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4.

1 Macroscopic Examination

Macroscopic examination is carried out with unaided eye or a


simple handheld magnifier, or a stereobinocular microscope with
a magnification generally below 100 diameters. In the stereobinocular
microscope, reasonably large specimens can be handled,
and the microscope can easily be adopted for examination of components
in the field or accident site. The amount of information
one can obtain by macroscopic examination is remarkable. The
features revealed during macroscopic examination are:
Type of fracture
Origin of fracture
Presence of secondary cracks
Presence of external debris or corrosion products
Discoloration
Presence of wear marks in the vicinity of fracture
Plastic deformation preceding fracture
Dimensional changes in the component
Evidence of any overheating
Post-fracture damage such as rub marks
The aim of macroscopic examination is to have a general appreciation
of the features of the failed component and, in particular,
the fracture surface. When a component fractures, certain distinct
features can be observed on the fracture surface. These features
may be termed the signatures of fracture. These signatures are
characteristic of the type of loading and the relative ductility or
brittleness of the component. The science of studying the fracture
surface is termed fractography. Thus, depending on the level of
examination, one can have macrofractography and microfractography.

4.1.1 Macrofractography
The signatures of fractures on the fracture surfaces can easily
be lost or obliterated by subsequent damages caused by oxidation
(as in the case of fire or thermal exposures), corrosion, abrasion
due to improper handling, and so forth, and hence, the fracture
surfaces should be carefully handled and preserved. Oil and grease
on the fracture surface can be removed with organic solvents. The
corrosion and oxidation products often hide the true fracture surface
beneath. Fine fissures on the surface of these corrosion products
may sometimes mislead because they do not represent the real
features of the original fracture surface. Mild chemicals such as
acetic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfamic acid, ammonium oxalate,
ammonium citrate, and NaOH, in dilute solutions, and 6N solution
of HCl inhibited with 2g/l hexamethylene tetramine, are available
for the removal of these layers. However, the best method of cleaning
the fracture surface is by a blast of air followed by repeated
cleaning with replicating tape until the tape comes out clean and
free from adhering debris, as described later.
One of the features often revealed by macrofractography is the
origin of fracture. In many instances, the origin is apparent even
to the naked eye. Once a crack is initiated, then during the propagation
of the crack, other features such as radial lines, chevron
marks, and beach marks develop and are left behind.
A ductile tensile fracture in a component of circular cross section
consists of three distinct zones (Fig. 4.1) (Ref 3). The inner
flat zone with a fibrous appearance is where the fracture starts and
grows slowly. The fracture propagates fast along the intermediate
radial zone. The radial lines extended backward point to the fracture
origin. Sometimes the radial lines start from the origin itself.
The fracture finally terminates at the shear lip zone that is the
annular region near the periphery of the fracture surface. The shear

lip zone is at an angle of 45_ to the tensile stress direction.


Fast, unstable crack propagation may sometimes be manifested
as a series of chevron marks or herringbone pattern on the fracture
surface (Fig. 4.2). The apexes of these chevrons point to the origin
of fracture.
In fatigue failures, the origin is indicated by the presence of
beach marks or clam shell marks, which also signify the direction
of advancement of the crack (Fig. 4.3). Fatigue failure is also charFailure Analysis of Engineering Structures: Methodology and Case Histories
V. Ramachandran, A.C. Raghuram, R.V. Krishnan, S.K. Bhaumik, p25-30
DOI:10.1361/faes2005p025
Copyright 2005 ASM International
All rights reserved.
www.asminternational.org

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