravitation:
F=Gm1m2/d2

F=

Gm1m2

/ r2

F: Gravitational force (Newtons, N)

G: Universal Gravitational Constant (6.67 x 10-11)

m1, m2: masses of objects
r: distance between the cores of the two objects.
Note: this is an example of Newtons 3rd Law of Motion as the two
objects being taken into consideration are exerting the same
gravitational force on each other according to the formula.

Discuss the
importance
of Newtons Law of
Gravitation in
understanding and
calculating the motion
of satellites.

Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation: each object attracts

another with a force that is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the two objects.
Newtons Law of Gravitation helped to develop an understanding of
the motion of satellites.
An orbiting satellites centripetal force is supplied by gravity. By
equating the two equations, an equation for orbital velocity is
acquired.
By equating the same equations and substituting v=2r/T, Keplers
Law is acquired.
See page 8.
Before Newton, it was not understood what kept planets and
satellites moving in their orbits. Newtons Law explained that it was
the force of gravity that did so. His law provided a universal force
that governed the motion of projectiles on Earth and other
planets/moons, and the orbiting motion of objects.

9.2 Space

9.2.3

Identify that a
slingshot effect can
be provided by
planets for space
probes.

To assist space probes in gaining the velocity they need for

interplanetary travel, the slingshot effect is utilised.

Present information
and use available
evidence to discuss
the factors affecting
the strength of the
gravitational force.

Magnitude of an objects gravitational field is:

- Directly proportional to its mass.
- Inversely proportional to the square root of the distance
between itself and another object it is influencing.

Solve problems and

analyse information
using Newtons Law of
Universal Gravitation.

The slingshot effect allows a space probe to increase its velocity

relative to the sun and change its path. To use the slingshot effect:
- The space probe approaches the planet so it passes behind it in
its orbit.
- The gravitational interaction between the two will cause the
space probe to changes it path and steal some angular
momentum from the planet, which increases its momentum
and velocity relative to the sun.
- The decrease in the planets momentum results in an
insignificant decrease in its velocity (because of its large mass).

The strength of an objects gravitational field at the same distance

away from it can vary due to varied mass distribution. For example,
the gravitational field of the Earth will be different over where there
is oil or natural gas reserves.

F=

Gm1m2

/ r2

F: Gravitational force (Newtons, N)

G: Universal Gravitational Constant (6.67 x 10-11)

m1, m2: masses of objects
r: distance between the cores of the two objects.

9.2 Space

9.2.4

4. Current and emerging understanding about time and space has

been dependent upon earlier models of the transmission of light.
Outline the features of
the aether model for
the transmission of
light.

Describe and evaluate

the Michelson- Morley
attempt to measure
the relative velocity of
the Earth through the
aether.

Aether: the proposed medium for light and other electromagnetic

waves, before it was realised that these waveforms do not need a
medium in order to travel.
The aether:
- permeates all of space
- is permeable to material objects
- is transparent
- has low density
- has great elasticity
- rigid and solid
Aim of the Michelson-Morley experiment: to measure the velocity
of the Earth relative to the aether.
It was proposed that if the aether existed, the Earth should be
flowing through it at 30km/s. Hence, an aether wind (flow of
aether) should be detected. Michelson and Morley tested for the
presence of the aether wind using an interferometer:

Gather and process

information to
interpret the results of
the Michelson-Morley
experiment.

A light source emits a beam of light, which is split into two

perpendicular beams.
The light beams travel the same distance and are reflected by
mirrors.
A travels parallel to the aether wind and B travels perpendicular
to it.
If the aether exists, A should take longer to return because it
has to travel against the aether wind at some stage.
The apparatus is rotated 90 to see if B takes longer to
complete the journey.
The interference patterns are observed and the velocity at
which the Earth flows through the aether can be calculated.
The experiment was conducted at different times of the year at
different locations and altitudes.

The principle of the experiment is that light travelling through the

aether will have its velocity affected. This principle can be
explained by a boat analogy:

9.2 Space
If boat A and B were
to race the same
distance, though with
A travelling parallel to
the current and B
perpendicular to it,
they would arrive at
the finish point at
different times. B
would arrive first, and
then A, because A had
to travel part of the
race against the
current. The current
here is equivalent to
the aether wind, and
A and B are the two
light beams.

Discuss the role of the

Michelson-Morley
experiments in
making
determinations about
competing theories.

Outline the nature of

inertial frames of
reference.

9.2.4

Discuss the principle of relativity.

9.2 Space
Michelson and Morley
expected to observe
different interference
patterns because the
interferometers
orientation relative to
the aethers motion
wouldve been
different, changing
the velocity of light.
However, the same
interference pattern
was observed no
matter where or when
they conducted the
experiment. This is
called a null result.
There were several
proposed
explanations for the
null result:
- the Earth drags
the aether along
with it because of
its size
- the Earths motion
through the aether
distorts and
compresses the
apparatus
- electromagnetic
waves do not
require a medium
(Einsteins!)
Michelson and
Morleys experiment
produced a null result,
which could have
been explained by the
fact that the aether
did not exist.
Physicists were
hesitant to accept this
however, because it
was an important
aspect in several
accepted scientific
theories:
- Newtonian
relativity:
o Time and
space are
absolute
o the aether is
an ultimate
fixed frame of
reference
- Wave model

9.2.4
o
o

The aether provided a medium for light and electromagnetic

waves to propagate through, as it was believed all waves
required a medium.
Experimentally and using Maxwells equations, the velocity
of light was constant, and this only be possible if it was
relative to the aether.

The Michelson-Morley experiment forced scientists to reconsider

the aspects of Newtonian Relativity and the Wave Model which
involved the aether, and to recognise the need for modifications to
such theories.
More consideration was put into Einsteins two conclusions, which
were better explanations of the null result:
- the aether is superfluous
- all moving objects receive light travelling at the same speed in
all directions
Frame of reference: a coordinate system used to measure velocity
and observe motion.
Inertial frame of reference: one which is moving at a constant
velocity.
Non-inertial frame of reference: one which is accelerating.
In an inertial frame of reference, no mechanical experiment or
observation can reveal whether you are stationary or moving at a
constant velocity.
Both inertial and non-inertial frames of reference can be used to
measure or describe the motion of another object.
Principle of Relativity: there is no absolute motion; all motion must
be measure in relation to another object.
The Principle of Relativity was discovered by Galileo and only
applies to inertial frames of reference.
The Principle of Relativity implies that it is impossible to tell
whether one is moving at constant velocity or standing still using
mechanical experiments or observations.

9.2 Space

9.2.4
Newtonian relativity: includes Galilean relativity and also that time
is absolute and the aether is the ultimate fixed frame of reference.

Describe the
significance of
Einsteins assumption
of the constancy of
the speed of light.

Einsteins Special Relativity applies only to inertial reference

frames and has two postulates:
- Laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference
(as in Galilean relativity)
- The speed of light in a vacuum is always c and so is
independent of the motion of the observer or light source.
Einsteins second postulate was very significant as it changed
previous beliefs that mass, distance and time were absolute
quantities independent of their location, its motion or motion of the
observer.

Identify that if c is
constant then space
and time become
relative.

If the speed of light is constant, than mass, distance and time

become relative quantities.

Discuss the concept

that length standards
are defined in terms
of time in contrast to
the original metre
standard.

The first international standard of length was the standard

metre: distance between two engraved lines on gold plugs at
the ends of a platinum-iridium alloy bar.
1961: atomic standard of length expressed as a multiple of
the wavelength of orange-red light emitted by Krypton-86. This
allowed for increased precision and invariability.
1983: metre re-defined as the distance light travels in a
vacuum in 1/299 792 458 of a second measured be a caesium
clock.

Note: the actual length of the metre is the same in all cases.
The definition was changed because the speed of light is constant
and because space and time are constant.
Relativity of simultaneity
Explain qualitatively
and quantitatively the
consequence of
special relativity in
relation to:
- the relativity of
simultaneity
- the equivalence
between mass and
energy
- length contraction
- time dilation
- mass dilation

The relativity of simultaneity says that if an observer sees two

events to be simultaneous, another observer in relative motion to
the first observer will judge them to be simultaneous.
Note: both observers must be in inertial frames of reference.
For example, consider a high speed train which has lightning strike
its two ends. If an observer outside the train observes the lightning
strikes to occur simultaneous, an observer standing in the middle
train will not. Because the train is moving, the observer will be
moving towards the light at the front and away from the light at
the back. So, they will observe the front light to occur first.
Both observers are correct based on their judgement from different
frames of reference- this is an implication of the constancy of the
speed of light.
Equivalence between mass and energy
A consequence of special relativity is the law of mass-energy
equivalence. In this law, mass and energy can be transformed into
one another and obeys Einsteins famous equation: E = mc 2.

9.2 Space
Significant examples
that confirm this
relationship include:
- Nuclear energy: in
either nuclear
fission or fusion,
energy is released
and mass is lost
(the amount of
each do comply
with E = mc2)

9.2.4

9.2 Space

9.2.4
-

Subatomic particle collisions: which result in a shower of new

subatomic particles with a greater total mass (their kinetic
energy is transformed to mass)

Einsteins Special relativity predicts that the speed of light is the

ultimate speed that can be reached. As an object is given energy
to reach high speeds, the energy is converted to mass. As the
object approaches c, its mass approaches infinity. So, the work
done on a mass can never accelerate it to or beyond the speed of
light.
Length contraction
The theory of relativity predicts that distances measured in a
moving frame of reference, relative to a stationary observer,
become shortened along an axis parallel to the direction of the
velocity
by an amount predicted by the
equation:

The greater the velocity, the greater the amount of length

contraction.
Time dilation
Time dilation can be explained by the following thought
experiment:
Consider a clock which is made of a laser and detector and mirror.
The laser sends a light pulse, which travels to mirror, is reflected
and when detected at its initial starting point triggers a tick
sound.
Now, if an observer stood outside with their own clock, and
observed a clock travelling on a train in front of them, the clock
inside the train would appear to tick slower than their own clock.
This is because:
- The light on their clock would move in a straight line to the
mirror and back.
- The light in the train would appear to move from X to Y to Z,
covering a greater distance, which would take longer
(remembering that the speed of light is constant).
So, time is a relative quantity that is dependent on the relative
motion of the observer and the object being observed:
- To a stationary observer, moving clocks appear to tick more
slowly.
- The faster the clock is moving, the more slowly it appears to
tick.
Time dilation occurs according to the formula:

Mass dilation

9.2 Space
The mass of a moving
object is greater than
when it is stationary.
The faster it moves,
the greater its mass
will become. This is
mathematically
represented through:

See Equivalence
between mass and
energy on page 16
and above.
Discuss the
implications of mass
increase, time dilation
and length
contraction for space
travel.

9.2.4
Perform an investigation to help distinguish between non-inertial
and inertial frames of reference.

9.2 Space
Without considering
mass dilation, time
dilation or length
contraction, long
distance space travel
is not feasible
because of time and
distance constraints.
With considering time
dilation and length
contraction, long
distance space travel
appears to be more
possible because of
the contraction of
distances that need to
be travelled and a
decrease in time to
travel these distances
if the shuttle were
travelling at speeds
close to c.
However, there are
many other
implications that arise
from mass dilation,
time dilation and
length contraction,
and are as follows:
-

From the Earths

frame of
reference, the
shuttle will appear
to take years to
return, whereas on
the shuttles
frame of
reference, it may
only take days.
o This is a long
and tedious
wait for
scientists
waiting for
them.
o Upon return,
the
astronauts
wouldve
aged by
days, while
those on
Earth
wouldve
aged by
years (a
serious social
implication)

9.2.4
-

If the shuttle were to contain people, g-forces have to be taken

into account. To maintain tolerable g-forces, it would take a
long time to accelerate the shuttle to a speed close to c. So, the
travel time, in reality would take much longer (years, instead of
days).
If the shuttle were to be unmanned, the shuttle could be
quickly accelerated to speeds near c. But, for such
accelerations, more force is needed, which means more fuel
and engines are needed, which means there is more mass,
which means more force is needed and so on.
Due to mass dilation, travelling at speeds close to c will
increase the mass of the object to up to 100 times its original
mass. This means more fuel will be needed to maintain the
acceleration.
Due to mass dilation and the shuttle travelling at such high
speeds, small space objects become considerably heavier. So, if
they hit the shuttle, it would cause considerable damage.
Two way communication would be impossible because of the
large distances involved and since the speed of
electromagnetic waves is constant.
If the shuttle was unmanned, and signals needed to be sent for
the shuttles function, it would take years to perform the
function on the shuttle.
To compensate for all of the above, there are enormous
monetary demands.
Type of motion of
person
Stationary
Slow constant velocity
Fast constant velocity
Accelerating motion

Motion of ball as observed by:

Stationary
Person
observer
throwing ball
Vertically up and
Vertically up
down
and down
Vertically up
Parabolic path
and down
Parabolic path
Vertically up
with greater
and down
range
Vertically up and
Moved
down
backwards

These results show:

- There is no mechanical experiment or observation a person can
make to tell whether they are moving at a constant velocity or
stationary.
- An experiment can be done to distinguish between an inertial
and non-inertial frame of reference.

9.2 Space
Analyse and interpret
some of Einsteins
thought experiments
involving mirrors and
trains and discuss the
relationship between
thought and reality.

9.2.4
Thought experiment: an imaginary experiment conducted only in
the scientists head, often because it is impracticable or there is no
current technology to perform to the experiment in reality.
Einsteins thought experiment
One of Einsteins famous thought experiments regarding relativity
was the basis of his second postulate in his Special Theory of
Relativity:
Einstein considered a hypothetical in which if he was sitting in a
train moving at the speed of light holding a mirror in front of him,
would he see his reflection?
According to Newtonian relativity, the aether was the fixed frame
of reference and that light travelled at c relative to it. So, if Einstein
as travelling at c as well, then light could not leave his face to
reach the mirror- he would not see his reflection.
If no reflection was seen, it means he was in an inertial frame of
reference and moving. However, Galilean and Newtonian relativity
said no mechanical experiment could tell whether you were
stationary or moving in an inertial frame of reference.
Einstein believed the Principle of Relativity to be correct, so:
- there is no absolute frame of reference
- the aether does not exist
- light travels at a constant speed relative to the observer
So, he concluded that he would be able to see his reflection since
light would travel at c relative to him.
Thought and reality
Thought is a powerful tool when the boundaries of what we can do
and observe are limited. Thought experiments allow for the
consideration of hypothetical situations that are otherwise unable
to be tested.

Analyse information
to discuss the
relationship between
theory and the
evidence supporting
it, using Einsteins
predictions based on
relativity that were
made many years
before evidence was
available to support it.

When conducting thought experiments, all ideas and predictions

must be based on logic and facts. So, when conducting thought
experiments, there must be no distinction between the too- they
cannot be separated.
Scientific theories must satisfy two conditions:
- It must produce theoretical results which match all existing
observations of reality; and
- It must predict results for observations yet to be made.
A theory usually needs experimental evidence before it is taken
seriously. For example, Einsteins Theory of Special Relativity was
not widely accepted until scientific evidence came to light. So,
supporting evidence is crucial for theories.
Evidence for Einsteins Theory of Special Relativity:
- Time dilation: evidence from the flying of atomic clocks which
demonstrated time dilation; the dilated lifetimes of mesons
penetrating the Earths atmosphere.
- Mass and energy equivalence: energy yield from converted
mass in nuclear reactions.
- Mass dilation: collision of subatomic particles.

9.2 Space

9.2.4

E = mc2

Solve problems and

analyse information
using:

E: Energy (J)
M: mass (kg)
c: speed of light (m.s-1)
lo: distance measured by an
observer stationary relative
to the frame of reference in
which the distance is being
measured.
lv: the same distance measured by an observer,
relative to whom the clock is moving at speed v.
to: interval of time measured by
an observer stationary relative
to the clock.
tv: same interval of time
measured by an observer,
relative to whom the clock is moving at speed v.

mv: observed mass of object travelling at velocity

v.
m0: rest mass of the particle
v: velocity of the particle relative to a stationary
observer