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The formation of longer, more complex words from shorter, simpler WORDS. In the
West, the analysis of word form began in classical Greece and passed in due course
to Rome. Philosophers including Plato and Aristotle and grammarians such as
Dionysius Thrax and Terentius Varro developed the study of the ways in which words
were formed as a part of GRAMMAR, founding a long and subtle tradition that was
inherited and extended by 19c comparative philology and 20c linguistics. The
classical study was based only on GREEK and LATIN words, and contrasted simple
word and complex word. The simple word was discussed either in terms of its ROOT
(a basic element without adaptations or inflections), such as Greek log, whose core
meaning was speech, or as a root word, consisting of a root, stem, and inflection
(in most cases cited in standard forms, such as the nominative singular for nouns),
such as Greek lgos (speech, word) and Latin verbum (word, verb). The complex
word was discussed in terms of two processes or categories: (1) Derivation, in which
AFFIXES and inflections could be added to a root, as with logiks, an adjective
formed from lgos, and verbalis, and adjective formed from verbum. (2)
Composition, in which two or more roots could be combined, with appropriate
affixes and inflections added, as with the nouns biologa and biologists formed
from bos (life) and lgos, and agricultura, formed from ager (field) and cultura
(cultivation).
In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is
sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's
meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be
difficult to define: a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from
an old one and identical to it in form (see conversion). Word formation can also be
contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, although words can be
formed from multi-word phrases
A. Derivation
Derivation is probably the most common word formation process in the English
language. It is achieved by adding affixes: prefixes are added at the beginning of a
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word, suffixes added to the end of a word, or infixes which are inserted inside a
word, but infixes are unusual in English.
Derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to. If both
inflectional and derivational affixes are used, then the derivational affixes are inner,
closer to the stem, and inflectional affixes are outer, furthest from the stem.
E.g. fright + en + ed = frightened
resign + ation + s = resignations
Derivational affixes
They are usually divided into class-changing and class-maintaining derivation
affixes. Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to
which they are added. In English, they are usually suffixes.
anti+malaria anti-malaria
dis+agree disagree
scholar + ship scholarship
un + tie untie
ex + wife ex-wife
green + ish greenish
re + open reopen
Mis-, be-, ex-, mal-, re-, un-, dis-, in-,
Derivation Suffixes
1. Nominal suffixes
Nominal suffixes are often employed to derive abstract nouns from verbs,
adjectives, and nouns. Such abstract nouns can denote actions, results of
actions, or other related concepts, but also properties, qualities, and the like.
-age
This suffix derives nouns that express an activity (or its result) as in coverage,
leakage, spillage, and nouns denoting a collective entity or quantity, as in
acreage, voltage, yardage. Due to inherent ambiguities of certain coinages, the
meaning can be extended to include locations, as in orphanage. Base words
may be verbal or nominal and are often monosyllabic.
-al
A number of verbs take -al to form abstract nouns denoting an action or the
result of an action, such as arrival, overthrowal, recital, referral, renewal. Base
words for nominal -al all have their main stress on the last syllable.
-ance (with its variants -ence/-ancy/-ency)
Attaching mostly to verbs, -ance creates action nouns such as absorbance,
riddance, retardance.
-ant
This suffix forms count nouns referring to persons (often in technical or
legal discourse, cf. applicant, defendant, disclaimant) or to substances involved
in
biological, chemical, or physical processes (attractant, dispersant, etchant,
suppressant).
Most bases are verbs of Latinate origin.
-dom
The native suffix -dom is semantically closely related to -hood and -ship, which
express similar concepts. -dom attaches to nouns to form nominals which can
be paraphrased as state ofbeing X as in apedom, clerkdom, slumdom,
yuppiedom, or which refer to collective entities, such as professordom,
studentdom, or denote domains, realms or territories as in kingdom, cameldom,
maoridom.
-(e)ry
singer, writer, etc.). This is, however, only a subclass of -er derivatives, and
there is a wide range of forms with quite heterogeneous meanings. Apart from
performers of actions we find instrument nouns such as blender, mixer,
steamer, toaster, and nouns. Denoting entities associated with an activity such
as diner, lounger, trainer, winner (in the sense
winning shot).
Furthermore, -er is used to create person nouns indicating place of origin or
residence
(e.g.
Londoner,
NewYorker,
Highlander,
New
Englander).
This
ripen), but a few nouns can also be found (e.g. strengthen, lengthen). The
meaning of -en formations can be described as causative make (more) X.
-ify
This suffix attaches to three kinds of base word: to monosyllabic words, to words
stressed on the final syllable, and to words stressed on the penult followed by a
final syllable ending in unstressed /i /. Neologisms usually do not show stress
shift, but some older forms do (humidhumdify, solidsoldify). These
restrictions have the effect that -ify is in (almost) complementary distribution
with the suffix ize. Semantically, -ify shows the same range of meanings as -ize
and the
two
suffixes
could
therefore
be
considered
phonologically
conditioned
allomorphs.
-ize
Both -ize and -ify are polysemous suffixes, which can express a whole range of
related concepts such as locative, ornative, causative/factitive, resultative,
inchoative, performative, similative. Locatives can be paraphrased as put into
X, as in computerize, hospitalize, tubify. Patinatize, fluoridize, youthify are
ornative examples (provide with X), randomize, functionalize, humidify are
causative (make (more) X), carbonize, itemize, trustify and nazify are
resultative (make into X), aerosolize and mucify are inchoative (become X),
anthropologize and speechify are performative (perform X), cannibalize,
vampirize can be analyzed as similative (act like X). The suffix -ize attaches
primarily to bases ending in an unstressed syllable and the derivatives show
rather complex patterns of base allomorphy.
3. Adjectival suffixes
The adjectival suffixes of English can be subdivided into two major groups. A
large proportion of derived adjectives are relational adjectives, whose role is
simply to relate the noun the adjective qualifies to the base word of the derived
adjective. For example, algebraic mind means a mind having to do with
algebra, referring to algebra, characterized by algebra, colonial officer means
officer having to do with the colonies, and so on.
On the other hand, there is a large group of derived adjectives that express
more specific concepts, and which are often called qualitative adjectives.
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-ary
Again a relational adjective-forming suffix, -ary usually attaches to nouns, as in
complementary, evolutionary, fragmentary, legendary, precautionary. We find
stress-shifts only with polysyllabic base nouns ending in -ment (cf. Complim
entary vs. momentary).
-ed
This suffix derives adjectives with the general meaning having X, being
provided with X, as in broad-minded, pig-headed, wooded. The majority of
derivatives are based on compounds or phrases (empty-headed, pig-headed,
air-minded, fair-minded).
-ful
Adjectival -ful has the general meaning having X, being characterized by X and
is typically attached to abstract nouns, as in beautiful, insightful, purposeful,
tactful, but verbal bases are not uncommon (e.g. forgetful, mournful, resentful).
-ing
This verbal inflectional suffix primarily forms present participles, which can in
general also be used as adjectives in attributive positions (and as nouns, see
above). The grammatical status of a verb suffixed by -ing in predicative position
is not always clear. In the changing weather the -ing form can be analyzed as an
adjective, but in the weather is changing we should classify it as a verb (in
particular as a progressive form). In the film was boring, however, we would
probably want to argue that boring is an adjective, because the relation to the
event denoted by the verb is much less prominent than in the case of changing.
-less
Semantically, denominal -less can be seen as antonymic to -ful, with the
meaning
being
paraphrasable
as
without
X:
expressionless,
hopeless,
speechless, thankless.
-ly
This suffix is appended to nouns and adjectives.With base nouns denoting
persons, -ly usually conveys the notion of in the manner of X or like an X, as
in brotherly, daughterly, fatherly, womanly. Other common types of derivative
have bases denoting temporal concepts (e.g. half-hourly, daily, monthly) or
directions (easterly, southwesterly).
-ous
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This suffix derives adjectives from nouns and bound roots, the vast majority
being of Latinate origin (curious, barbarous, famous, synonymous, tremendous).
Like derivatives in -al, -ous formations are stressed either on the penultimate or
the antepenultimate syllable with stress being shifted there, if necessary (e.g. pl
atitude platitudinous). There are further variants of the suffix, -eous (e.g.
erroneous, homogeneous), -ious (e.g. gracious, prestigious), and -uous (e.g.
ambiguous, continuous).
4. Adverbial suffixes
-ly
The presence of this exclusively de-adjectival suffix is for the most part
syntactically triggered and obligatory, and it can therefore be considered
inflectional. However, in some formations there is a difference in meaning
between the adjective and the adverb derived by -ly attachment: shortly,
hardly, and dryly are semantically distinct from their base words and hotly,
coldly, and darkly can only have metaphorical senses. Such changes of meaning
are unexpected for an inflectional suffix, which speaks against the classification
of adverbial -ly as inflectional.
-wise
This suffix derives adverbs from nouns, with two distinguishable subgroups:
manner/dimension adverbs, and so-called viewpoint adverbs. The former adverb
type has the meaning in the manner of X, like X as in The towel wound
sarongwise about his middle, or indicates a spatial arrangement or movement,
as in The cone can be sliced lengthwise.
Derivation Prefixes
There are two kinds of the prefix un- in English. The first is attached to adjectives to
form new adjectives, and the second is attached to verbs to form new verbs. The
two kinds of the prefix un- do not change the part of speech. The prefix unattached to adjectives means not.
Prefix unPrefix
Base
Derived Word
(Adjective)
(Adjective)
Meaning
UnUnUnUnUnUn-
Able
Afraid
Aware
Fit
Free
Happy
Unable
Unafraid
Unaware
Unfit
Unfree
Unhappy
not
not
not
not
not
not
able
afraid
aware
fit
free
happy
The prefix un- can also be added to the adjectives of the derived words that have
been formed by morphological rules. The examples are follows:
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
UnUnUnUnUnUn-
(Adjective)
acceptable
avoidable
believable
predictable
reachable
readable
(Adjective)
unacceptable
unavoidable
unbelievable
unpredictable
unreachable
unreadable
not
not
not
not
not
not
acceptable
avoidable
believable
predictable
reachable
readable
The second prefix un- joins with verbs to form new verbs. In this case the prefix unmeans to do the opposite of . the examples are follows :
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
Un-
(Verb)
Bind
(Verb)
Unbind
to do the opposite
Un-
Cover
Uncover
of binding
to do the opposite
Un-
Do
Undo
of covering
to do the opposite
Un-
Dress
Undress
of doing
to do the opposite
Un-
Load
Unload
of dressing
to do the opposite
Un-
Lock
Unlock
of loading
to do the opposite
of locking
Prefix in-
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The prefix in- is the derivational bound morpheme mostly attached to adjectives.
This prefix does not change the part of speech either. The rule of prefix in- attached
to adjectives can be stated as: {in-} + ADJECTIVE new ADJECTIVE. This rule says
that
the prefix in- attached to an adjective creates a new adjective. The new
adjective is indicated by the change of meaning not in the derived word. Look at
the examples below:
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
InInInInInIn-
(Adjective)
Accurate
Tolerant
Efficient
Expensive
Legal
Moral
(Adjective)
Inaccurate
Intolerant
Inefficient
Inexpensive
Illegal
Immoral
not
not
not
not
not
not
accurate
tolerant
efficient
expensive
legal
moral
The prefix in- attached to nouns are very rare. The following are the examples of the
prefix in- attached to nouns.
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
In-
(Noun)
Balance
(Noun)
Imbalance
absence
InIn-
Decorum
Decision
Indecorum
Indecision
balance
lack of decorum
the state of being
of
unable to decide
The change of phonetic representation because of the meeting of phonemes in
morphological process is called morphophonemic change. The morpheme in- which
attaches to the bases with bilabial phonemes in initial position will change to im-. In
other words, the morpheme in- will be pronounced im- if it meets the bilabial
phonemes. The examples are as follows:
Prefix
Base /bilabial/
InBalance
InPerfect
InMoral
The morpheme in- which attaches to the bases with
Derived Word
Imbalance
Imperfect
immoral
the phoneme /k/ in initial
position will change to /i-/. The phone [] is not symbolized by the orthographic
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as explained
Base /k/
Complete
Derived Word
incomplete
InIn-
Correct
Consistent
ikmpli:t/
incorrect
inconsistent
/
/ikrekt/
/iknsistnt/
The morpheme in- which attaches to the bases with liquid phonemes in initial
position will change to liquid phonemes. The morpheme in- in this case will be
pronounced like the phone of the liquid phonemes which follow it. The examples are
as follows:
Prefix
Base /liquids/
InLegal
InRational
The morpheme in- which attaches to the bases with
Derived Word
Illegal
Irrational
vowel phonemes in initial
Base /liquids/
Efficient
Expensive
Derived Word
Inefficient
Inexpensive
Prefix reThe prefix re- is the derivational bound morpheme attached to verbs to form new
verbs. The meaning of the prefix re- is again. Look at the examples below:
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
ReReReReReRe-
(Verb)
Arrange
Consider
Count
Pay
Print
Write
(verb)
Rearrange
Reconsider
Recount
Repay
Reprint
Rewrite
arrange again
consider again
count again
pay again
print again
write again
Prefix disThe prefix dis- is a derivational morpheme which can be attached to verbs to form
new verbs. This prefix has several meanings but its basic meaning is not
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
Dis-
(Verb)
Agree
(Verb)
Disagree
not agree
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DisDisDisDisDis-
Appear
Like
Close
Connect
Continue
Disappear
Dislike
Disclose
Disconnect
Discontinue
be seen no more
not like
allow to be seen
take apart
give up
The prefix dis- can be attached to nouns to form new nouns. The following are the
examples :
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
Dis-
(Noun)
Advantage
(Noun)
Disadvantage
unfavorable
Dis-
Comfort
Discomfort
condition
absence
of
comfort
DisHarmony
Disharmony
lack of harmony
DisHonor
Dishonor
absence of honor
The prefix dis- can also be attached to adjectives to form new adjectives. The
examples are as follows:
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
Dis-
(Adjective)
Able
(Adjective)
Disable
make unable to do
DisDis-
Honest
Similar
Dishonest
Dissimilar
something
not honest
not similar
Prefix misThe prefix mis- is the derivational bound morpheme attached to verbs to form new
verbs. The new meaning created by this prefix is wrong. The following is the list of
verbs to which the prefix mis- can be attached.
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
MisMisMisMisMis-
(Verb)
Direct
Judge
Match
Quote
Remember
(Verb)
Misdirect
Misjudge
Mismatch
Misquote
Misremember
direct wrongly
judge wrongly
match wrongly
quote wrongly
remember
Mis-
Understand
Misunderstand
wrongly
understand
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wrongly
Prefix preThe prefix re- is the derivational bound morpheme attached to verbs to form new
verbs. The new meaning created by this prefix is before. The following is the list of
verbs to which the prefix pre- can be attached.
Prefix
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
PrePrePrePrePre-
(Verb)
Arrange
Cook
Determine
Select
Wash
(Verb)
Prearrange
Precook
Predetermine
Preselect
Prewash
arrange before
cook before
determine before
select before
wash before
Base
Derived Word
Meaning
a-
(Verb)
Moral
(Verb)
Amoral
not concerned in
a-
Political
Apolitical
morals
unninvolved
aa-
Typical
Sexual
Atypical
Asexual
politics
not typical
without sex
in
B. Compound
Compounding is the word formation process in which two or more lexemes combine
into a single new word. Compound words may be written as one word or as two
words joined with a hyphen. There are three forms of compound words:
- the closed form, in which the words are melded together, such as firefly,
secondhand, softball, childlike, crosstown, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook;
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Noun + Noun:
Examples:
Moonlight
Armchair
Postman
Railway
Shoemaker
Horse-power
Screwdriver
Tax-payer
Airman
Manservant
Fire-escape
Chess-board
The Formation of Words has few rules which determine the nature of the words
formed thus.
iv. Gerund + Noun:
Examples:
Drawing-room
Writing-desk
Looking-glass
Walking-stick
Blotting-paper
Stepping-stone
Spelling-book
v. Adverb (or Preposition)+ Noun:
Examples:
Outlaw
Afternoon
Forethought
Foresight
Overcoat
Downfall
Afternoon
Bypass
Inmate
Inside
vi. Verb + Adverb:
Examples:
Drawback
Lock-up
Go-between
Die-hard
Send-off
vii. Adverb + Verb:
Examples:
Outset
Upkeep
Outcry
Income
Outcome
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Compound Words-Adjectives:
i. Noun + Adjectives (or Participle):
Examples:
Blood-red
Sky-blue
Snow-white
Skin-deep
Lifelong
World-wide
Headstrong
Homesick
Stone-blind
Seasick
Love-lorn
Hand-made
Heart-broken
Moth-eaten
Note-worthy
ii. Adjective + Adjective:
Examples:
Red-hot
Blue-black
White-hot
Dull-grey
Lukewarm
ii. Adverb + Participle:
Examples:
Longsuffering
Everlasting
Never-ending
Thorough-bred
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Well-deserved
Outspoken
Down-hearted
Inborn
Far-seen
iii. Noun + Verb:
Examples:
Waylay
Backbite
Typewrite
Browbeat
Earmark
iv. Adjective + Verb:
Examples:
Safeguard
Whitewash
Fulfill
v. Adverb + Verb:
Examples:
Overthrow
Overtake
Foretell
Undertake
Undergo
Overhear
Overdo
Outbid
Outdo
Upset
Ill-use
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C. Blending
A blend is a word that is made up of parts of other words that are combined to form
a new word. Blends can also be called portmanteau words.
-
The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other. For example, brunch
California and fornication, and the word motel is a blend of motor and hotel
Multiple sounds from two component words are blended, while mostly
preserving the sounds' order. Poet Lewis Carroll was well known for these kinds
of blends. An example of this is the word slithy, a blend of lithe and slimy. This
method is difficult to achieve and is considered a sign of Carroll's verbal wit.
D.Clipping
Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to
one of its parts. Clipping is also known as "truncation" or "shortening." clippings are
not coined as words belonging to the standard vocabulary of a language. They
originate as terms of a special group like schools, army, police, the medical
profession, etc., in the intimacy of a milieu where a hint is sufficient to indicate the
whole. For example, exam(ination), math(ematics), and lab(oratory) originated in
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chute (parachute),
coon (raccoon),
gator (alligator),
phone (telephone),
pike (turnpike),
varsity (university).
- Middle clipping
flu (influenza),
jams or jammies (pajamas/pyjamas),
polly (apollinaris),
shrink (head-shrinker),
tec (detective).
- Complex clipping
Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound
E. Acronym
Acronym is the process whereby a new word is formed from the initial letters of the
constituent words of a phrase or sentence. For example, from the initial letters of
the words of the phrase North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the word NATO \ "neItU\
is formed. Similarly, from the initial letters of the constituent words of the phrase
unidentified flying object, the word UFO \ juef "U\ (or\ " jufU\) is formed. In a
like manner, from the constituent words of the sentence I owe you, the word IOU \
aIU"ju\ (notice the adaptation in spelling) is formed. And from the Situation
normal, all fouled up, snafu \snoe"fu\ (army slang) is formed. The words created
by this process are called acronyms; all of them function as nouns.
Types of Acronyms
There are two main types of acronyms, namely:
-
might be completely meaningless to the persons who are not familiarized with
them. Notice also that some of these acronyms are of so frequent an occurrence
that people often use them without the slightest idea of what the words stand for;
-
are
pronounced
as
sequences
of
letters
(also
called
F. Back Formation
Back-formation is the process of creating a new lexeme, usually by removing actual
or supposed affixes in which a word changes its form and function. Word of one
type, which is usually a noun, is reduced and used as a verb. Sometimes a backformation arises through the assumption that it must already exist, and that its
source word is the derivative term. Such an assumption, while misguided, is
altogether reasonable, being based on a summary analysis of the source words
morphology. Back-formations are frequently made by dropping -tion or -ion from a
noun, and adding -e when appropriate, to form a new verb, such as donate from
donation. From evolution we get evolute, which has technical meanings as a noun in
mathematics and as an adjective in botany, but as a verb meaning the same as
evolve, it is a needless variant. Similarly superfluous are cohabitate for cohabit,
interpretate for interpret, and solicitate for solicit. Solicitate has a standard
adjectival use; it is only its unnecessary use as a verb that I advise against. Last
week I heard someone on the radio say installating, as if he had forgotten all about
install. But some of these may eventually become standard, even installate. In most
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of the examples Ive included so far, the change has occurred at the end of the
word, i.e. the removed affix has been a suffix. Back-forming by removing prefixes is
less common, except in humorous contexts such as Jack Winters How I met my
wife, which boasts a litany of deliberately malformed terms like chalant, ept, and
peccable.
Regardless of how back-formations are formed, they are often initially considered to
be irregular, even ignorant, and suitable only for informal use in slang or jokes.
Sometimes, as we have seen, there is no need for them because the semantic niche
they purport to inhabit has already been filled. Other back-formations, such as
enthuse and liaise, inhabit a grey area of acceptability. And then there are many
that serve a useful purpose and have become standard.
Examples are :
- automate from automation
- beg from beggar
- diagnose from diagnosis
- drowse from drowsy
- edit from editor
- execute from execution
- free associate from free association
- grovel from grovelling (or -l-) (adj.)
- injure from injury
- intuit from intuition
- kidnap from kidnapper
- orate from oration
- pea from pease
- peddle from peddler
- reminisce from reminiscence
- resurrect from resurrection
- scavenge from scavenger
- self-destruct from self-destruction (from destroy, destruction)
- sleaze from sleazy
- statistic from statistics
- surveil from surveillance
- televise from television
- vaccinate from vaccination
- window-shop (v.) from window-shopping
G.Conversion
In linguistics, conversion, also called zero derivation, is a kind of word formation;
specifically, it is the creation of a word from an existing word without any change in
form. Conversion is more productive in some languages than in others; in English, it
is a fairly productive process.
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H.Neologism
Neologism is a completely new word, like quark.
a. Loanword is a word borrowed from another language. Ex: clich, from French
b. Onomatopoeia is the creation of words that imitate natural sounds. Ex: the bird
name cuckoo.
c. Phono-semantic matching is matching a foreign word with a phonetically and
semantically similar pre-existent native word/root.
d. Eponym is creation of a totally new word. This word formation process is not
frequent, however large corporations attempt to outdo one another to invent
short eye-catching names for their products. Some examples of these could
include: aspirin or xerox. Sometimes the products that the companies want to
sell simply take over the name of the creator or inventor.
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