Title

Author(s)

Recovery process of degraded forests in protected areas, West

Java, Indonesia

Rosleine, Dian

Citation

Issue Date

URL

2013-03-14

http://hdl.handle.net/10232/17577

http://ir.kagoshima-u.ac.jp

Recovery process of degraded forests

in protected areas, West Java,
Indonesia

March 2013
Dian Rosleine

Recovery process of degraded forests

in protected areas, West Java,
Indonesia

Dian Rosleine

Graduate School of Science and Engineering

Kagoshima University
March 2013

dian

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1

General Introduction

CHAPTER 2

Secondary succession at abandoned grazing

sites, Pangandaran Nature Reserve, West Java,

Indonesia
CHAPTER 3

Effect

of

land

use

history

on

forest

25

rehabilitation in Corridor area of Gunung

Halimun-Salak National Park, West Java
Indonesia
CHAPTER 4

General discussion

45

REFERENCES

50

SUMMARY

61

64

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

66

TABLES

68

FIGURES

79

APPENDICES

94

TABLES
Table 1.

Table 2.

Table 3.
Table 4.

Table 5.

Table 6.

The characteristics of four study sites based on management

history, stem number, total basal area are data of tree layers
in the plots, Fischers (), Shannon-Wiener (H), species
numbers in tree layer (T), herb layer (H) and combination of
tree and herb layers (T+H).
Importance value (IV, Max = 200) and DCA1 score of herb
(H 130cm) and tree layer (H >130 cm) in Cikamal (CIK),
Nanggorak (NAN), Badeto (BAD) and Batu meja (BM).
Cikamal remains as grassland (G), Nanggorak as the
transition community between grassland to forest (GF) and
Badeto and Batu Meja are forest community (F).
Soil nutrient content and light intensity (Mean STD)
The characteristics of abandoned plantation (ABP),
disturbed forest (DF) and less disturbed forest (LDF) in
Halimun Salak corridor area based on basal area (m2 ha-1),
biomass (ton ha-1), species number of tree (T), Seedling (S),
and herb (H), Fisher , and Shannon-Wiener index (H).
Ten dominance species are displayed to describe the
vegetation structure of abandoned plantation (ABP),
disturbed forest (DF), less disturbed forest (LDF), and
permanent plot (P2 and P3) in corridor and Halimun area.
Family name is written as four characters before species
name.
The diameter class of tree (DBH>4.8 cm) in corridor and
permanent plots

68

69

73
74

75

78

FIGURES
Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.
Figure 4.

Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.

Pangandaran Nature Reserve in Pangandaran Peninsular.

Five polygons of solid line show grazing sites set in 1921
from Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977). Three polygons of
broken lines show the boundary written in 25,000 scale map
made in 1994. Black polygons show grasslands in Google
Earth image in 2010.
The important plant and animals in Pangandaran Nature
reserve. They are (a) silver leaf monkey (Trachypithecus
auratus sondaicus), (b) the long-tailed macaque (Macaca
fascicularis), (c) Varanus salvator, (d) deer (Cervus
timorensis), (e) banteng (Bos javanicus), and (f) Rafflesia
patma.
The average rainfall from 1990 to 2010 taken from
meteorological station in Parigi, Ciamis, West Java.
Cikamal (a) the largest grassland in PNR now have been
reduced by occupation of pioneer woody species.
Nanggorak (b) with the small area of grassland nearly
covered by shrub and teak. Badeto (c) has been developed
into young secondary forest after abandoned approximately
30 years. Batu meja (d) developed into more mature forest
with dominancy of lowland forest species after 55 year
abandonment.
Coverage of representative species in the northsouth
transect (325 m long) of Cikamal grassland.
Coverage of representative species in the northsouth
transect (190 m long) of Nanggorak grassland.
Coverage of representative species in the northsouth
transect (280 m long) of Badeto.
First and second scores of Detrended correspondence
analysis (DCA). Open circles shows the scores of four sites
(Cikamal, Nanggorak, Badeto, Batu Meja). Other symbols
show those of species. The symbol types show the sites
where the species is most common among the four sites.
AF= Aporosa frutescens, DF= Decaspermum fruticosum,
DH= Diospyros hermaphroditica, DC= Dysoxylum
caulostachyum, MS= Mischocarpus sundaicus, BA=
Buchanania arborescens, DE= Dillenia excelsa, FR=
Flacourtia
rukam,
RC=
Rhodamnia
cinerea,
AP=Acronychia pedunculata, NJ= Neolitsea javanica, Psy=
Psychotria cf. robusta, SL= Syzygium lineatum, GP= Guioa
pubescens, VP= Vitex pinnata, AL= Aporosa lucida, CE=
Clausena excavata, CA= Chrysopogon aciculatus, TC=
Tectona grandis, MM= Melastoma malabathricum, BV=
Breynia virgata, PU= Phyllanthus urinaria, FM=
Fimbristylis monostachya, IC= Imperata cylindrica, EI=
Eleusine indica, IR= Ischaemum rugosum, CA= Centella

79

80

81
82

83
84
85
86

Figure 9.

Figure 10.

Figure 11.

Figure 12.

Figure 13.

Figure 14.

asiatica, CO= Chromolaena odorata, LC= Lindernia

crustacea, BJ= Brucea javanica, BB= Blumea balsamifera,
HP= Hedyotis pseudocorymbosa, SA= Spigelia anthelmia.
Gradual change of forest coverage in the corridor area of
Gunung Halimun Salak National Park from 1989 to 2008.
The conversion of forest to another land uses degraded and
fragmented corridor severely (Source: Map of land
cover/landuse in corridor of Gunung Halimun Salak
National Park 2011).
Location of Halimun Salak National Park within three
boundaries of Bogor, Sukabumi, and Lebak District, West
Java, Indonesia. The broken line was the old border and
stright black line is new border of national park. Vegetation
survey was conducted at corridor area within area inside the
box. The distribution of of plots displayed on map from
Google Earth (2012). Red circles were plots in abandoned
plantation, yellow circles were degraded forest, and green
circles were less degraded forest.
Vegetation survey was conducted at abandoned plantation
(a) with cultivation, (b) without cultivation, (c) disturbed
forest, and (d) less disturbed forest in Halimun Salak
corridor area.
Illegal logging (a, b) and agriculture activity (c) in corridor
were common in area near to village. Road establishment
(d) facilitates local people to access forest easily.
The ordination of plots in corridor area based on DCA1 and
DCA2 value. The abandoned plantations are marked as A
(1-11); the disturbed forests are D (1-7), less degraded
forests are LD (1-4), and permanent plots (P2 and P3).
The ordination of common species in each forest type based
on DCA1 and DCA2 value. The vegetation composition
reflects disturbance intensity in corridor area. The open area
species has high DCA1 value while forest species grouped
by low DCA1 value. The abbreviation of sites and common
species were displayed on graph; Abandoned plantation
(ABP), Disturbed forest (DF), Less disturbed forest (LDF),
Agathis dammara (Aga), Ageratum conyzoides (Age),
Altingia excelsa (Alt) , Bellucia pentamera (Bell),
Calliandra calothyrsus (Cal), Capsicum frutescens (Cap),
Castanopsis acuminatissima (Cas ac), Chinchona pubescens
(Chi), Clibadium surinamense (Cli), Coffea arabica (Cof),
Cyathea contaminans (Cya c), Cyathea latebrosa (Cya l),
Dinochloa scandens (Din), Eupatorium inulifolium (Eup),
Eurya acuminate (Eur), Imperata cylindrica (Imp),
Macaranga tanarius (Mac ta), Macaranga triloba (Mac tr),
Maesopsis eminii (Mae), Melastoma malabathricum (Mel),
Musa accuminata (Mus), Platea excelsa (Pla), Pternandra
azurea (Paz), Quercus lineata (Que li), Quercus oidocarpa
(Que oi), Saccharum spontaneum (Sac), Schima wallichii

87

88

89

90

91

92

(Sch), Solanum nigrum (Sol n), Swietenia macrophylla

(Swi), Synedrella nodiflora (Syn), Weinmannia blumei
(Wei), Wedellia biflora (Wed).
Figure 15. Biomass distribution among native, invasive, planted, and
pioneer species at abandoned plantation (ABP), disturbed
forest (DF), and less disturbed forest (LDF) in Halimun
Salak corridor area.

93

APPENDICES
Appendix A.

Appendix B.

Appendix C.

Appendix D.

Appendix E.

Appendix F.

Appendix G.

Appendix H.

Appendix I.

Appendix J.

Appendix K.
Appendix L.

Appendix M

The characteristics of plots in corridor of Gunung

Halimun Salak National Park and Halimun permanent
plot.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of tree layer (individual
H> 130 cm) in abandoned plantation (A1-A11) of
corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of tree layer (individual
H> 130 cm) in disturbed forest (D1-D7) of corridor
Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of tree layer (individual
H> 130 cm) in disturbed forest (LD1-LD4) of corridor
Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of seedling (woody
individual H 130 cm) in abandoned plantation (A1-A11)
of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of seedling (woody
individual H 130 cm) in disturbed forest (D1 -D7) of
corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of seedling (woody
individual H 130 cm) in less disturbed forest (LD1 LD4) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of herb layer in
abandoned plantation (A1-A11) of corridor Gunung
Halimun Salak National Park.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of herb layer in
disturbed forest (D1-D7) of corridor Gunung Halimun
Salak National Park.
The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of herb layer in less
disturbed forest (LD1-D4) of corridor Gunung Halimun
Salak National Park.
Biomass (ton ha-1) of tree (DBH> 4.8 cm) in abandoned
plantation (A1-A11) of corridor GHSNP
Biomass (ton ha-1) of tree (DBH> 4.8 cm) in disturbed
forest (D1-D7) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak
National Park.
Biomass (ton ha-1) of tree (DBH>4.8 cm) in disturbed
forest (D1-D7) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak
National Park.

94

96

99

103

108

110

112

114

117

120

122
123

126

CHAPTER 1
General Introduction
Tropical forest in Indonesia

Forests in the tropical countries were degraded critically due to conversion the
primary forests for shifting cultivation, pasture, plantation forest, infrastucture,
settlement, commercial logging, fuel wood collection, mining, industry etc as an
impact of human population pressure (Lovejoy 1985, Lugo 1992, Walker 1993,
Kartawinata 1994, Aide et al. 1995, Parrotta et al. 1997, Whitmore 1998, Mayaux
et al. 2005, FAO 2010). It was estimated that 350 million ha of tropical forests
and woodlands were deforested and 500 million ha of primary and secondary
forests were degraded. Therefore, the secondary forest has larger portion than
primary forest in the tropical regions (Lugo 1997, Lamb et al. 2005, FAO 2010).
The forests coverage in Southeast Asia region including Indonesia was seriously
deforested by these major forces such as increasing demand for Asian timber,
conversion of natural forests into economically valuable crops such as rubber,
coffee, tea, palm oil, coconut, and cocoa, and forest fire. It was estimated that
forest loss in Southeast Asia was around 42 million ha during 1990-2010 due to
those activities. Nowadays, there was only 41-44% of the origin forest remaining
in this region (Sodhi et al. 2004, Stibig et al. 2007, FAO 2011).
Indonesia has large tropical forest which contains mega biodiversity for number
of plants and animals especially mammals, swallowtail butterfly, and parrot
species (Rhee et al. 2004). Hurst (1990) mentioned that Indonesia was covered by
147 million ha of natural forest in 1983. However, it was estimated by FAO
(2011) that the remaining Indonesian forest were approximately 94.432 million ha
consisted by primary forest (47.236 million ha), naturally generated forest (43.647
million ha), and planted forest (3.547 million ha). The other reference calculated
about 96.3 million ha of forest remained in Indonesia (Nawir et al. 2007).
The major causes of this large reduction of forest in Indonesia were economic
activity and conversion forest to cultivation. Miss management of logging
concession and complex problem of decentralized governance drove to severe
1

degradation in mid 1990s (Nawir et al. 2007). It was reported that 30 million ha of
forests were converted to another land use such as plantation which increased
from 2.2 million ha to 3.4 million ha between 1990 and 2005. Trees of Acacia,
Eucalyptus spp., Pinus spp., and teak were largely planted for pulpwood,
oleoresin production, and timber. Rubber plantation which has economic value
expanded from 1.9 million ha in 1990 to 2.7 million ha in 2005 (Hurst 1990, FAO
2011) and approximately seven million ha forest has been altered to oil palm
plantation in 2000s (Sirait 2009). Forest conversion drove to the development of
deteriorated lands which were susceptible to fire. Most forest loss in Sumatra and
Kalimantan was caused by fire that was widely used for land clearance. In
addition, increasing number of unemployment people accelerate forest
degradation by converting forest to agriculture (Nawir et al. 2007, FAO 2011).
Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and Papua are highlighted by the world community
for their serious forest loss. Timber exploration, palm oil plantation, and mining
interest were identified as the major forces to most lowland deforestation in these
areas (Hurst 1990, Stibig et al. 2007, FAO 2011). These economic activities
decreased forest in Sumatra from 20.6 million ha in 1990 to 15.5 million ha in
2000 (Perbatakusuma et al. 2010). The over-logging of commercially valuable
dipterocarp species in Sumatra and Kalimantan were noted as one of factors
driving the deforestation in these areas (Perbatakusuma et al. 2010, FAO 2011). In
the other hand, Sumatra is habitat for critically endangered species such as
Sumatran Rhinocheros, Sumatran tiger, Sumatran elephant, and Sumatran orang
utan (Perbatakusuma et al. 2010).
In Kalimantan, particularly the eastern part has been used for mining since 1968
(Hurst 1990) and now the palm oil plantations expanded to the border of
conservation areas of orang utan which is classified as critically endangered
species (Sandker et al. 2007, Stibig et al. 2007). By 1984 it was identified that
Kalimatantan was covered by more than 10,000 ha of deteriorated lands (Hurst
1990) and now approximately 2.2 million ha Imperata cylindrica (alang-alang)
and some pioneer shrubs species such as Chromolaena odorata occupied these
degraded lands (Hashimoto 2007, Yassir et al. 2010). These species are
economically worthless and ecologically undesirable because they susceptible to
2

fire and can delay the successional process (Potter 1997, Duncan and Duncan
2000, Kaewkrom et al. 2005). The intensive disturbance on degraded area
produced persistent physical, chemical, and biological barriers which often delay
the natural succession. These barriers can be identified as low seed availability,
seed and seedling predation, lack of suitable microhabitat for germination and
seedling establishment, soil nutrient limitation, seasonal drought, root competition
with fern and grass, and periodic fire (Aide et al. 1995, Parrotta et al. 1997,
Duncan and Duncan 2000). With those limitations, the original vegetation is
difficult to achieve after degradation (Lovejoy 1985).
Similar condition with those islands, forests in Java were extremely converted to
expand agriculture, plantation, rice cultivation, and settlement due to high
pressure of human population (Christanty et al. 1986, Thiollay and Meyburg 1988,
Hurst 1990, Smiet 1990, Walker 1993). As reported by Prasetyo et al. (2009)
forest in Java decreased from 2 million ha in 2000 to 1.2 million ha in 2005,
contrary population growth increased from 1.31% in 1980s to 2.08% in 2000 and
approximately 70% of Indonesian population located in Java. Smiet (1990)
reported that there was only 7.6% of the remaining natural forest in Java. Hurst
(1990) recorded that around 1980s population density in Java (690 people per
km2) was higher than Kalimantan (12 people km2) and Papua (three people per
km2).
Deforestation in Java Island
Historically, deforestation in Java has been identified since the first millennium
due to cultivation activity (Smiet 1990). In the colonial era large forest conversion
was carried out to establish teak plantation for commercial timber (Smiet 1990,
Krisnapillay 2000, Pandey and Brown 2000) and coffee plantation (Smiet 1990)
or cleared for hunting deer and grazing cattle such occurred in Pangandaran
Nature Reserve area (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977, Thiollay and Meyburg
1988) instead of settlement, rice production, and crops cultivation (Hommel 1990,
Prasetyo et al. 2009). These factors were thought to be the major cause of
environmental degradation in Java since hundreds year ago (Smiet 1990).

Within the island, forests in Western Java were extremely deforested because
most population centered in this area for conducting economic activity (Christanty
et al. 1986, Thiollay and Meyburg 1988). Hommel (1990) mentioned that
settlement and shifting cultivation has been identified since 1883 in Ujung Kulon
area as the habitat of Javan rhinoceros. Now, the small patch of natural forest
remained in remote mountain areas as the suitable place for some endemic species
such as Mount Gede Pangrango National Park, Ujung Kulon National Park,
Gunung Halimun Salak National Park (GHSNP), Mount Papandayan and Mount
Galunggung in the Southeastern part of West Java (Thiollay and Meyburg 1988,
Hommel 1990, Smiet 1992, Setiawan and Sulistyawati 2008).
The study of forest rehabilitation in West Java
The damaging consequences of degraded forest including loss of ecological
services (biodiversity, soil stabilizer, and watershed protection), and loss of timber
and non timber product particularly occur in poor rural community (Lamb et al.
2005). Therefore, forest rehabilitation on degraded land is required to restore the
forest function and supply goods and ecological services for communities
surrounding forest area (Lovejoy 1985, Lamb et al. 2005).
Considering the facts that degraded lands need to be recovered, the effort for
forest rehabilitation has been implemented since several decades ago to improve
forest coverage by reforestation (Nawir et al. 2007). Though many critical lands in
Java as a result of deforestation, there are only few studies focused on
rehabilitation process in this area particularly in West Java. Ecological studies,
especially correlated with forest rehabilitation studies were mostly conducted in
Kalimantan or Sumatra which severely occupied by Imperata grassland (Duncan
and Duncan 2000, Hashimoto 2007, Nawir et al. 2007, Yassir et al. 2010). In
West Java, several ecological successions were conducted in Ujung Kulon
National Park (Hommel 1990), Krakatau Island (Partomihardjo 1995), and Mount
Papandayan (Setiawan and Sulistyawati 2008). The abandoned grassland,
agriculture and plantation provide opportunity for forest regeneration through
natural succession (Pascarella et al. 2000). However, the severely degraded areas
often refers to area with very limited seed resource thus, they require human
intervention to facilitate their recovery.
4

In this study, we will focus on ecological study of forest recovery in two

conservation areas in West Java i.e. Gunung Halimun Salak National Park
(GHSNP) and Pangandaran Nature Reserve (PNR) in West Java due to their
severe deforestation history since colonial era (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977,
Thiollay and Meyburg 1988, Galudra et al. 2005). The following chapter will
describe and analyze the previous land use history in relation to vegetation
composition through forest recovery after abandonment which is important to
design management for forest rehabilitation program.
Prasetyo et al. (2006) and Alhamd and Polosakan (2011) mentioned that
deforestation in GHSNP as the largest natural montane forest in Java Island
increased approximately 33.4% or 25,471.5 ha from 1989 to 2006 due to timber
exploitation, agriculture, and settlement. Natural forest coverage decreased to a
critical condition from 78.29% in 1989 to 58.19% in 2004. However scrubland
areas increased rapidly from 4.96% to 15.26% as indication that GHSNP was
severely degraded due to human activity. Study of forest fragmentation on raptor
conservation by Thiollay and Merburg (1988) identified that the development of
tea plantation brought to more severe deforestation of natural forest. Road
establishment by plantation facilitated local people to access forest for hunting
and searching wood.
As a conservation area for several endangered species such as Javan gibbon
(Hylobates moloch Audebert 1797), Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas), and
Javan eagle (Spizaetus bartelsi) many researcher concerned to this national park
(Thiollay and Merburg 1988, Cahyadi 2003, Ario 2007, Rinaldi et al. 2008,
GHSNPMP-JICA 2009, Yumarni et al. 2011). Dewi et al. (2007) and Yumarni et
al. (2011) mentioned that population of Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch
Audebert 1797), an endemic species particularly distributed in West Java,
decreased due to habitat degradation and fragmentation in GHSNP. Sutrisno
(2011) reported that disturbed area in Mount Salak had low moth diversity as
result of human activities.
Degradation in PNR as identified by Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977) was forced
mostly by shifting cultivation, plantation, and artificial grassland establishment
for banteng (Bos Javanicus). The severe degradation due to previous land use
5

histories caused low species richness in this small isolated of Pangandaran

peninsula (Thiollay and Meyburg 1988). Kool (1993) reported that forest
conversion into plantation and young secondary forest in PNR influenced the
feeding behavior of the silver leaf monkey (Trachipitecus auratus) which is
restricted to Java and Bali. The population in plantation and secondary forest has
different diet with those in old secondary forest with the more favored food items
were available
Considering the fact that GHSNP was designated to protect water catchment area
(Galudra et al. 2005) and PNR to conserve the remaining lowland forest in West
Java (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977), the degraded areas have to be recovered
for protecting biodiversity and ecological services.

Thesis outline
Little is known about recovery process in tropical degraded forest under different
land use history. The grassland area with intensive fire management and grazing
pressure for several decades has different initial process with those abandoned
cultivation and plantation thereby they might have particular successional process.
In the conservation area, this information is essential to design management
system to restore its function after disturbance. Therefore, our study subjected to
clarify the effect of land use history on forest recovery process through natural
succession by examining the community structure, species composition, and
succesional pattern on disturbed forest in conservation area. Chapter 2 will discuss
the recovery process from abandoned grassland in Pangandaran Nature Reserve as
reflection of land use activity in the past. The grasslands in this nature reserve
were developed into varied condition from open area to young secondary forest
because of different frequency of maintenance. These different management
histories will be compared to describe secondary successional process after
abandonment. In chapter 3, the study focused on forest regeneration in corridor of
Gunung Halimun Salak National Park which was degraded because of wood
exploitation, expansion of tea plantation, cultivation, settlement, and infrastructure
establishment. This area was designated as production forest before declared as
national park in 2003. The forest coverage clearance as a result of past
deforestation and ongoing timber exploitation by local people surrounding
national park is interesting to describe human disturbance on vegetation
composition and recovery forest through natural succession. The species richness
and composition of each study site were measured to explain community structure.
The data of each site will be compared to clarify the recovery process under
different stage of disturbance. Result from previous studies will be integrated and
discussed in chapter 4.

CHAPTER 2
Secondary sucession at abandoned grazing
sites, Pangandaran Nature Reserve, West Java,
Indonesia
Introduction

The Pangandaran Nature Reserve (PNR) includes one of the remaining lowland
forests in Indonesias West Java province (Fig. 1). This 530-ha peninsula is
connected to the mainland of Java by a narrow isthmus and offers a suitable
location to conserve many rare flora and fauna such as Rafflesia patma, the longtailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), the silver leaf monkey (Trachypithecus
auratus sondaicus), several species of deer and banteng (Bos javanicus). This rich
biota attracts many visitors (Fig 2). Most areas of the reserve are covered by forest,
including a Barringtonia asiatica formation in coastal areas and secondary forest
dominated by Rhodamnia cinerea, Vitex pinnata, Dillenia excelsa, and
Cratoxylum formosum in inland areas. The tree height averages 25 m, and the
tallest tree (Dialium indum) reached 46 m (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977, Kool
1993). In addition, PNR included five artificial grazing sites that covered about 57
ha because the nature reserve started as a game reserve for ungulates in 1921. The
sites were initially grasslands that were dominated mainly by Imperata cylindrica
(Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977). They have been under different management
regimes since 1921 (no weed control for 30 to 55 years, and weed control at
different intervals) in an effort to maintain the initial grassland condition.
Many studies have described successional processes in grasslands and abandoned
land after shifting cultivation or forest fires in several areas of Southeast Asia, and
particularly Indonesia, which has the largest total area of Imperata grassland after
deforestation (Garrity et al. 1997). Early successional processes and vegetational
structure after intensive shifting cultivation were studied in Sabah, Malaysia
(Ohtsuka 1999), and in East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Hashimoto et al. 2007).
Yassir et al. (2010) studied succession in Imperata grassland in East Kalimantan
after fires under different soil conditions. However, there have been no studies of
Indonesian grasslands managed for grazing over several decades, except for a
8

study of the vegetation composition and carrying capacity for buffalo (Bubalus
bubalis) and goats (Capra hircus) in the Taman Jaya grassland of Ujung Kulon
National Park (Simbolon et al. 1986). The successional processes that occur under
grazing pressure and under human efforts to maintain grasslands for several
decades might differ from those that occur after shifting cultivation because the
nature of the disturbance is very different. Thus, our purpose in the present study
was to clarify the secondary succession that occurs at grazing sites by comparing
sites under different management regimes. These data will provide information
that will improve our understanding of early succession in lowland vegetation
ecosystems in West Java, and thereby improve the ability to manage nature
reserve in this region.
Since PNR was declared a nature reserve, little scientific information has been
obtained that is related to grassland and lowland forest vegetation. Only Sumardja
and Kartawinata (1977) described the characteristics of grassland vegetation as a
habitat for banteng. Some authors have also studied the foraging behavior of the
silver leaf monkey in PNR in relation to vegetation resources (Kool 1993) and
after the July 2006 tsunami (Mori et al. 2007). Kurniawan and Parikesit (2008)
and Mitani et al. (2009) examined the biodiversity of lowland vegetation.
Study site
PNR covers approximately 530 ha on the southeastern coast of West Java between
latitudes 742'S and 744'S and longitudes 10838'E and 10840'E (Fig. 1). PNR
includes a 38-ha public-use zone (taman wisata in the Bahasa Indonesian
language) and the remainder of the area is a nature reserve area (cagar alam), with
altitude ranging from sea level to 150 m above sea level. The soils of PNR consist
of red yellow podsolic soil, yellow latosol, brown latosol and lithosol developed
from Miocene sedimentary rock and volcanic rock (Sumardja and Kartawinata
1977, Kool 1993). The topography ranges from flat to hilly, with some parts of
the coastline becoming cliffs. At the Parigi Ciamis meteorological station in West
Java, which is near PNR, the average annual rainfall from 1990 to 2010 was 2940
mm, with 68.9% of the rainfall occurring during the wet season, which lasts from
October to April (Fig. 3). Based on a comparison of dry to wet months in the
9

Schmidt and Ferguson classification of tropical climates (Irfan 2006), PNR is

categorized as type B (a wet climate).
History of Pangandaran Nature Reserve
The Pangandaran peninsula was covered by secondary forests that were disturbed
by sporadic shifting cultivation before 1922 (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977). A
1:50 000 scale map printed in 1943 was developed based on ground surveys from
1917 to 1919 and showed that most of Pangandaran was cover by forest at that
time. Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977) stated that the Dutch Resident of the
Preanger Residency proposed this area as a hunting reserve in March 1921. At
that time, banteng (Bos javanicus), three domestic cattle species, and several deer
species were introduced into this area. Five grazing sites (Cikamal, Nanggorak,
Badeto, Batu Meja, and Karang Pandan), totaling ca. 57 ha, were established for
the improvement of ungulate habitat from cultivation areas in this peninsula. On 7
December 1934, the Director of Economic Affairs of the Dutch East Indies
Government declared this peninsula as game reserve. On 20 April 1961, PNR was
declared a nature reserve under the authority of a Ministry of Agriculture Decree
due to the discovery of the rare plant R. patma and other botanically important
plant species.
In 20 ha of the public-use zone, teak (Tectona grandis) was planted in 1932 and
1936, and teak, mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), and acacia (Acacia
auriculiformis) were planted in 1957 (Kool 1993). Grasslands in PNR have
subsequently been invaded by teak from these plantations but not by the other two
(Nakazono 2012).
Early of 1970s, Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977) located the three of the five
grazing sites from aerial photos (Fig. 1), and estimated the areas of open grassland
as 18, 8, and 15 ha in the Cikamal, Nanggorak, and Badeto areas, respectively. At
the other two sites, forest had completely replaced the grassland, so it was not
possible to calculate a grassland area at this time. They also reported that Batu
Meja and Karang Pandan had been abandoned around 1957, and became young
secondary forests of Decaspermum fruticosum and R. cinerea. About 60 banteng
occupied these grasslands in 1970. However, the population decreased after the
10

eruption of the Mt. Galunggung in 1982 about 90 km from PNR. The fallen
volcanic ash covered grasses, and this is thought to be responsible for the
decreased banteng population (UNEP 1991). Now, only three individuals of
female banteng remain in PNR and the grassland areas are mainly used by deer.
Kangiras (2009) reported that the average deer (Cervus timorensis) population in
PNR was 73 individuals (birth rate 3.83% and mortality 2.97%). Cutting and
burning were annually applied to Cikamal and less frequent in Nanggorak up to
2004 (Hendrayana Yana, PNR management office, pers. comm.). These did not
completely eliminate tree species (including teak) growing near the forest edge,
thus a gradual reduction occurred in the area of these grasslands. Badeto has been
abandoned (i.e., left unmanaged) for about 30 years and Batu Meja has been
abandoned for 55 years. We estimated that the grassland area remaining in 2011
totaled 3, 1, 0, and 0 ha for Cikamal, Nanggorak, Badeto, and Batu Meja from
aerial photograph on Google earth (2010).

11

METHODS
Vegetation survey
Vegetation surveys were conducted at Cikamal, Nanggorak, Badeto, and Batu
Meja in November 2009, February 2010, November 2010, and in September 2011
(Fig. 1). We did not study Karang Pandan vegetation because its exact location
was unclear. The center of Batu Meja was marked by a stone marker (a batu meja
in the local language), but the boundary could not be determined. For this reason,
we could not establish transects in this area. In the three remaining grassland areas,
we established 1-m-wide transects running from north to south and from east to
west to determine the vegetation distribution. The transect length differed among
the grazing sites based on the size of grassland: the distances from north to south
and from east to west at Cikamal were 325 and 65 m, respectively, versus 190 and
90 m at Nanggorak and 280 and 150 m at Badeto. In each 15 m area within the
transect we described or measured maximum plant height (H, cm), frequency (%
of the total number of plots in which we found the species), and coverage (c, %
canopy coverage within plot area) of all species.
Two plots, each 1050 m, were established at each site. At Cikamal and
Nanggorak, they were established in the transition zone between grassland and
young forest. At Badeto and Batu Meja, the two sites without open grassland, they
were established near the center of the original grassland in 1921 as mentioned by
Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977). We designated two vegetation layers: trees (H
> 130 cm) and herbs (H 130 cm). In the tree layer, we measured the height and
diameter at breast height (DBH) of all stems of woody species in the plot. In the
herb layer, we measured the coverage (% of plot area) by herbs and woody
vegetation shorter than 130 cm in 40 subplots (each 11 m) per plot.
Light intensity and soil properties
To determine the site openness at each site, we used a digital camera (D5100;
Nikon, Japan) equipped with a fisheye lens (Sigma circular fisheye, 4.5 mm, F2.8
EX DC) at a height of 130 cm to obtain vertical images of the canopy at each
sampling point (six samples for each location). We then analyzed the pictures
using the GAP light analyzer software (http://www.ecostudies.org/gla/). Light
12

intensity at each site was measured as photosynthetically active radiation (PAR,

mol photons m2 second1) using a model 36681 quantum light sensor (Spectrum
Technologies, Inc.; http://www.specmeters.com/) placed at a height of 130 cm
above the ground and linked with a data logger (one data logger in each site); data
were recorded at 5-minute intervals for about 7 hours in one day.
We obtained six soil samples from each site randomly to measure soil nutrient
levels and pH using pH meter (Demetra PAT 193478 E. M. System soil tester;
Yagami; Tokyo, Japan). To do so, we first removed surface litter, then obtained a
5-cm-diameter cylindrical sample to a depth of 20 cm. Visible root and rocks were
removed and 100 gr of soil were sampled.Total carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and C:N
ratio were measured by the Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and
Development (Bandung, West Java, Indonesia).
Data analysis
We calculated the importance value (IV, Krebs 1989) from sum of the relative
dominance and relative frequency for herb layer, and from sum of the relative
dominance and relative density for tree layer. The relative dominance in the tree
layer was defined as cross-sectional area of the tree at a point 130 cm divided by
total basal area, and it in the herb layer was defined as the percentage of
vegetation coverage divided by total coverage. The relative density of tree layer
was defined as the number of stems of a species divided by the total stems. The
relative frequency of herbs was defined number of subplots where a given species
appeared divided by the total number of subplots.
The IV values for the herb and tree layers were analyzed using the R software
(version 2.10.1; http://www.r-project.org/) using the detrended correspondence
analysis (DCA) method of Hill and Gauch (1980). The DCA as an eigenvector
ordination technique by correspondence analysis ordinates species and sampling
site simultaneously (Hill and Gauch 1980), thus it can define the community
similarity along a gradient based on the duration of abandonment (Borcard et al.
2011, Dytham 2011). We also calculated two tree biodiversity indices: the
Shannon-Wiener index (H, Krebs 1989) and Fishers alpha (, Fisher et al. 1943).

13

The components combined in Shannon-Wiener index are number of species (s)

and proportion of total sample belonging to ith species (pi) (Krebs 1989).
s

H = -

pi ln pi
i=1

The number of species (S) and the number of individual (N) are required to
calculate Fishers index as defined by the following formula (Fisher 1943):
S = log (1+ N/ )

14

RESULTS
With few activities to maintain grasslands and a decreased ungulate population,
most of the grassland area has changed into young forest. Most of the former
grasslands have therefore evolved into community types that differ from those
that were identified in the 1970s (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977). Cikamal,
which has experienced the most intensive management, retained the largest open
area, at 3 ha (Fig. 4a). The open area of the Nanggorak grassland, which was
managed infrequently, decreased to about 1 ha due to heavy invasion by teak and
pioneer woody species (Fig. 4b). Badeto, which had been abandoned for 30 years,
has developed into young secondary forest, whereas Batu Meja, which has been
abandoned for ca. 55 years, has become secondary forest (Fig. 4c, d). Syzygium
lineatum (Myrtaceae) has the biggest basal area and high frequency at Batu Meja,
reached about 50 cm in DBH; it therefore plays a role as the dominant woody
species.
Distribution of plants along the transects
Figure 5 shows the distribution of representative species in the northsouth
transect directions of the three grazing sites based on their coverage within the
lines. Data in the eastwest direction had similar trends.
Cikamal had the widest area of open grassland. The northern part of the grassland
was near a teak plantation and the public-use zone, and the southern part was
connected to natural secondary forest. Grasses (Eleusine indica, I. cylindrica, and
Ischaemum rugosum of the Poaceae and Fimbristylis monostachya of the
Cyperaceae) were distributed along the whole transect. Chromolaena odorata
(syn. Eupatorium odoratum) was concentrated in the central part of the transect.
As shown in figure 5, Blumea balsamifera as the pioneer woody species had
sporadic distribution along the line, while Melastoma malabathricum dominated
the margins of the open area. Forest species such as Psychotria cf. robusta, Guioa
pubescens, and S. lineatum were found near the boundary of the old grazing site,
especially on the southern side that was connected to the natural forest.
Nanggorak had small open grassland. About 1 ha of the original 8 ha was still
grassland, and the rest was mostly covered by young teak and secondary forest
15

trees. Grasses did not grow in the marginal parts of the old grazing site, but were
mixed with M. malabathricum and a few C. odorata in the central part of the
grassland. The margins of the site were covered by forest species, including S.
lineatum, Psychotria cf. robusta, and G. pubescens (Fig. 6).
Badeto had evolved into young secondary forest after ca. 30 years of
abandonment, and the site had no open grassland. Forest species had replaced the
pioneer herb and shrub species and were now well established. Only a few patches
of grass were found in the central part of the site. Sporadic M. malabathricum was
also present. Forest species such as G. pubescens, S. lineatum, R. cinerea, and C.
formosum were dominant (Fig. 7).
Transects were not established at Batu Meja because we could not distinguish the
boundaries of the old grazing site.
Vegetation composition
Table 1 as a result from calculation species composition within quadrates presents
the vegetation characteristics at the four sites. Badeto had the highest basal area
(33.33 m2 ha-1) and stem number (192,320 stem ha-1) because shrub species such
as Psychotria cf. robusta were abundant and formed clump. The number of
species (33 at Cikamal, 34 at Nanggorak, 48 at Badeto and 75 at Batu Meja) and
Fishers for the tree layer (0.9 at Cikamal, 1.31 at Nanggorak, 2.29 at Badeto
and 9.1 at Batu Meja) showed that woody species diversity increased as the
duration of abandonment increased. However, the Shannon-Wiener index showed
different results at Cikamal, Nanggorak and Badeto due to the low species
evenness as a result of the dominance of certain shrub species. The ShannonWiener index at Cikamal, Nanggorak, Badeto and Batu Meja are 1.82, 1.66, 1.74
and 2.78 (Table 1). The species composition in the herb layer differed among the
sites, and the species numbers were similar at all sites, but the most species were
found at Badeto (Table 1). The total species number (trees and herbs combined)
was highest at Batu Meja because this site had more than twice the number of tree
species at Badeto.
Cikamal: At the remaining grassland, we recorded 33 species from 19 families,
including both herbs and woody species. In the tree layer, B. balsamifera (IV =
16

50.6%), M. malabathricum (IV = 44.2%), C. odorata (IV = 26.1%), Clausena

excavata (IV = 25.6%), and Breynia virgata (IV = 21.9%) were the most
important woody species (Table 2). Melastoma malabathricum and C. odorata are
less palatable to ungulates (Simbolon et al. 1986) and have possibility to suppress
the growth of grasses and herbs. Increasing M. malabathricum reduced grasses
number from seven species (Poaceae and Cyperaceae combined) at Cikamal to
four species at Nanggorak. Teak spread into the site from plantations in the
public-use area. It was the seventh most-dominant species of the 10 tree-layer
species, with an IV of 8.0%. However, it became the dominant species at the
margins of the site (Table 2). In the herb layer, members of the Poaceae,
Rubiaceae and Asteraceae dominated the site (Table 2). Ischaemum rugosum (IV
= 58.2%), seedlings of M. malabathricum (IV = 19.1%), E. indica (IV = 17.6%),
F. monostachya (IV = 14.6%), and Desmodium triflorum (IV = 14.4%) were
important species at this site, and all except M. malabathricum are believed to be
important forage for deer and banteng (Kangiras 2009). Imperata cylindrica was
the seventh most-dominant species of the 31 herb layer species, with an IV of
10.5% (frequency 20%), even though it was the most dominant species (frequency
90%) in 1970 (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977).
Nanggorak: We recorded 34 species from 21 families at this site (Table 2). The
dominant species in the tree layer in the remaining grassland were M.
malabathricum (IV = 62.8%), S. lineatum (IV = 40.4%), T. grandis (IV = 39.1%),
G. pubescens (IV = 17.5%), and Psychotria cf. robusta (IV = 13.5%). The herb
layer was dominated by seedlings of woody species M. malabathricum (IV =
27.4%) and B. virgata (IV = 17.8%) mixed with herbaceous species such as I.
rugosum (IV = 38.0%), D. triflorum (IV = 13.9%), and E. indica (IV = 13.2%).
Badeto: We recorded 48 species from 23 families in this young secondary forest
community (Table 2). The most important species in the tree layer were
Psychotria cf. robusta. (IV = 70.5%), G. pubescens (IV = 31.5%), S. lineatum (IV
= 28.2%), R. cinerea (16.6%), and C. formosum (IV = 15.4%). The coverage and
frequency of shade-intolerant species decreased greatly and the early pioneer
species C. odorata nearly disappeared from this site (IV = 0.5%). The herb-layer
vegetation (Table 2) was dominated by seedlings of Psychotria cf. robusta (IV =
17

51.1%), G. pubescens (IV = 39.2%), S. lineatum (IV = 16.5%), C. excavata (IV =

14.1), and M. malabathricum (IV = 9.8%). Grassland vegetation such as
Desmodium heterocarpum (IV = 8.4%), I. rugosum (IV=1.2%), and I. cylindrica
(IV = 2.1%) remained near forest paths and areas with low vegetation cover. Thus,
the number of species in the herb layer was highest at this site. The reduction of
grassland area and the low availability of palatable plants were correlated with
decreasing deer populations at Badeto. During our field observations, deer and
banteng rarely visited this site because most had moved to Cikamal, which had the
largest grassland area. Kangiras (2009) reported that Badeto (0.99 ton yr-1 ha-1)
had the lowest availability of palatable plants then followed by Nanggorak (5.65
ton yr-1 ha-1) and Cikamal (10.96 ton yr-1 ha-1).
Batu Meja: This site has evolved into secondary forest after being abandoned 55
years ago. Pioneer species have nearly disappeared and been replaced by S.
lineatum (IV = 54.7% in the tree layer and 35.1% in the herb layer), R. cinerea
(IV = 28.6% in the tree layer and 14.3% in the herb layer), Mischocarpus
sundaicus (IV = 22.5% in the tree layer and 28.1% in the herb layer), Psychotria
cf. robusta (IV = 20.6% in the tree layer and 24.1% in the herb layer), and
Elaeocarpus floribundus (IV = 7.2% in the tree layer, not present in the herb
layer) as the dominant woody species (Table 2). Their seedlings were important in
both the tree layer and the herb layer, except for E. floribundus.
Vegetation composition along the successional gradient
Figure 8 shows the first and second DCA scores (DCA1 and DCA2) for the
species with the highest IV at the four sites. The eigenvalues of DCA1 and DCA2
were 0.6670 and 0.0689, respectively, suggesting that most of the variation was
explained by DCA1 (Table 2). The DCA1 value decreased from 1.75 at Cikamal
to 0.68 at Nanggorak, -0.83 at Badeto, and -1.61 at Batu Meja. Sites with lower
DCA1 values represented older vegetation (i.e., a longer duration of abandonment
or

lower

disturbance

frequency).

Spigelia

anthelmia

and

Hedyotis

pseudocorymbosa had the highest DCA1 values, followed by B. balsamifera, C.

odorata, I. rugosum, and M. malabathricum. Diospyros hermaphroditica
Dysoxylum caulostachyum, Dillenia excels, Aporosa frutescens and Buchanania
18

arborescens which are common trees in old lowland forests of West Java
(Partomiharjo and Ubaidillah 2004), had low DCA1.
Light intensity and soil characteristics
Succession from grassland into forest is accompanied by changes in
environmental factors, including light intensity and soil properties. Site openness
and light intensity decreased drastically along the successional gradient from
Cikamal to Batu Meja, changing from 67% openness to 15% and from 2229 mol
m2 s1 PAR to 68 mol m2 s1, respectively (Table 3). In the understory of the
oldest community, Batu Meja, plants received about 3% of the light they received
at Cikamal. Soil pH varied little among the sites, ranging from 5.8 to 6.1 (Table 3).
Tukeys honest significant differences method for soil nutrient contents (C, N,
and C:N ratio) revealed significant differences among the sites (p<0.05). Soil
nutrient content in PNR tended to decrease with increasing duration of
abandonment or decreasing management intensity, except for the C:N ratio, which
increased significantly (Table 3).

19

DISCUSSION
Successional conditions
The vegetation with the smallest change from the original grassland conditions
was found in the central part of the Cikamal site, which was dominated by species
in the Poaceae, with a low height of 10 to 20 cm. It might be a result of grazing
and trampling. Small herbs such as S. anthelmia and H. pseudocorymbosa
appeared in this vegetation type, although they were not dominant species.
Chromolaena odorata and B. balsamifera invaded this open grassland. They are
characterized as species that invade abandoned Imperata grasslands during the
early stages of succession (Hashimoto et al. 2007, Yassir et al. 2010). When a site
has been abandoned after shifting cultivation, C. odorata became established after
1 year and replaced weeds during the early stages of succession (Ohtsuka 1999).
This species seems to be a common woody pioneer species with a strong ability to
occupy abandoned areas. It is well adapted to open sites and its ability to establish
itself via wind-dispersed seeds helps it to invade sites during the early stages of
secondary succession (Epp 1987, Ramakrishnan 1994). The species can also
produce allelopathic substances that help it outcompete other species (Simbolon et
al. 1986, Kunwar 2003). This ability might have contributed to its successful early
establishment. However, the population of C. odorata decreased along the
successional gradient due to its poor germination under shade (Kushwaha et al.
1981, Epp 1987) due to invasion by later colonizers such as M. malabathricum .
Melastoma malabathricum began to replace C. odorata during the next stage of
succession, which can be seen by its greatly increased IV at Nanggorak. This
confirms previous results in Imperata grassland, where C. odorata occupied the
site for about 2 years during early succession, and M. malabathricum began to
increase after 3 years of abandonment (Corlet 1991, Yassir et al. 2010).
Melastoma malabathricum also produces allelopathic chemicals (Faravani et al.
2008). Terpenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds from M. malabathricum
can reduce the germination rate and the root and shoot elongation of barnyard
grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) and radish (Raphanus sativus) (Faravani and bin
Bakar 2007, Faravani et al. 2008). The species appears to disperse from the forest
20

edge into open areas based on its distribution, in which mature individuals were
clumped near the forest at Cikamal and seedlings emerged in the open area.
Faravani and bin Bakar (2007) studied the effects of light on M. malabathricum
and found that it needs a high light intensity for germination, growth, and
reproduction. The species then decreased in abundance as succession continued at
Badeto and Batu Meja.
After 6 or more years of grassland abandonment, forest species (S. lineatum, G.
pubescens, and Psychotria cf. robusta) and teak became well established near the
forest edge, and M. malabathricum occupied primarily the remaining open areas
at Nanggorak (Fig. 5, 6,7). As a pioneer species, M. malabathricum can grow well
in harsh environments with high light intensity and low soil pH (Faravani and bin
Bakar 2007, Osaki et al. 2003). The ability of pioneer species to alter their
environmental conditions and the availability of resources, including soil nutrients,
in their habitat might facilitate subsequent invasion by forest species (Begon et al.
1986, Aide et al. 2000).The existence of teak at Nanggorak may decrease species
richness because this species seems to impede the growth of other plants by
producing allelopathic compound (Boley et al. 2009). Only a few species were
found below its canopy, including seedlings of G. pubescens and C. formosum as
reported by Boley et al. (2009) that understory diversity was low below teak
canopy. Healey and Gara (2003) reported that teak plantations had lower woody
species diversity because the teak suppressed the regeneration of some native tree
species. Thus, M. malabathricum and teak seems likely to play different roles in
the re-establishment of species richness at Nanggorak, promoting in the former
and suppressing in the latter.
The Badeto site, which had been abandoned for 30 years, was dominated by
Psychotria cf. robusta, G. pubescens, C. formosum, S. lineatum and Vitex pinnata.
Yassir et al. (2010) reported that trees such as S. lineatum, Psychotria cf. robusta,
V. pinnata, and Macaranga sp. emerged after 9 years of abandonment in a
Imperata grassland of East Kalimantan. Macaranga is a typical pioneer genus that
invades sites during the earliest stage of succession. The other species are also
abundant in young secondary forests. Based on the species composition and
abundance, the vegetation at Badeto appears to be an early secondary forest.
21

Signs of grazing were still evident at the Batu Meja site, even 55 years after
grazing was abandoned, but they were harder to detect than at the other sites.
Large trees of S. lineatum, R. cinerea and M. sundaicus dominated this phase.
Dysoxylum caulostachyum,

Canarium denticulatum, Canarium hirsutum,

Garcinia celebica, Garcinia parvifolia, Diospyros spp., Platea excelsa, and Ficus
fistulosa also existed, but except for Diospyros spp., their IV was <1%. This
species composition was similar to that of a lowland forest at Nusa Kambangan,
West Java, which is located about 15 km east of PNR (Partomihardjo and
Ubaidillah 2004). Dysoxylum caulostachyum is one of the dominant species in
100-year-old forests on Krakatau Island (Tagawa et al. 1985). The reestablishment of forest species at Batu Meja indicated that many tree species
survived during the period of disturbance by grazing before the area was
designated a nature reserve. Because the seeds of Myrtaceae, the dominant family
in forest of Pangandaran, are dispersed by animals (Lughadha and Proena 1996),
the rich fauna of Pangandaran including bats and birds is likely to support
dispersal of these species into sites recovering from disturbance.

22

Value of the grassland as a feeding site for ungulates

The area of the four open grasslands at PNR decreased from 49 ha in 1921 to 41
ha around 1977 to 4 ha in 2010. The reduction of grassland coverage directly
affected capacity of the former grazing sites to support ungulates. The quality of
the remaining grasslands has also changed. Of the grasses, the most dominant
species in 1977 was I. cylindrica (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977). By 2010, the
most dominant grass was I. rugosum, and I. cylindrica was only the third mostdominant species. Imperata cylindrica usually has straight leaves that reach a
height of 50 to 100 cm, whereas I. rugosum is a shorter grass that attains a height
of about 10 cm. It might be caused by the feeding and trampling of ungulates.
Small shrubs such as C. odorata, B. balsamifera, and M. malabathricum increased
in abundance at Cikamal and Nanggorak, where disturbance was still occurring.
Unfortunately, these species are less palatable for ungulates (Simbolon et al.
1986). During our research, we observed that few leaves of M. malabathricum
were eaten by ungulates. Kangiras (2009) studied the food of deer in PNR and
reported that M. malabathricum was consumed less by deer, whose main food
sources were Fimbristylis annua, I. cylindrica, E. indica, Chrysopogon aciculatus,
and D. triflorum. It is possible that the lower preference for M. malabathricum
and other species by ungulates might promote their invasion of the abandoned
grazing sites.
The capacity of the sites that have been abandoned longer or that have sustained
less significant disturbance to support ungulates therefore decreased both in terms
of the area available for grazing and in the quality of the vegetation. This may
explain why some deer have left PNR and entered the public-use zone, where they
consume many resources, including wastes such as food left behind by tourists,
paper and plastic (Kangiras 2009). This also suggests that habitat management,
including providing grazing sites of suitable size, will be required to let these
animals return to their original habitat.
In conclusion, the succession at grassland sites affected by grazing pressure and
management effort by human in PNR had different characteristics from those
initiated by shifting cultivation, forest fire etc. Due to the effect of trampling and
grazing, short grass I. rugosum dominated grassland to replace tall grass I.
23

cylindrica. Pioneer species with less palatable leaves to deer and banteng such as
M. malabathricum seemed to invade grassland widely in early succession. We did
not detect the effect of grazing in secondary forests at Badeto and Batu Meja. It
might be less grazing activity than Cikamal and Nanggorak. Decreasing grazing
area because of less management and invasion of teak had negative effect on
foraging behavior of deer. The control of woody species to keep grassland is
essential to support their population.

24

CHAPTER 3
Effect of land use history on forest
rehabilitation in Corridor Area of Gunung
Halimun-Salak National Park, West Java
Indonesia
INTRODUCTION

Deforestation in Indonesia is high due to illegal logging, forest fire, forest

conversion, and agriculture as the consequences of economic development (Nawir
et al. 2007, FAO 2010, FAO 2011). Considering the negative impacts of forest
loss to human life and environment, government and local people implemented
rehabilitation program by reforestation to restore the forest function (Nawir et al.
2007, Setiawan and Sulistyawati 2008, FAO 2010). High population number in
Java Island forced forest clearance especially in lowland area. The remaining
natural forests are distributed mostly in remote mountain areas with less human
activity (Thiollay and Meyburg 1988, Smiet 1992, Galudra 2003). The protected
forests and national parks are essential to reduce deforestation. However, the fact
showed that increasing demand of food and timber aligning with high population
number threats the conservation area including Gunung Halimun Salak National
Park (GHSNP) as the largest natural montane forest in Java.
GHSNP is susceptible to human disturbance because of the history of community
settlement since colonial era (Galudra et al. 2005). Instead of protecting water
catchment area for several big cities near national park, it is also important to
conserve endangered animals such as Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch), Javan
leopard (Panthera pardus melas), and Javan eagle (Spizaetus bartelsii) (Galudra
2003, Galudra et al. 2005, Takahashi 2006, Ario 2007, Dewi et al. 2007, Rinaldi
et al 2008, Yumarni et al. 2011). Therefore, the Indonesian government, by the
Ministry of forestry decree No.l75/Kpts- 11/2003 increased the protected area
Mount Halimun National Park (40,000 ha) to be merged with Mount Salak
Reservation area as Gunung Halimun Salak National Park (HSNP) with total area
113,357 ha to reduce forest loss (Galudra 2003, Takahashi 2006, Ario 2007, Dewi
25

et al. 2007, Rinaldi et al 2008, Yumarni et al. 2011). This large area covering not
only forest land but also villages, tea plantation, agriculture, and scrubland, which
reflects the land use history in the past (Rinaldi et al. 2008, GHSNPMP-JICA
2009). Most of areas recently added are covered by degraded vegetation and they
mainly located in corridor between Gunung Halimun and Salak area.
Halimun and Salak corridor about 7.17 km long and 1.99 km width is essential
area for animal conservation because genetic exchange is allowed and the
endangered animals use this place for their habitat, breeding, movement and
foraging area (Sugardjito et al. 1997, Cahyadi 2003, Rinaldi et al. 2008).
Moreover, corridor has rivers which are important for water supply to Sukabumi
and Bogor district (Rinaldi et al. 2008, GHSNPMP-JICA 2009, Yumarni et al.
2011). Nevertheless, natural forest in corridor decreased from 666, 508 ha to
318,985 ha within 11 years from 1990 to 2000. Based on ikonos satellite image in
2004, corridor areas was covered by natural forest, secondary forest, bush,
cultivation area, Calliandra calothyrsus, Schima wallichii, and tea plantation. The
area of secondary forest, primary forest and plantation in corridor were 759. 06 ha,
268. 56 ha, and 42. 05 ha respectively (Cahyadi 2003, Rinaldi et al. 2008,
GHSNPMP-JICA 2009). Some studies on Javan gibbon population in corridor
reported that decreasing tree canopy significantly affected the population number
because this arboreal animal needs canopy for their movement and foraging
(Rinaldi et al. 2008, Yumarni et al. 2011).
Therefore, rehabilitation of degraded area in corridor is necessary to restore its
function. Integrated information including ecology, social, and economics study
are needed to design forest rehabilitation management system. Study on spatial
analysis of corridor area has been conducted by Cahyadi (2003). Species check
list of corridors flora and fauna (Rinaldi et al. 2008, GHSNPMP-JICA 2009),
analysis of the effect forest degradation on Javan leopard (Ario 2007), Javan
gibbon (Dewi et al. 2007, Yumarni et al. 2011) have been conducted to support
conservation of endangered animals. However, there are only few studies on
community structure and successional pattern in abandoned lands after human
activities. Thus we will focus on these studies to describe previous land use

26

history in correlation with present vegetation composition as scientific

information to maintain corridor area in the future.
Information of natural forest including vegetation composition (Suzuki 2002,
Priyadi et al. 2010, Alhamd and Polosakan 2011, Polosakan 2011), vegetation
structure (Simbolon and Mirmanto 1997, Alhamd and Polosakan 2011), insect
community (Sutrisno 2010), javan gibbon population (Dewi et al. 2007), carrying
capacity for javan leopard (Ario 2007), and local people-forest interaction in both
conservation areas were available. This scientific information is essential as
reference condition to confirm the successful of rehabilitation process.
History of Gunung Halimun Salak National Park
Galudra et al. (2005) identified that the deforestation in Halimun-Salak area
occurred since 1700s under the colonial era to establish coffee plantation.
However, this plantation was fail due to plant disease. The abandoned plantations
especially in the mountain areas were used by local people for cultivation.
Considering the availability of water for irrigation and supply of natural timber,
the Netherlands government designated non-Teak forest higher than 1570 m
above sea level as wilderness forest in 1865. In 1927 some areas were declared as
reserve area for conservation and timber production. The social conflict related to
land tenure increased since this era because local people were forced to sell their
lands. Harada (2003) and Galudra et al. (2005) mentioned that the protected areas
were legally used for cultivation during the period of Japanese government in
1942-1945. It was reported that approximately 1,576 ha were addressed for
settlement, paddy field, and shifting cultivation. After independence in 1945,
many forests were protected but agriculture activities by local community were
still allowed to protect the surrounding forest.
By the decree of Ministry of Agriculture No. 40/Kpts/Um/1/1979 declared about
40,000 ha Halimun area as nature reserve for conservation and then altered to
national park in 1992. The remaining forest areas (73,357 ha) were declared as
production and protected forest; it managed by state owned company
PERHUTANI. During this period, settlements were established well in this area
and local people were allowed to cultivate production forest by paying tax. The
27

Indonesian government as an effort to reduce forest loss, they increased

conservation area by merging Halimun National Park and Salak Reservation area
(113,357 ha) in 2003 including production forest that previously managed by
Perhutani. The social conflicts related land ownership, intensive land use within
this conservation area, deforestation as result of past, and ongoing timber
exploitation by rural community were more complicated, thus managing this
national park particularly dealing with conservation was not a simple way in
GHSNP (Smiet 1990, Galudra et al. 2005, Rinaldi et al. 2008, GHSNPMP-JICA
2009).
The corridor of Gunung Halimun Salak National Park
The natural forest in GHSNP reduced seriously during 1998-2001 as reported in
Prasetyo et al. (2006) that about 22,000 ha (25%) natural forests were converted
to scrubland, shifting cultivation, and settlement. Timber harvesting and forest
conversion to another land use are the serious problem in this conservation area.
The corridor area during 1983-1989 as described by Prasetyo et al. (2006) was
relatively covered by natural forest, but some areas in the eastern part were
disturbed and covered by scrubland. The threats to corridor is high because it
adjacent to cultivation and tea plantation in north and tree plantation in southern
part. Corridor fragmentation was started in 1990 due to forest clearance about 35
ha for timber production. The deforestation spots increased especially in south
part of corridor. It was recorded that more than 100 ha of forest disappeared up to
end of 1900s. The major forest loss (49.6 ha) was identified in early 2000 and
logging activity is still ongoing up to now in corridor area. The fragmentation and
degradation disrupt the function of corridor as connector for endangered animals
within two ecosystems. Gradual change of forest coverage in corridor was
depicted by land use map (Fig. 9) from Gunung Halimun Salak National Park
(2011). The remaining old forest in corridor located in high altitude and steep area.
The corridor area was managed by stated owned company PERHUTANI as
production forest before it declared as part of national park since 2003 (Galudra et
al. 2005, Rinaldi et al 2008, GHSNPMP-JICA 2009). In some parts of corridor
were used for gardens (kebun), mixed gardens (kebun talun), tree gardens (talun),
28

paddy fields (sawah), and swidden cultivation (huma) (Harada 2003). The
Mahogany (Switenia macrophylla) as the most favored plantation tree in tropical
forest (Richardson 1998, Otsamo 2001), Agathis damara and Altingia excelsa
were planted in corridor for timber production (Cahyadi 2003). The pressure from
community on land extension for those purposes decreased forest covers seriously
in corridor.
STUDY SITE AND METHODS
Study site
Corridor area of Mount Halimun Salak National Park geographically located at
0644'S to 06 45'S and 106 35' E to106 38' E. The remaining forest in corridor
area approximately 318,985 ha (Cahyadi 2003, Rinaldi et al. 2008, GHSNPMPJICA 2009, Yumarni et al. 2011). Administratively it located within two
boundaries of Sukabumi and Bogor District, West Java, Indonesia (Fig. 10). The
altitude of our study area ranges from 850 m to 1100 m above sea level which
classified as submontane forest zone (Simbolon and Mirmanto 1997). Topography
of corridor area varies from flat to the very steep, where corridor at Salak area is
more flat than Halimun area. The largest part of this national park was dominated
by latosol type soil and soil acidity tended to acid and slightly acid (Djuwansah
1997). As described by Rinaldi et al. (2008), soil at corridor area dominated by
association of reddish-brown latosol and brown latosol.
Corridor area is defined as wet climate type B based on Schmidt and Ferguson
climatic classification. The average of annual rainfall varied from moderate (4000
- 4500 mm) to high (4500 5000 mm). Rain season occurred in October to April
and dry season started from July to September. Humidity at corridor reached 80%
(Cahyadi 2003). Mean daily temperature varied from 24.7 to 26.5 C, maximum
and minimum temperature ranged from 31-34.8 C and 18.3-23.4C, respectively
(Djuwansah 1997).
Corridor area can be classified into four groups of plant communities from west to
east: Halimun area, dominated by Castanopsis acuminatissima Schima wallichii,
western patch was dominantly covered by S. wallichii Maesopsis eminii, eastern
29

patch covered by Querqus gemmeliflora S. wallichii, and Salak area dominated

by Euodia latifolia (syn. Melicope latifolia) S. wallichii (Rinaldi et al., 2008).
The vegetation composition in each part of corridor reflected disturbance intensity
in this area. The old forest was dominated by Engelhardia serrata, Castanopsis
spp., Querqus sp., Lithocarpus spp., Litsea spp., and member of family Myrtaceae.
In the degraded areas, corridor area mostly covered by pioneer and secondary
vegetation such as Macaranga spp., Homalanthus populneus, Mallothus sp., Ficus
sinuata, F. hirta, F. padana. The most degraded area occupied by grass Imperata
cylindrica and shrubs (Wiriadinata 1997, Cahyadi 2003, Harada 2003, Rinaldi et
al. 2008).
Several animals have been listed in corridor area and their population number
especially the endangered species represented forest condition. The Javan gibbon
population in degraded corridor decreased due to their dependency of canopy for
their movement and foraging activity (Cahyadi 2003, Dewi et al. 2007, Rinaldi et
al. 2008). The other important mammals in corridor area are Javan leaf monkey
(Presbytis comata), the ebony leaf monkey (Trachypitechus auratus), monkey
(Macaca fascicularis), wild boar (Sus scrofa), javan panggolin (Manis javanica),
leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), and barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak).
There are 16 species of bird recorded at Halimun-Salak corridor as protected
species. They are Javan eagle, Megalaema corvina, Dicrurus renifer, and
Spilornis cheela. Some birds such as S. bartelsii, Todirhampus chloris, Chloropsis
chochinensis, Dicrurus paradiseus, Ficedula wastermanii, Hypothymis azurea,
Pellorneum capistratum, Pomatorinus montanus, and Dicaeum sanguilentum use
natural forest as their specific habitat. However, bird Microhierax fringilarius,
Aegithina tiphia, and Lochura leucogastroides can be found in degraded forest
(Dewi et al. 2007, Rinaldi et al. 2008).
Sampling methods
Vegetation survey was conducted in June and October 2011 at 22 random sites
covered abandoned plantation, disturbed forest and old forest to represent
community types in corridor area (Fig. 10, 11). We defined three layer of
vegetation as tree, seedling, and herb layer. At abandoned plantation, diameter at
30

breast height (DBH, cm) and height (H, m) of tree as woody species taller than 1.3
m were recorded within plot 10 x 10 m for every species. Trees height was
measured by using height measuring pole (Model AT 12 m, Senshin Industry Co.,
LTD, Japan) and hypsometer (Vertex III hypsometer, Haglof, Sweden). However,
in the disturbed and old forest areas, plots were enlarged into 20 x 20 m to record
tree bigger than 4.8 cm at DBH. At this site, height was estimated by using
hyperbolic relation between diameter (DBH, cm) and height as following formula
(Yamakura et al. 1986).
1/H = 1/(1.757 DBH) + 1/88.43
For comparison of vegetation development at corridor area, we recorded tree of
two 1- ha permanent plots (P2 and P3) in old forest Halimun area (Suzuki et al.
1998).
In each plot 10 x 10 m, 9 sub-quadrates (each 2 x 2 m) were set to measured
height and basal diameter (D20) at 20 cm for every stems of seedling which is
defined as woody species lower than 130 cm. For herb species, we recorded
coverage (% of plot area) within the same area of seedling.
Data analysis
Relative dominance (Rdo, %) of tree, shrub, sapling, and herb species were
calculated to describe community structure in corridor area and permanent plots in
Halimun. For tree and shrub, Rdo was defined as cross-sectional area of the tree at
a point 130 cm divided by total basal area (BA, m2 ha-1). However, we used crosssectional at a point 20 cm (D20) as basal area for seedling. The Rdo of herb
determined as the percentage of vegetation coverage divided by total coverage.
The detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) method of Hill and Gauch (1980)
was used to analyze community types and successional pattern among corridor
plots based on relative dominance of all species.
The aboveground biomass in corridor and permanent plots was estimated using
allometric correlation method (Yamakura et al. 1986) from tree larger than 4.8 cm
at DBH as sum of estimated stem dry weight (Ws, kg), branch dry weight (WB, kg),
and leaf dry weight (WL kg).
31

Ws = 0.02903(DBH2H) 0.9813

(1)

WB = 0.1192 Ws 1.059

(2)

WL = 0.09146(Ws + WB) 0.7266

(3)

Biomass (Kg) = Ws + WB + WL

(4)

We also calculated two tree biodiversity indices: the Shannon-Wiener index (H,
Krebs 1989) and Fishers alpha (, Fisher 1943). The componens combined in
Shannon-Wiener index are number of species (s) and proportion of total sample
belonging to ith species (pi) as followed (Krebs 1989).
s

H= -

pi ln pi
i=1

The number of species (S) and the number of individual (N) are required to
calculate Fisers alpa index as defined by the following formula (Fisher 1943):

S = log (1+ N/ )

32

RESULTS
Halimun-Salak corridor area has been degraded and fragmented in various stages
due to intensive land use activities and establishment of infrastructure such as
road and settlement. This condition supported by result from satellite image that
instead of forest, corridor area now covered by scrubland, invasive species
dominancy, fern land, tea plantation, agriculture, settlement, and plantation
(Cahyadi 2003, Rinaldi 2008, GHSNPMP-JICA 2009).
Based on vegetation dominancy in several areas of corridor area, we can
distinguish three communities as Swietenia macrophylla Agathis dammara
community in abandoned plantation, Maesopsis eminii Cyathea latebrosa in
disturbed forest, and Castanopsis accuminatissima - Schima wallichii in less
disturbed forest (Table 4). The areas adjacent with local people settlements and
accessible forest were severely degraded due to agriculture, fuel wood collecting,
and illegal logging (Fig. 12). However, good condition of forest remaining in the
steep places with distance from local community. Our study recorded
approximately 272 species (species scientifically unidentified distinguished with
local name) within 22 plots from various life forms such as tree (161 sp.), shrub
(88 sp.), and herb (115 sp.).
The detrended correspondence analysis (DCA): The relative dominance data of
all species among plots were combined to analyze the community similarity and
disturbance intensity through successional process in corridor and Halimun area.
The first and second components of DCA value are displayed on these graphs (Fig.
13, 14) because they have higher eigenvalues than DCA3 and DCA4 (from DCA1
to DCA are 4, 0.78, 0.54, 0.41, and 0.3, respectively). We can distinguish
abandoned plantations from disturbed and less disturbed forests wih the value of
DCA1. Within abandondoned plantations, DCA 1 value recfects the disturbance
intensity. Severe degradation areas are grouped in high DCA1 value, but in
contrary forest species are placed in low DCA1 value. The species ordination
within forest type shows same pattern that open area species, A. dammara, and S.
macrophylla dominated abandoned plantation (Fig. 14).

33

Within abandoned plantation there are two plots (A7 and A11) separated from the
others. It is suggested that intensity of human activity plays an important role in
vegetation development in corridor area. The area with active cultivation (A7) is
dominated by plantation tree, crops, and weeds (Fig. 13, 14), while the longest
abandonment period (A11, more than 30 years abandonment) has developed to
more complex community.
The DCA2 value seems important to describe forest recovery process after
disturbance. The pioneer (Homalanthus populneus, Macaranga tanarius and M.
triloba), some invasive (C. pubescens, M. eminii, and C. calothyrsus), and highclimbing bamboo (Dinochloa scandens) occupy disturbed area as result of natural
successional process (Fig. 14). If forest rehabilitation is addressed to restore
previous condition, then less disturbed forest can be used as reference of good
condition forest. In the future, selecting native species become essential to
rehabilitate severe degradation in corridor. The detail information of each
community of corridor area will be explained on paragraphs below.
Abandoned plantation (ABP): This area was the production forest and
abandoned after the declaration as part of national park. The abandonment periods
were varied among 11 plots from 1 to 30 year. During the period as production
forest, local people were allowed to cultivate some part in this area (Galudra et al.
2005). Therefore up to now the cultivation areas still exist and difficult to be
reduced because local community rely on agriculture to support their live. As
reported by Cahyadi (2003), cultivation area within 11 years increased about 8.8%
from 1356 ha in 1990 to 1476 ha in 2011. The existence of intensive cultivation
(plot A7) can be shown in DCA graph (Fig. 13, 14) that some areas separated
from fallowed plantation due to dominancy of crops (Capsicum frutescens, Coffea
arabica, Solanum nigrum, and S. torvum) and weeds (Ageratum conyzoides,
Clidemia hirta, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Synedrella nodiflora, and Wedellia
biflora). Croplands were identified as disturbance, thus in our analysis they were
not separated from abandoned plantation.
In the area without agriculture, plantation fallowed to recover naturally for
supporting wild life conservation (Rinaldi et al. 2008). The abandonment period
could not be obtained exactly due to less information regarding land use history of
34

this area, but local people informed that the areas has been fallowed from
cultivation approximately 1-30 years. In the old plantation area, S. macrophylla
(26.9 cm in DBH) and A. dammara (21.8 cm in DBH) grew smaller than Schima
wallichii with diameter of 48 cm and reached 21 m in height. Sahoo and
Lalfakawma (2010) reported that S. wallichii in tropical forest of north-east India
had higher shoot growth rate in disturbed area than undisturbed stands.
The abandoned plantation has low tree species richness as implied by low tree
diversity indices (Fisher and Shannon-Wiener index), but recruitment of woody
species relatively high in this area (Table 4). Tree layer was dominated by
mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla, Rdo = 33.38%) and damar (Agathis dammara,
Rdo = 21.05%) as main plantation tree (Table 1). The non-native fast growing
species such as Bellucia pentamera (Rdo = 10.55%) and Maesopsis eminii (Rdo =
6.87%) seem successfully to establish in this area (Table 5).
The table 5 shows that sufficient amount of light on forest floor led to dominancy
of shade-intolerant species Clibadium surinamense (Rdo = 17.26%), Eupatorium
inulifolium (Rdo = 13.70%) and Melastoma malabthricum (Rdo = 6.28%). The
availability of seedling Eurya accuminata (Rdo = 15.27%) indicated that forest
species has possibility to establish inside this area. E. inulifolium is native to
South America, introduced to Java in the 19th and now widely spread from
abandoned coffee plantation to degraded forest (Smiet 1992). Coffee (C. arabica,
Rdo = 7.70%) and red pepper (C. frutescens, Rdo = 4.78%) as main crops were
abundant in the area as crops with high economic value.
Grasses (Paspalum conjugatum, Rdo = 8.67%, Imperata cylindrica, Rdo = 7.05%,
and Panicum notatum, Rdo = 6.75%), ferns (Selaginella plana, Rdo = 17.15% and
Dicranopteris linearis, Rdo = 6.37%), and weedy herbs (A. conyzoides Rdo =
4.71%, W. biflora Rdo = 4.46%, and C. hirta Rdo = 5.53%) formed dense thicket
below the plantation tree (Table 5). However, our observation suggested that the
invasion of C. hirta in this area seems not to be a serious problem because it only
occupied disturbed forest edge and did not establish as single dominant. This
result was similar with study by Shono et al. (2006) that invasion C. hirta did not
thereat biodiversity during reforestation process. Among the study areas,
abandoned plantation contains higher number of herb species than degraded and
35

less degraded forest; 71 sp, 52 sp, and 43 sp respectively (Table 4). It was clear
that high light intensity below plantation canopy could promote the establishment
of herbaceous vegetation.
The disturbed forest (DF): Human pressure including timber and fuel wood
exploitation, infrastructure establishment, and invasion of exotic species degraded
Halimun Salak corridor area seriously, thus forest species number decreased as
indicated by low dominancy in this area (Table 5). As reported by Rinaldi et al.
(2008), forest species dominated corridor approximately 27% due to occupancy of
shrub, pioneer, and invasive species.
This type of forest was derived from degraded old forest as indicated that forest
species component such as Quercus oidocarpa remains as the biggest tree in this
area, reached 49.6 cm in DBH and 28 m in height. The ongoing timber
exploration may have detrimental impact on forest structure. The emergent tree at
this site disappeared (Table 5) and now dominated by M. eminii (Rdo = 26.26%)
to replace forest species such as Schima wallichii (Rdo = 5.58%), and Melicope
accedens, (Rdo = 5.50%). Furthermore, invasion of other exotic species
Calliandra calothyrsus (Rdo = 6.49%) and quinine tree (Chinchona pubescens,
Rdo = 5.41%) may harm forest composition in the future (Table 5). As reported
by Lowe et al. (2000) this quinine tree was categorized as 100 of the world worst
invasive species, therefore increases possibility to alter the forest structure.
Though it invaded in limited area of corridor area, the existence of C. pubescens
increased the risk of forest degradation because local people harvested the bark by
cutting its stand for commercial use (Cahyadi 2003).
New recruitment of forest and pioneer species was low in degraded area (Table 5).
Seedling of exotic species such as C. pubescens (Rdo = 8.30%) and C. hirta (Rdo
= 6.08%), now dominated this area after tree fern Cyathea latebrosa (Rdo =
62.27%).
The herbaceous vegetation in degraded forest was characterized by fern (C.
latebrosa, Rdo = 8.70%, D. linearis, Rdo = 9.46%, and S. plana, Rdo = 7.55%),
Freycinetia sp. (Rdo = 8.78%), Etlingera coccinea (Rdo = 8.68%), and bamboo

36

(Dinochloa scandens, Rdo = 4.30%) which are relatively tolerant to low light
intensity (Table 5).
Less disturbed forest (LDF): High quality timber still available in the remnant
forest which mostly located in steep area and less accessible forest by local people.
Therefore, pressure to this area is high due to timber exploitation as reported by
Cahyadi (2003), that forest coverage in corridor decrease significantly from 1990
to 2001. We recorded Castanopsis accuminatissima (Fagaceae) as the remaining
emergent tree in this area, reaching height of up to 38 m and 67 cm in DBH.
Tree layer composition in less degraded forest has same dominancy pattern as
reported by Simbolon and Mirmanto (1997), Suzuki et al. (1997), Wiriadinata
(1997) in Halimun area. Member of family Fagaceae, Theaceae, and
Hamamelidaceae dominated in less disturbed forests (Table 5). However, this area
had smaller number of tree species larger than 4.8 cm in DBH than disturbed
forest. We recorded 47 species in less disturbed forest (0.16 ha), 54 species in
disturbed forest (0.28 ha), and 23 species in abandoned plantation (0.11 ha)
respectively (Table 4). Though this area had low tree diversity, big trees larger
than 30 cm in DBH were abundant to produce high biomass (Table 6).
The community structure as well as permanent plots in Halimun area, C.
accuminatissima (Rdo = 40.57%) and S. wallichii (27.82%) took a role as
important species in less disturbed forest (Table 5). The disturbance in this area
indicated by invasion of fast growing tree C. calothyrsus (Rdo = 4.35%) (Table 5).
Even though this forest has low number of tree species, basal area of less
disturbed forest was higher than degraded forest and abandoned plantation, i.e.
41.27 m2 ha-1, 17.47m2 ha-1, and 15.51 m2 ha-1 respectively (Table 4). The pattern
of biomass as well as basal area increased linearly from degraded to less degraded
forest.
Tree fern of C. latebrosa (Rdo = 58.10%) and Cyathea sp.2 (Rdo = 18.08%) were
abundant in seedling stage. Smiet (1992) reported that these species can survive in
more shaded place. However, the exotic species of C. calothyrsus (Rdo = 3.42%)
can survive in forest as indicated by its high recruitment (Table 5). Considering
the characteristic of invasive species, therefore, we have to determine the suitable
37

strategy to prevent invasion of exotic species for conserving natural forest in

Halimun Salak corridor area. Low light tolerant species dominated herb layer such
as fern (Nephrolepis davallioides, S. plana, and Diplazium sorgozonense),
Oleandra pistilaris, and Alpinia sp. (Table 5).
Permanent plot (P2 and P3): The communities of both permanent plots were
dominated by Fagaceae, Theaceae, and Hamamelidaceae (Table 4). P2 has the
highest tree species number (113 species) and basal area (40.31 m2 ha-1) (Table 4).
The emergent tree (height > 30 m) at P2 was Q. lineata reached 109 cm in DBH,
while in P3 was S. wallichii approximately 82 cm in DBH. The biomass
estimation (Table 4) of P2 and P3 were almost similar (369.26 ton ha-1 and 291.06
ton ha-1) with less disturbed forest in corridor area (314.94 ton ha-1).
The dominant species in P2 permanent plot were Altingia excelsa ( Rdo =
31.22%) and S. wallichii (Rdo = 10.59%), while P3 dominated by C.
accuminatissima (Rdo = 34.00%) and S. wallichii (Rdo = 23.31%). The species
compositions in the permanent plots and less disturbance forest plots were
relatively similar, thus they classified as less disturbance forest on DCA analysis
(Figure 13, 14).
Forest succession in corridor area: The successional stage in this area can be
determined by species composition in each study area. The early successional
stages observed in seriously degraded site, particularly in agriculture. In the area
without weeding activity, weed species such as A. conyzoides, Synedrella
nodiflora, Crassocephalum crepidioides established below tree plantation. This
pattern was similar with early succession on abandoned cropland in Borneo,
Indonesia that weedy species become dominant soon after abandonment (Ohtsuka
1999). In some areas, understory layer is covered by perennial grass Imperata
cylindrica and Saccharum spontaneum. It is suggested that agriculture activity can
slow down the forest recovery process because weeding activity prevents
colonization of pioneer wood species (Lugo 1992), unless local people leave the
cultivation area.
The occupancy of weed was replaced by shrub pioneer species such as C.
surinamense, E. inulifolium, M. malabathricum after one or more year
38

abandonment. However, during the process of succession D. linearis often

invades open area and covers the ground by its dense thicket. In the old
abandoned plantation, species richness of pioneer and forest species (Appendix B)
is low because of strong competition by the exotic species (B. pentamera, M.
eminii, C. calothyrsus).
The succession in disturbed areas refers to forest respond after gaps due to illegal
logging. Pioneer tree and some exotic species (Appendix A) invaded the open
area. However, this area has possibility to recover naturally because forest species
(Melicope accedens, Weinmannia blumei, Schima wallichii, Rhodamnia cinerea,
and Prunus arborea) still remaining for seed resource.
The less disturbed forests depict mature community in Gunung Halimun Salak
National Park. C. acuminatissima, Platea excelsa, Neolitse triplinervia, Sterculia
oblongata, and C. javanica were well conserved in the area without anthropogenic
activity. The availability of forest species is important as resource for natural
vegetation thereby native species can establish through natural succession in
corridor area.
As a respond to the anthropogenic disturbance, community stands in abandoned
plantation are relatively smaller than forest area. The abandoned plantation
community reached maximum height up to 15 m and increased to less disturbance
forest about 38 m in height. As well as trees height, basal area and aboveground
biomass showed similar pattern that these values increased from degraded to less
disturbed forest (Table 4). However, invasion of exotic and pioneer species
increase species richness in disturbed forest but they give small contribution on
biomass production (Fig 15, Table 4, 6).
Biomass in abandoned plantation was produced mainly from tree plantation, but
native and invasive species contribute most to biomass in degraded forest (Fig.
15). Though invasive species produced high biomass in degraded area, it does not
mean that they are suitable to be planted for forest rehabilitation in corridor
because their existence can modify community structure and may threaten the
native species. In less disturbed forest where native species were well conserved,
they produced high biomass approximately 373.34 ton ha-1 (Table 6).
39

DISCUSSION
Forest rehabilitation and its threats: Human disturbance such as cultivation,
development of infrastructure, settlement, illegal logging, and fuel wood
exploration thought to be major factor of forest degradation in corridor. The road
inside corridor to connect villages facilitated local community to pass through this
area and increased alternative access to reach forest. This degraded and
fragmented area cannot provide proper habitat especially for endangered species
such as Javan gibbon and Javan leopard, therefore rehabilitation is required to
restore the function of corridor.
The remaining forest species near corridor area as reported by Simbolon and
Mirmanto (1997), Suzuki et al. (1997), Alhamd and Polosakan (2011) and
Polosakan (2011) have high availability of forest species such as A. excelsa, C.
acuminatissima, S. wallichii, Q. gemelliflora. This natural sources of forest
species can give opportunity to degraded forests to recover naturally. Duncan and
Duncan (2000) experimentally tested that remnant forest are potential for seed
resource to promote natural succession in Afro-Tropical grassland. The existence
mammals and birds can facilitate the dispersal of forest species seeds to germinate
in corridor area (Rinaldi et al. 2008).
In corridor area, plantation is likely not well facilitating forest species as indicated
by low dominancy (Appendix A). This condition has different result with the
other study as reported by Lugo (1992), Parrotta et al. (1997) and Boley et al.
(2009) that plantation tree might help the establishment of pioneer woody species
to accelerate natural succession. The modification of both physical and biological
site condition might increase the possibility for seed to be transported from
adjacent forest remnant to germinate. In addition, proper plantation must be
considered to attract seed dispersers such as bird and bat, thus they can disperse
seed from remnant forest to the degraded area. Cusack and Montagnini (2004)
reported that plantation could promote forest succession of woody species in
understory layer by shading out the grasses, increasing soil nutrient, and
facilitating shade tolerant species. Kuusipalo et al. (2009) also mentioned that the
diversity of grasses and herbs was high below Acacia mangium plantation because
40

woody vegetation could reduce fire risk and grass competition, thus A. mangium
enhanced the secondary succession toward natural forest.
Sometimes, the exotic plants are needed to convert harsh condition to be suitable
one for the establishment of indigenous species (Lovejoy 1985). Due to poor
understanding of silviculture system in the tropics, some exotic species such as
Pinus spp. and Eucalyptus spp. which used widely for commercial plantation
caused major problem to natural ecosystem (Lugo 1992, Richardson 1998,
Binggeli 2001). These species as reviewed from study case in southern
hemisphere could shift the life-form dominance, reduce structural diversity,
increase biomass, and change nutrient cycle (Richardson 1998). In Java Island, C.
calothyrsus was planted for fuel, fodder, and conservation of critical land because
it can survive in poor soil condition (Galudra 2003, Rinaldi et al. 2008). But now
this species spread tremendously in corridor area. Study by Fukuda (2010)
clarified that C. calothyrsus inhibited the establishment of native species and
delay the forest rehabilitation process.
Human interference and ecological barrier following combination of competition
with invasive species, low seed or root stock availability, risk of seed and seedling
predation, lack of sustainable microhabitat for seed germiantion and seedling
establishment, seasonal drought, soil nutrient limitation, root competition with
grases and fern, and periodic fire can suppress successional process (Lugo 1992,
Parrotta et al. 1997). Invasion of exotic species (M. eminii, and C. calothyrsus)
which can grow in low light intensity, fern (D. linearis), and grass (I. cylindrica)
in corridor area must be considered seriously because they can delay the
rehabilitation process. Shono et al. (2006) reported that regeneration of native
vegetation on degraded land in Singapore was blocked by invasion of fern D.
linearis. This species and M. malabathricum also suppress the succession for 13
years after farming in peninsular Malaysia. D. linearis which can survive under
shading area, form dense thickets aggressively, expand the rhizomes, and excrete
the allelopathic compound thereby could prevent the establishment of tree
regeneration (Shono et al 2006, Nishimura 2011). This fern combined with I.
cylindrica which is a high efficiency nutrient uptake, slow decomposition rate,
drought tolerant, and fire resistant species can survive in unfavorable condition
41

thereby inhibit succession and tree establishment in disturbed areas (Nishimura

2011).
Maesopsis emenii which planted in corridor area as fast growing tree now invades
natural forest widely. Binggeli and Hamilton (1993), Binggeli (2003) and Rinaldi
et al. (2008) reported that this species is invasive in the tropics and it has strategy
to invade new habitat as explained by: first, its seeds are easily distributed by bird,
as hornbill in Tanzania; second, seeds and seedlings can survive in longer period
and they grow rapidly when light increase due to the establishment of gap; third,
germination of seed is triggered by water thus the seed can easily germinate.
The invasion of quinine tree C. pubescens and small shrub Clidemia hirta in this
corridor area seems not serious, but monitoring to these species is needed to
control invasion rate. The quinine tree was recorded as aggressive invader in the
Galapagos archipelago (Richardson 1998). C. hirta which typically spread along
road side and on disturbed area has potential to drive some species extintion by
combination of competition and prevention of natural regeneration in Madagascar
because it can distribute rapidly by bird and regenerate without canopy
disturbance (Binggeli 2003). In Fiji, this species could hamper the development of
cocoa and timber plantation (Binggeli 2001).
Tree species in Halimun Salak national Park have potential as building material,
fuel wood, board manufacture, edible fruit/vegetable, furniture, and medical plants
(Cahyadi 2003, Gunawan et al. 2007, Polosakan 2011). Though remnant forest is
difficult to reach, due to economics needs local people enter the less degraded
forest to explore timber trees such as S. wallichii, A. excelsa, Myrtaceae and
Fagaceae (Polosakan 2011). Therefore, collaboration between local people and the
manager of national park is required to conserve the corridor area.
Ecological value of Corridor area: Rehabilitation on degraded forest becomes
major concern in corridor considering its functions to provide movement and
foraging area of endangered species, maintain water balance, support biodiversity,
and prevent soil and land slide (Gunawan et al. 2007, Rinaldi et al. 2008,
GHSNPMP-JICA 2009).

42

Degradation and fragmentation in corridor affected population number of

endangered animals (Van Ballen et al. 1997, Cahyadi 2003, Dewi et al. 2007,
Rinaldi et al. 2008, Yumarni et al. 2011). The Javan gibbon needs forest canopy
for their movement, but lack of emergent tree decreased their population within
degraded area (Dewi et al. 2007, Yumarni et al. 2011). Ario (2007) reported that
Javan leopard can live close to human habitation, but they need broader habitat for
seeking pray. Thus fragmentation will impact the panther population. However,
during the study, we only found leopards foot prints in less degraded area
between Mt. Halimun and Mt. Salak. The Javan eagle as the endemic to Java
Island inhabits Halimun and Salak area, including corridor (Van Ballen 1999,
Rinaldi et al. 2008)
The importance of corridor is not only for conservation but also substantial for
human because the rivers from this area can support some areas surrounding
national park and prevent land slide during rainy season (Rinaldi et al. 2008,
GHSNPMP-JICA 2009). Therefore rehabilitation on degraded land is crucial to
recover the function of corridor.
Management strategy for forest rehabilitation: Local people living adjacent to
national park seem not clearly to understand about the function of corridor. Thus
exploitation was ongoing severely in this area. Moreover, low economic level of
rural community lead to high utilization of forest area for agriculture, timber, fuel
wood, and medical treatment (Galudra 2003, Rinaldi et al. 2008, Polosakan 2011).
Even though resource exploitation by human intervention is prohibited in national
park area, it is hard to eliminate because they settled before the establishment of
national park. The satellite image clarified that approximately 24.9 ha of
settlement covered corridor area (Cahyadi 2003, Galudra et al. 2005, Rinaldi
2008).
The proper strategy for forest rehabilitation must be designated for better
management. The community based - conservation management system which
considering local knowledge and sharing benefit related to conservation and
utilization initiatives are thought to be the best way to maintain conservation area
(Harada 2003, Gunawan et al. 2007, Perbatakusuma et al. 2010). In addition,
environmental education must be disseminated to local people thereby local
43

people can contribute on this conservation program with same vision. Due to local
people settlement, rehabilitation program must consider the alternative livelihood
for them, which can reduce their independence on forest. The utilization zone can
be established for economic purpose of local community (Galudra 2003).
The abandoned plantation and secondary forest are susceptible to invasive species.
To reduce impact of exotic species on biodiversity (Richardson 1998, Binggeli
2001, Binggeli 2003, Fukuda 2010), selection of proper native species is essential
for planting enrichment to minimize spreading of invasive species.

44

CHAPTER 4
General discussion

Factor limiting forest regeneration

Deforestation in Pangandaran occurred in 1920s due to sporadic shifting
cultivation. Then, after proposed as hunting reserve area in 1921, forests were
clearly cut to establish artificial grasslands for improving the habitat of introduced
animals (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977). There was no more agriculture activity
after the declaration as nature reserve area. However, human interference to this
area was effort to maintain the grass productivity, control woody species, and
keep vegetation in proper height for animals as management for pasture in Africa
(Johansson et al. 2012). Therefore, it is suggested that burning, grazing, and
trampling from the ungulates is thought to be major factors limiting forest
regeneration after abandoned in PNR. Furthermore, the invasion of teak to
grassland particularly at Nanggorak and Cikamal may alter the species
composition of this forest in the future. To achieve the rehabilitation that future
forest nearly similar to natural secondary forest (Kartawinata 1994), human
intervention is required to eradicate the undesirable plants including the invasive
species. Teak invasion in Nanggorak makes bias in forest development through
successional process.
Forest degradation in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park showed different
pattern with that in PNR. Forest in this corridor area was degraded and
fragmented in several stages by human activity such as agriculture, plantation,
timber exploitation, fuel wood collection, local community settlement, and
infrastructure development (Cahyadi 2003, Rinaldi et al 2008, GHSNPMP-JICA
2009). Agriculture degraded corridor area severely and weeding activity to
increase crops productivity is thought to inhibit the initiation of natural succession
and delay the forest regeneration. In addition, timber exploitation in remnant
forest decreased forest species diversity which is source for forest regeneration in
degraded area. Consequently invasion of exotic species, grasses, and ferns
increased and can slow down the rehabilitation process. Human intervention such
as enrichment planting will be essentially needed in severe degraded forest to
45

accelerate the forest regeneration, but in moderate and less degraded forest
rehabilitation can be attained by natural succession.
Forest regeneration through natural succession
The different land use history in abandoned grazing area of Pangandaran Nature
Reserve with that corridor area of Halimun Salak National Park created different
initial condition of early stage of succession. The early successional stage in PNR
occurred in Cikamal as the largest open area. It characterized by grazing activity,
lack of tree canopy, and has high light intensity. Creeping grasses (Ischaemum
rugosum and Fimbristylis monostachya) and herb Desmodium triflorum
community dominated on this abandoned grassland, while in corridor plantation
trees (Swietenia macrophylla and Agathis dammara) has been established in early
stage of succession. However in later succession process the corridor area was
influenced more by human disturbance than in PNR.
At both sites, the early colonization was relied on light tolerant and winddispersed species such as Blumea balsamifera and Chromolaena odorata, in PNR
and Clibadium surinamense and Eupatorium inulifolium in corridor area (Epp
1987, Ramakrishnan 1994, Faravani and bin Bakar 2007). The similar pattern was
reported by Ohtsuka (1999), Hashimoto et al. (2007), and Yassir et al. (2010) in
Kalimantan that C. odorata, B. balsamifera and M. malabathricum invaded early
succession at Imperata grassland and shifting cultivation.
Imperata cylindrica was identified as dominant grass in grazing area of PNR
(Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977), but now its existence is replaced by creeping
grases (I. rugosum and F. monostachya). It is suggested that this replacement was
affected by grazing and trampling of deer and banteng in PNR. Similar condition
was reported by Potter (1997) on grassland area in Eastern Sumba Indonesia that
Imperata tended to disappear under pressure of grazing and competition then
replaced by other grasses and shrub C. odorata.
The result of line transect can describe the order of pioneer woody species
invasion that early colonizer at Cikamal was C. odorata then M. malabathricum
invaded from forest border to open area (Fig. 5). At Nanggorak population of C.
odorata decreased and open area dominated by M. malabathricum. As reported
46

by Kushwaha et al. (1981) and Epp (1987) that population of C. odorata

decreased along the succession gradient because its seedling cannot germinate
under shade. Our study result suggested that establishment of M. malabathricum
in early stage of succession can promote forest species establishment as we can
see in figure 5, 6, and 7 that Syzygium lineatum, Guioa pubescens, and Psychotria
cf. robusta established after this species. Pioneer woody species reduced gradually
along light intensity gradient. Forest species established at Badeto area after 30 or
more years of abandonment. After 55 years abandonment, forest species richness
increased at Batu Meja. However, comparing to lowland forest in Nusa
Kambangan which is located next to PNR and low distribution of tree with DBH
> 10 cm, this area categorized as young forest (Partomihardjo and Ubaidilah 2004,
Kawasaki 2012).
The invasion of teak particularly in Nanggorak and Cikamal made a bias in forest
regeneration process because it can impede the growth of other plants by
producing allelopathic compound (Boley et al. 2009). The understory diversity
was low below teak canopy as confirmed in our study that only few species can
survive below teak canopy such as G. pubescens and C. formosum. Healey and
Gara (2003) reported that teak plantations had lower woody species diversity
because its ability to suppress the regeneration of some native tree species.
The term of early succession in corridor area is vegetation change in understory
layer below plantation tree. The forest regeneration in this area relied on intensity
of human disturbance. The herbaceous layer in the abandoned area with
cultivation activity (Fig. 14) was dominated by weeds (Ageratum conyzoides,
Clidemia hirta, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Synedrella nodiflora, and Wedellia
biflora). However, pioneer woody species (C. surinamense, E.inulifolium, and M.
malabthricum) mixed with grasses (Paspalum conjugatum, I. cylindrica, and
Panicum notatum) and fern (Selaginella plana and Dicranopteris linearis) were
dominant below the plantation tree without agriculture. The existence of D.
linearis during forest regeneration must be considered because in Singapore
Shono et al. (2006) reported that this species blocked the succession by forming
dense thickets aggressively, expand the rhizomes, and exhibit the allelopathic
compound thereby could prevent the establishment of tree regeneration.
47

There were very limited forest species at plantation after 12 years abandonment.
The dominant trees were Swietenia macrophylla and Agathis dammara as main
plantation tree. Similar condition was reported by Setiawan and Sulistyawati
(2008) in Mount Papandayan that plantation trees were still dominant in
afforestation area after 10 years abandonment. Though many studies reported that
plantation has positive correlation to natural succession, in corridor area
plantation seems not to assist forest regeneration because we suggested that
anthropogenic disturbance, invasion of exotic species and fern D. linearis
influence most on forest recovery process. At this abandoned plantation, exotic
species such as Bellucia pentamera and Maesopsis eminii were abundant after
plantation tree (Table 5). Schima wallichii in this area grew very fast as indicated
by big diameter reached approximately 48 cm. Sahoo and Lalfakawma (2010)
reported that S. wallichii in tropical forests of north-east India had higher shoot
growth rate in disturbed area than undisturbed stands.
The degraded forest of Halimun Salak corridor area seemed to recover rapidly by
re-growth from stump and establishment of pioneer species within gaps. However,
the existence of exotic species (Maesopsis eminii and Calliandra calothyrsus)
must be considered because their fast growth altered species composition as
reflected by high dominancy of M. eminii in this area (Table 4). The first
establishment of exotic plant either in Pangandaran or Halimun-Salak corridor
area was designated for commercial timber tree, but then they successfully
invaded degraded area. Fukuda (2010) experimentally tested that native species
establishment and rehabilitation process of Halimun-Salak corridor area inhibited
by invasion of C. calothyrsus
Management implication in conservation area
Since the goal of forest rehabilitation should be have similar composition to
secondary nature (Kartawinata 1994), exotic plantation must be applied carefully
due to its rapid growth in disturbance area. Enrichment planting with selected
species is recommended to recover the degraded forest. Lovejoy (1985) suggested
economically important species such as Acacia auriculiformis, A. mangium,
Albizia falcataria, A. lebbek, A. procera, Casuarina equisetifolia, C.
junghuhniaha, Calliandra calothyrsus, Cassia siamea, and Pinus spp. to be
48

planted in degraded area, thus prevent local people to disturb this area. However,
Eucalyptus was inappropriate to recover grassland because they did not shade out
the Imperata. To prevent negative effect of plantation species on natural
succession, Lamb et al. (2005) suggested using fast growing but short lived tree
species which is equivalent with pioneer species in early successional process. In
addition, this species can shade out the grasses and weed, reduce the fire risk, and
facilitate the establishment of native species. Considering the negative effect of
exotic species on forest regeneration, Kartawinata (1994) and Kaewkrom et al.
(2005) suggested using native species in enrichment planting program to
accelerate forest rehabilitation process.
Furthermore, the community based - conservation management system which
considering local knowledge and sharing benefit related to conservation and
utilization initiatives thought to be the best way to maintain conservation area
(Harada 2003, Gunawan et al. 2007, Perbatakusuma et al. 2010).
In conclusion, the forest regeneration at grassland sites affected by grazing
pressure and management effort by human in PNR had different characteristics
from those initiated from cultivation, abandoned plantation, and disturbed forest
in corridor of Halimun Salak National Park. In the early colonization, both sites
relied on wind dispersal and light tolerant species to create suitable microhabitat
for the establishment of forest species. Overall, forest regeneration can be
accelerated without human disturbance. In the severe degradation area, human
intervention by enrichment planting is essential to promote forest species
establishment. However, selected species is needed to avoid invasion of exotic
species, thus forest regeneration can be nearly similar to natural secondary forest.

49

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60

Summary

Economic development and population increase cause serious degradation of

natural forests in Indonesia even in protected areas. The implementation of forest
rehabilitation is needed to restore their function. The processes of rehabilitation
are affected by the environments and history of land use. However, little is known
about recovery process in tropical degraded forest under different land use history.
Therefore, this thesis will describe and analyze the recovery process of degraded
forests with different land use history, flora and community structure. The
following chapters will discuss the recovery process in Pangandaran Nature
Reserve and in Gunung Halimun National Park.
Chapter 1 consists of general information regarding Indonesian tropical forest
particularly in the deforestation hot spots such as Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and
Papua. The primary forests in those places were disappeared because of timber
exploitation and conversion to agriculture, plantation, settlement, infrastructure
development, mining etc. The extreme deforestation occurred in Java as centre of
Indonesian population and economic activity. Shifting cultivation and forest
clearance for artificial grasslands were identified as the major causes of forest loss
in Pangandaran Nature Reserve, West Java. Gunung Halimun Salak National Park,
the largest montane area in Java Island, has complicated problem due to
deforestation in past and ongoing illegal logging by rural community. Since the
initial condition between these sites was different, recovery process within two
locations will be analyzed and compared to obtain scientific information for forest
rehabilitation program.
Chapter 2 gives the description of succession on abandoned grazing land in
Pangandaran Nature Reserve. This area was designated as game reserve for
ungulates in 1934 and nature reserve in 1961. The man-made grazing areas (49 ha
in total) were established in 1921 as habitat for ungulates. However, some
grasslands were abandoned (Batu Meja for 55 years and Badeto for 30 years) and
the others were irregularly managed (Nanggorak) or frequently managed
(Cikamal) to control undesired woody species by cutting and burning. To compare
these sites, we set two quadrates (10 x 50 m) in each grazing site to record the
61

diameter at breast height (DBH) of each woody species taller than 130 cm and the
canopy cover of all shorter individuals. Transects running from north to south and
from east to west were established to determine vegetation distribution at each site
except Batu Meja because the boundary was unclear. Our study result showed that
the area of open grassland decreased from 41 ha around 1977 to 4 ha in 2011. The
grasses were dominant at Cikamal and Nanggorak. However, the dominant
grasses in both sites changed from tall Imperata cylindrica to low creeping
grasses, Ischaemum rugosum and Eleusine indica. Based on transect data,
Melastoma malabathricum invaded these grasslands from surrounding areas to
open area. Tectona grandis (teak) which planted in the reserves public-use zone
since 1932 widely invaded the grasslands, especially Nanggorak. Badeto became
a young secondary forest dominated by Psychotria cf. robusta and Guioa
pubescens. Batu Meja has been occupied by some lowland tree species such as
Buchanania arborescens and Diospyros hermaphroditica. The forest structure
was still young and species composition is biased due to invasion of teak. The 55
years abandonment seemed too short for mature forests development.
Chapter 3 explains the forest regeneration in corridor area of Halimun-Salak
national park which is degraded and fragmented by human activity. To clarify
vegetation structure and forest recovery related to land use history we placed
randomly 22 quadrates (11 quadrats each 10 x 10 m2 in abandoned plantation,
seven and four quadrats of 20 x 20 m2 in disturbed and less disturbed forest,
respectively). Three community groups can be distinguished as Swietenia
macrophylla Agathis dammara community in abandoned plantation, Maesopsis
eminii Cyathea latebrosa in disturbed forest, and Castanopsis accuminatissima Schima wallichii in less disturbed forest. Below the plantation canopy, light
tolerant species (Clibadium surinamense, Eupatorium inulifolium, and Melastoma
malabathricum), weeds, grasses, and fern of Dicranopteris linearis were
dominant. However, some planted exotic species such as Bellucia pentamera,
Maesopsis eminii, and Calliandra chalothyrsus escaped from adjacent plantation
to forest. The distant area from community keeps forest in good condition as
indicated by dominancy of old forest species such as Castanopsis acuminatissima,
Quercus oidocarpa, Schima wallichii, and Altingia excelsa. Forest regeneration in
62

severe degradation area seems difficult to rely on natural succession. Therefore,

human intervention by planting native species can be suggested to avoid invasive
species occupancy as well as accelerate forest recovery.
Chapter 4 gives comprehensive discussion about forest recovery process from
different initial condition. Community structure, species composition after
abandonment, and factor limiting natural succession will be described to
understand rehabilitation process in both sites. In this chapter, some
recommendations were submitted to improve proper management of these
conservation areas.

63

Pangandaran
Halimun-Salak

Pangandaran
Halimun-Salak

Pangandaran
1934 1961
1921 4 49ha
Batu meja 55 Badeto 30
Nanggorak Cikamal 2,3
1977 44ha2011 4ha
1977 2011 Ischaemum
rugosum
Melastoma malabathricum

Nanggorak Badeto
64

Psychotria cf. robusta Guioa pubescens Batu Meja

Buchanania arborescens Diospyros hermaphroditica

55

Halimun-Salak Halimun Salak

Corridor
22 100m2 400m2
Corridor
Agathis Maesopsis emini
Castanopsis acuminattissima
Clibadium
surinamense, Eupatorium inulifolium, Melastoma malabathricum
Bellucia pentamera, Maesopsis eminii
Calliandra chalothyrsus Castanopsis
acuminatissima, Quercus oidocarpa
Altingia excelsa

65

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah, the most Beneficent and the Merciful

All the praises and thank be to Allah, thus I could finish my dissertation as the
requirement for doctoral program graduation in Kagoshima University.
Here, I would like to appreciate The World Bank Foundation for giving me
chance to study in foreign country and support the scholarship. It was the valuable
experience during my academic career.
I take this opportunity to send my gratitude to Prof. Intan Ahmad, Prof. Tati
Suryati Syamsudin Subahar, MS, DEA, Members of COE of Biotechnology
SITH-ITB, Dr. Maelita Ramdani, Prof. Djoko T. Iskandar, Dr. Devi N. Choesin,
and Dr. Endah Sulistyawati for their encouragement and approval to continue my
study.
Thousand thanks and respect will be given to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Eizi Suzuki
for the valuable assistance and guidance during my study in Kagoshima
University. It is my big opportunity to learn tropical ecology, especially forests in
Indonesia. The way you introduce me field works methods and data analysis,
they are my treasure for my next step in the future.
I would like to send my appreciation to International Training Program of The
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), Grant-in Aid for Scientific
Research of JSPS (21405004), and The Global Environment Research Fund (D1005), The Ministry of The environment, Japan for founding my research in
Indonesia.
I thank to nature conservation agency (BKSDA) of West Java for giving us
permission to conduct research in Pangandaran nature reserve area. I also send my
gratitute to the staffs of Panganadaran Nature Reserve, Bapak Yana Hendrayana,
Bapak Encek, Bapak Asep, Bapak Udi, and Bapak Dedi for helping us during
fieldwork.

66

I would like to thank the head, staffs, and local peoples of Gunung Halimun
Salak National Park especially Bapak Istanto, Bapak Acep, Ibu Desy, Ibu Atih,
Bapak Wardi, Ibu Ruky, and Bapak Mus. I hope the result will be useful for
management of conservation area.
The herbarium samples were identified by Bapak Ismail and Bapak Wardi of
Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI) and the data were very helpfull for our field
work and data analysis.
I would like to send my gratitude to Prof. Tsuyoshi Yoneda, Prof. Masanori Sato,
Prof. Seiki Yamane, Dr. Shin-ichiro Aiba, Dr. Kiyonori Tomiyama, and Dr. Junko
Miyamoto for advices, comments, and support. Thanks also will be addressed for
staffs of Faculty of Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, and
International Student Office of Kagoshima University.
Finally, I send my regards for my beloved father, brother, and big family for their
patience and support during my study in Kagoshima University. I believe the most
beautiful smile from heaven will be blessed to me, our dream come true mama.
Thanks to Yessi Santika, The big family of Shimoarata 4 chome, Mr. Kawasaki,
Mr. Nakazono and to all Suzukis Lab members for nice field trip and
encouragement.

67

Tables

Table 1. The characteristics of four study sites based on management history, stem
number, total basal area are data of tree layers in the plots, Fischers (), ShannonWiener (H), species numbers in tree layer (T), herb layer (H) and combination of
tree and herb layers (T+H).
Grazing site

Cikamal

Nanggorak

Badeto

Batu Meja

Management history

Most
frequent

Irregular
maintenance

30 yr
abandonment

55 yr
abandonment

Stem number (ha-1)*

57,610

59,185

192,320

15,270

4.65

10.82

33.33

17.53

0.9
1.82

1.31
1.66

2.29
1.74

9.01
2.78

10
31
33

14
31
34

26
39
48

67
32
75

Total Basal area (m2 ha-1)*

Biodoversity index
Fisher's
Shannon-Wiener (H)
Species number
Tree layer
Herb layer
Tree + Herb layer

68

Table 2. Importance value (IV, Max = 200) and DCA1 score of herb (H 130cm)
and tree layer (H >130 cm) in Cikamal (CIK), Nanggorak (NAN), Badeto (BAD)
and Batu meja (BM). Cikamal remains as grassland (G), Nanggorak as the
transition community between grassland to forest (GF) and Badeto and Batu Meja
are forest community (F).
Species*

Herb layer
CIK

Acanthaceae sp.
Anac Buchanania
arborescens

NAN

BAD

DCA1

Tree layer
BM

CIK

NAN

BAD

BM

0.5

0.8
3.6

-2.6

Anno Desmos chinensis

0.1

-2.7

Anno Mitrella sp.

0.3

-2.7

Apia Centella asiatica

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.5

Aqui Ilex pleiobrachiata

0.1

Araceae sp.

0.5

0.8

Arec Corypha utan

0.2

Aris Thottea tomentosa

1.3

Ascl Tylophora tenuis

0.7

0.6

Asteraceae sp.

4.8

0.5

Aste Blumea balsamifera

Aste Chromolaena
odorata

7.3

10.7

12

5.2

6.6

Aste Elephantopus scaber

Burs Canarium
denticulatum
Burs Canarium hirsutum
Chry Parinari cf.
oblongifolia
Clus Cratoxylum
formosum

0.8

7.6

-2.3

4.2

-1
2.9

0.5

50.6

1.2

2.9

26.1

1.1

2.3
1.5

1.7

0.6

0.2

1.2

15.4

0.1

Comb Terminalia sp.

Cype Cyperus rotundus
Cype Cyperus sp.
Cype Fimbristylis
monostachya

0.2

-2.7

0.2

-2.7

0.2

-2.7

0.4

0.3

-2.7

0.3

-1.6

0.1

-2.7

3.1

-1.3

0.5
14.6

3.1
9.5

Cype Scleria laevis

1.6

1.6

5.4

-1.3

Cype Scleria lithosperma

0.6

Dill Dillenia excelsa

Dill Tetracera scandens
Eben Diospyros
bantamensis
Eben Diospyros
hermaphroditica

-1.3

3.3

Clus Garcinia celebica

Clus Garcinia parvifolia

-2.7

-2.7

1
1.5

1.2

3.4

1.9

0.9

69

-2.2
0.8

1.4

-2.7

4.2

-2.7

Eben Diospyros truncata

Elae Elaeocarpus
floribundus
Elae Elaeocarpus
petiolatus

0.1
0.5

-1.3
7.2

-2.6

-2.7

Esca Polyosma ilicifolia

0.1

-2.7

Euph Antidesma sp.

0.1

-2.7

4.6

-2.7

0.1

0.1

-2.7

0.3

1.4

Euph Aporosa frutescens

7.8

Euph Aporosa lucida

2.8

0.7

Euph Baccaurea javanica

Euph Breynia virgata

3.8

Euph Euphorbia prostata

17.8

1.7

0.8

21.9

4.9

3.9

0.8

Euph Glochidion rubrum

Euph Glochidion sp.
Euph Macaranga
javanica
Euph Mallotus
philippensis
Euph Phyllanthus niruri
Euph Phyllanthus
urinaria
Faba Archidendron
fagifolium
Faba Desmodium
heterocarpum
Faba Desmodium
triflorum

1.9

-1.3

-1.3

0.3

-1.3

0.5

1.1

2.2
1.1

0.9

1.4

1.5
0.1

14.4

13.9

-0.3

0.1

-2

8.4

-1.3

0.7

1.6

Flac Casearia flavovirens

Flac Casearia
grewiaefolia

1.2

-2.7

0.5

-2.7

Flac Flacourtia inermis

0.7

-2.7

6.7

-1.8

0.1

-2.7

Flac Flacourtia rukam

3.5

12.6

3.4

1.9

Icac Platea excelsa

Laur Cinnamomum iners
Laur Cryptocarya
densiflora

1.4

1
0.6

Laur Litsea elliptica

Laur Neolitsea javanica
Lecy Barringtonia
racemosa

3.8

-1.3
0.7

-2.7

0.1

-2.7

0.1

-1.3
0.4

-2.7

Leea Leea aculeata

0.9

0.5

-2.7

Leea Leea aequata

0.6

0.2

-2.7

0.1

-2.7

Loga Fagraea sp.

Loga Spigelia anthelmia
Mela Melastoma
malabathricum
Mela Memecylon
myrsinoides
Meli Dysoxylum
caulostachyum

1.1
19.1

3.1
27.4

9.8

44.2
2.2

70

62.8

7.9

0.9
1

-2.7

0.1

-2.7

Meli Dysoxylum
densiflorum

0.1

-2.7

Moni Kibara coriacea

0.1

-2.7

Mora Ficus fistulosa

0.1

-2.7

0.4

-2.7

Myrs Maesa perlarius

0.1

-2.7

Myrs Maesa ramentacea

Myrt Decaspermum
fruticosum

0.2

-2.7

Myrs Ardisia humilis

4.2

3.1

Myrt Rhodamnia cinerea

1.4

Myrt Syzygium decipiens

4.2

-2.7

14.3

5.7

16.6

0.5

0.4

8.5

Myrt Syzygium littorale

Myrt Syzygium
polyanthum
Olea Ligustrum
glomeratum

16.5

4.1

Poac (Jukut liat)

Poac Chrysopogon
aciculatus

0.7
1.8

2.1

Poac Eleusine indica

17.6

13.2

Poac Imperata cylindrica

10.5

Poac Ischaemum rugosum

58.2

Port Portulaca sp.

0.4

Rubi Borreria ocymifolia

38

35.1

40.4

2.8

28.2

7.6

-2.7

54.7

-0.8

1.5

-2.7

6.8

-2

0.1

-2.7
0.7

0.6

0.9
1.9

2.1

1.8

1.2

1.9
3.1

0.5

0.8
0.1

8.1

3.5

6.5

3.1
3.8

3.9
0.4

Rubi Ixora linearifolia

1.5

Rubi Ixora paludosa

1.2

Rubi Neonauclea calycina

Rubi Psychotria cf.
robusta
Ruta Acronychia
pedunculata

0.5
0.8

0.5

-2.7
1.7

Rubi Ixora havilandii

Ruta Clausena excavata

Sapi Erioglossum
rubiginosum

0.1

0.5

Rubi Chasalia curviflora

Rubi Diodia ocymifolia
Rubi Hedyotis
pseudocorymbosa
Rubi Hypobathrum
frutescens

-1.7
-1.3

Myrt Syzygium formosum

Myrt Syzygium lineatum

28.6

2.1

0.1

24.1

1.1

1.8

14.1

12.9

2.9

Schi Lygodium circinatum

9.3

39.2

16.2
28.1

3.5

Schi Schizaea digitata

71

-2.7
-2.3

1.5

25.6

0.8

3.6

-2.4

13.5

70.5

20.6

-1.2

1.7

-1.4

7.3

0.5

0.1

0.5

1.6

-2.7

31.5

2.4

-0.8

0.4

22.5

-2.7

3.8

Sapi Guioa pubescens

Sapi Mischocarpus
sundaicus

-1.3

2.7

51.1

-2.7

17.5

0.6

0.4

2.6

-2.7

Scro Lindernia crustacea

3.8

Sell Sellaginela plana

Sima Brucea javanica
Ster Pterospermum
javanicum
Symp Symplocos
fasciculata

2.5
1.7

0.5

0.6

0.6

-1.7
17.5

1.8

2.8

0.7

0.5

0.6

0.1

-2.7

Thea Ternstroemia patens

0.5

-2.7

Thea Thea lanceolata

0.3

-2.7

Thym Phalearia capitata

0.1

-2.7

Tili Grewia acuminata

-2.7

Tili Pentace polyantha

0.4

-2.7

Verb Stachytarpeta indica

3.6

Verb Tectona grandis

0.5

0.7

Verb Vitex pinnata

1.2

5.1

-1.3
8

2.3

5.4

72

2.8

39.1

0.9
11.1

6.7

-0.4

Table 3. Soil nutrient content and light intensity (Mean STD)

Location

Carbon (%)

Nitrogen (%)

C:N ratio

pH

Light intensity
(PAR ,M/m2/s)

Site
openess
(%)

Cikamal

3.97 0.76a

0.34 0.08a

11.69 0.93a

5.8 0.3a

2229 344

67 18

Nanggorak

2.82 0.42b

0.21 0.04b

13.66 1.83a

6.06 0.19a

1221 695

42 15

Badeto

2.69 0.89b

0.19 0.07b

14.23 0.98b

5.8 0.23a

195 163

21 4

NA

NA

NA

NA

68 130

15 2

Batu meja

Data (Mean STD) displayed with the same letter means no significant at p<0.005 Tukeys HSD

73

Table 4. The characteristics of abandoned plantation (ABP), disturbed forest (DF) and less disturbed forest (LDF) in Halimun Salak corridor
area based on basal area (m2 ha-1), biomass (ton ha-1), species number of tree (T), Seedling (S), and herb (H), Fisher , and Shannon-Wiener
index (H).
Site characteristics
Basal area (m2 ha-1)
-1

Biomass (ton ha )
Species richness
Tree*
Seedling
Herb
Species diversity
Fisher
Shannon-Wiener index (H')
*The data from tree DBH>4.8 cm

Abandoned
Plantation

Disturbed Forest

Less Disturbed
Forest

Halimun
(P2)

Halimun
(P3)

15.51

17.47

41.27

40.31

39.66

58.96

71.85

314.94

369.26

291.06

23
41
71

54
39
52

47
47
43

112
NA
NA

98
NA
NA

7.19
3.44

20.98
4.45

18.46
4.04

31.32
5.77

23.38
4.61

74

Table 5. Ten dominance species are displayed to describe the vegetation structure
of abandoned plantation (ABP), disturbed forest (DF), less disturbed forest (LDF),
and permanent plot (P2 and P3) in corridor and Halimun area. Family name is
written as four characters before species name.
Species
ABP
Tree
Laur (Huru beunyer)
(Huru sereh)
(K10738)
(Pasang jambe)
Arau Agathis dammara
Laur Alseodaphne (K10807)
Hama Altingia excelsa
Mela Bellucia pentamera
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Faga Castanopsis acuminatissima
Faga Castanopsis cf. tungurrut
Faga Castanopsis javanica
Rubi Chinchona pubescens
Rubi Coffea arabica
Cyat Cyathea contaminans
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Thea Eurya acuminata
Clus Garcinia rostrata
Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Myri Horsfieldia glabra
Euph Macaranga triloba
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Ruta Melicope accedens
Icac Platea latifolia
Meli Pternandra azurea
Faga Quercus (K10944)
Faga Quercus lineata
Faga Quercus oidocarpa
Thea Schima wallichii
Meli Swietenia macrophylla
Myrt Syzygium
(K10958)[kisirum/jeret]
Myrt Syzygium lineatum
Cuno Weinmannia blumei
Mora Arthocarpus altilis
Mora Arthrophyllum diversifolium

Relative dominance (%)

DF
LDF
P2

P3

1.00
3.51
1.58
21.05
2.79
10.55
2.47

4.32
3.61
5.73
6.49

31.22

4.35
40.57
1.09

2.70
5.80

34.00
5.14
5.68

5.41
3.25
2.81
7.91
1.41
1.65
2.11
2.71
6.87

2.53
26.26
5.50
2.66
1.61
7.69

8.50
33.38

5.88

4.36
27.82

10.59

1.83
2.65
2.76
6.56
23.31

1.60
2.93
2.94
Seedling
2.05
1.27
75

NA
NA

NA
NA

Mela Bellucia pentamera

Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Sola Capsicum frutescens
Faga Castanopsis acuminatissima
Faga Chinchona pubescens
Aste Clibadium surinamense
Mela Clidemia hirta
Rubi Coffea arabica
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Cyat Cyathea sp.2
Gesn Cyrtandra sandei
Aste Eupatorium inulifolium
Thea Eurya acuminata
Euph Macaranga triloba
Mela Melastoma malabathricum
Arec Pinanga coronata
Rubi Psychotria varidifolia
Faga Quercus oidocarpa
Thea Schima wallichii
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Myrt Syzygium lineatum
Rubi Urophyllum glabrum
Rubi Urophyllum macrophyllum
Aste Ageratum conyzoides
Zing Alpinia sp.
Aspl Asplenium nidus
Arec Calamus sp.
Mela Clidemia hirta
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Glei Dicranopteris linearis
Arec Dinochloa scandens
Polyp Diplazium sorzogonense
Polyp Diplazium sp. 1
Zing Etlingera coccinea
Pand Freycinetia
Rubi Hedyothis sp.
Poac Imperata cylindrica
Neph Nephrolepis davallioides
Olean Oleandra pistilaris
Poac Panicum notatum
Poac Paspalum conjugatum
Arec Pinanga coronata
Arec Plectocomia
Sela Saccharum spontaneum

4.23
7.30
4.78

5.40
0.92
8.30

17.26
5.06
7.70

6.08
62.27

58.10
18.06

5.99
13.70
15.27
2.19
6.28
1.25

1.85

3.42
0.84
0.82
1.06
2.72
0.79

2.38
1.37
Herb
4.71

4.52

11.48
3.54
4.55

5.53
6.37

8.70
9.46
4.30
4.05
5.72
8.68
8.78

5.24
7.05
4.79

9.16
10.57

6.75
8.67
3.34
4.10
4.94
76

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

Thely Selaginella plana

Acan Sphaerostephanos cf.
heterocarpus
Acan Strobilanthes sp.
Aste Wedellia biflora

17.15

7.55

15.28

NA

NA

4.55

NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA

6.62
4.46

*The species name for unidentified specimens follows the system in Herbarium of Kagoshima
University

77

Table 6. The diameter class of tree (DBH>4.8 cm) in corridor and permanent plots
Site
ABP
DF
LDF
P2
P3

Diameter class (cm)

<10
82
138
126
652
764

10-20
70
87
44
232
474

20-30
13
21
14
74
145

78

30-40
1
4
13
45
65

40-50
3
3
18
24
39

>50
0
1
2
61
35

Figures

Fig. 1 Pangandaran Nature Reserve in Pangandaran Peninsular. Five polygons of

solid line show grazing sites set in 1921 from Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977).
Three polygons of broken lines show the boundary written in 25,000 scale map
made in 1994. Black polygons show grasslands in Google Earth image in 2010.

79

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Fig. 2 The important plant and animals in Pangandaran Nature reserve. They are
(a) silver leaf monkey (Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus), (b) the long-tailed
macaque (Macaca fascicularis), (c) Varanus salvator, (d) deer (Cervus
timorensis), (e) banteng (Bos javanicus), and (f) Rafflesia patma.

80

Fig. 3 The average rainfall from 1990 to 2010 taken from meteorological station
in Parigi, Ciamis, West Java.

81

(d)

b)

(c)

(a)

Fig. 4 Cikamal (a) the largest grassland in PNR now have been reduced by
occupation of pioneer woody species. Nanggorak (b) with the small area of
grassland nearly covered by shrub and teak. Badeto (c) has been developed into
young secondary forest after abandoned approximately 30 years. Batu meja (d)
developed into more mature forest with dominancy of lowland forest species after
55 year abandonment.
82

100

Diodia ocymifolia

Chromolaena odorata

Melastoma malaba

Breynia virgata

Blumea balsamifera

Guioa pubescens

0 60 120 0
0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120

0 60 120 0
0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120

Coverage (%)

Grasses

Syzygium lineatum

Psychotria cf. robusta

Cratoxylum formosu

Tectona grandis

Vitex pinnata

200

300

100

200

300

North-South (m)
Fig. 5 Coverage of representative species in the northsouth transect (325 m long)
of Cikamal grassland.

83

Diodia ocymifolia

Chromolaena odorata

Melastoma malaba

Breynia virgata

Blumea balsamifera

Guioa pubescens

0 60 120 0
0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120

0 60 120 0
0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120

Coverage (%)

Grasses

Syzygium lineatum

Psychotria cf. robusta

Cratoxylum formosu

Tectona grandis

Vitex pinnata

100

200

100

20

North-South (m)
Fig. 6 Coverage of representative species in the northsouth transect (190 m long)
of Nanggorak grassland.

84

Diodia ocymifolia

Chromolaena odorata

Melastoma malaba

Breynia virgata

Blumea balsamifer

Guioa pubescens

0 60 120 0
0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120

0 60 120 0
0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120 0
0 60 120

Coverage (%)

Grasses

Syzygium lineatum

Psychotria cf. robusta

Cratoxylum formos

Tectona grandis

Vitex pinnata

100

200

300

100

200

30

North-South (m)
Fig. 7 Coverage of representative species in the northsouth transect (280 m long)
of Badeto.

85

1
.5

Psy

Cikamal
Nanggorak

1
.0

SL

Badeto
Batu meja

MM

0
.5

GP
RC
0
.0

MS

Batu meja

CE
TG

D
C
0A

.5
2

IR

Nanggorak

Badeto

Cikamal

BV

BB

CO

VP
FR
AF
DF BA DE
DH
DC

AP
NJ

AL

EI
BJ

IC
CA

CA
PU

LD

HP
SA


2
.0


1
.5


1
.0

FM

3

2

1

DCA1

Fig. 8 First and second scores of Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA).

Open circles shows the scores of four sites (Cikamal, Nanggorak, Badeto, Batu
Meja). Other symbols show those of species. The symbol types show the sites
where the species is most common among the four sites.

AF= Aporosa

frutescens, DF= Decaspermum fruticosum, DH= Diospyros hermaphroditica,

DC=

Dysoxylum

caulostachyum,

MS=

Mischocarpus

sundaicus,

BA=

Buchanania arborescens, DE= Dillenia excelsa, FR= Flacourtia rukam, RC=

Rhodamnia cinerea, AP=Acronychia pedunculata, NJ= Neolitsea javanica, Psy=
Psychotria cf. robusta, SL= Syzygium lineatum, GP= Guioa pubescens, VP= Vitex
pinnata, AL= Aporosa lucida, CE= Clausena excavata, CA= Chrysopogon
aciculatus, TC= Tectona grandis, MM= Melastoma malabathricum, BV= Breynia
virgata, PU= Phyllanthus urinaria, FM= Fimbristylis monostachya, IC= Imperata
cylindrica, EI= Eleusine indica, IR= Ischaemum rugosum, CA= Centella asiatica,
CO= Chromolaena odorata, LC= Lindernia crustacea, BJ= Brucea javanica,
BB= Blumea balsamifera, HP= Hedyotis pseudocorymbosa, SA= Spigelia
anthelmia.

86

N
Legend:
HSC Ecology Zone
HSC Lancover 1989
Classification:

GHSNP Boundary

No Data

Composite Plantation

Forest
Plantation Forest

Rubber Plantation
Tea Plantation

District Boundary

Bushes
Grasses
Farmland

Field
Empty Land
Land Up

Fig 9. Gradual change of forest coverage in the corridor area of Gunung Halimun
Salak National Park from 1989 to 2008. The conversion of forest to another land
uses degraded and fragmented corridor severely (Source: Map of land
cover/landuse in corridor of Gunung Halimun Salak National Park 2011).
87

(a)

Halimun

Salak

Cianten

Cisalimar

Cianten

Garehong
Mt. Halimun

Purabakti

Mt. Salak

Cevron area

GH area

Kabandungan
Cisarua

(b)

http://ekowisata.org/galeri/taman-nasional/tn-gunung-halimun-salak/

Fig 10. Location of Halimun Salak National Park within three boundaries of
Bogor, Sukabumi, and Lebak District, West Java, Indonesia. The broken line was
the old border and stright black line is new border of national park. Vegetation
survey was conducted at corridor area within area inside the box. The distribution
of of plots displayed on map from Google Earth (2012). Red circles were plots in
abandoned plantation, yellow circles were degraded forest, and green circles were
less degraded forest.

88

(c)

(d)

(b)
(a)

Fig. 11 Vegetation survey was conducted at abandoned plantation (a) with

cultivation, (b) without cultivation, (c) disturbed forest, and (d) less disturbed
forest in Halimun Salak corridor area.

89

Fig. 12 Illegal logging (a, b) and agriculture activity (c) in corridor were common
in area near to village. Road establishment (d) facilitates local people to access
forest easily.

90

-4
-2
0
2

DCA1

91

-3

-2

-1

DCA2
2

4
3
2
1

DCA2

0
-1
-2
-3

-4

-2

DCA1
Fig. 14 The ordination of common species in each forest type based on DCA1 and
DCA2 value. The vegetation composition reflects disturbance intensity in corridor
area. The open area species has high DCA1 value while forest species grouped by
low DCA1 value. The abbreviation of sites and common species were displayed
on graph; Abandoned plantation (ABP), Disturbed forest (DF), Less disturbed
forest (LDF), Agathis dammara (Aga), Ageratum conyzoides (Age), Altingia
excelsa (Alt) , Bellucia pentamera (Bell), Calliandra calothyrsus (Cal), Capsicum
frutescens (Cap), Castanopsis acuminatissima (Cas ac), Chinchona pubescens
(Chi), Clibadium surinamense (Cli), Coffea arabica (Cof), Cyathea contaminans
(Cya c), Cyathea latebrosa (Cya l), Dinochloa scandens (Din), Eupatorium
inulifolium (Eup), Eurya acuminate (Eur), Imperata cylindrica (Imp), Macaranga
tanarius (Mac ta), Macaranga triloba (Mac tr), Maesopsis eminii (Mae),
Melastoma malabathricum (Mel), Musa accuminata (Mus), Platea excelsa (Pla),
Pternandra azurea (Paz), Quercus lineata (Que li), Quercus oidocarpa (Que oi),
Saccharum spontaneum (Sac), Schima wallichii (Sch), Solanum nigrum (Sol n),
Swietenia macrophylla (Swi), Synedrella nodiflora (Syn), Weinmannia blumei
(Wei), Wedellia biflora (Wed).

92

Fig. 15 Biomass distribution among native, invasive, planted, and pioneer species
at abandoned plantation (ABP), disturbed forest (DF), and less disturbed forest
(LDF) in Halimun Salak corridor area.

93

Appendices

Appendix A. The characteristics of plots in corridor of Gunung Halimun Salak National Park and Halimun permanent plot.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Plot No
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
LD1
A10

Latitude (S)
6 44' 16.09"
6 44' 50.01"
6 44' 54.08"
6 44' 47.36"
6 44' 54.89"
6 44' 57.22"
6 44' 47.4"
6 45' 21.38"
6 44' 51.68"
6 45' 13.47"
6 44' 58.61"

Longitude (E)
106 35' 5.72"
106 37' 12.81"
106 35' 54.81"
106 36' 23.85"
106 36' 25.12"
106 36' 48.54"
106 37' 12.32"
106 37' 55.92"
106 38' 18.6"
106 35' 49.19"
106 35' 27.13"

LD2
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
A11
D6

6 45' 33.3"
6 45' 29.7"
6 45' 20.6"
6 45' 21.1"
6 45' 25.3"
6 45' 38.7"
6 45' 44.7"
6 45' 40.1"

106 36' 43.9"

106 36' 41.7"
106 36' 53.1"
106 36' 51.8"
106 36' 45.2"
106 36' 40.3"
106 36' 38.7"
106 36' 45.9"

Height (m)
1199
1066
1160
1058
1132
1093
1037
1023
1028
1034
1054

Forest type
Abandoned plantation
Abandoned plantation
Abandoned plantation
Abandoned plantation
Abandoned plantation
Abandoned plantation
Abandoned plantation
Abandoned plantation
Abandoned plantation
Less disturbed forest
Abandoned plantation

908
960
1017
1013
948
893
875
855

Less disturbed forest

Disturbed forest
Disturbed forest
Disturbed forest
Disturbed forest
Disturbed forest
Abandoned plantation
Disturbed forest
94

Dominant Tree
Agathis dammara-Helicia serrata
Swietenia macrophylla -Agathis dammara
Bellucia pentamera-Agathis dammara
Agathis dammara-Bellucia pentamera
Agathis dammara-Cyathea contaminans
Swietenia macrophylla -Agathis dammara
Swietenia macrophylla-Coffea arabica
Altingia excelsa-Schima wallichii
Swietenia macrophylla-Agathis dammara
Quercus oidocarpa-Altingia excelsa
Schima wallichii-Agathis dammara
Castanopsis acuminatissima-Castanopsis
javanica
Cyathea latebrosa-Ficus fistulosa
Ficus hamerang-Michelia montana
Maesopsis eminii-(Huru sereh)
Chinchona pubescens-(Pasang jambe)
Schima wallichii-Agathis dammara
Maesopsis eminii-Coffea arabica
Calliandra calothyrsus-Agathis dammara

20 LD3
21 D7

6 45' 42.5"
6 45' 16.76"

106 36' 37.2"

106 36' 50.58"

870 Less disturbed forest

1006 Disturbed forest

22 LD4
23 P2
24 P3

6 45' 23.31"
6 44 57
6 44.8

106 37' 6.07"

106 32 08
106 32.7

995 Less disturbed forest

1100 Old forest
1100 Old forest

95

Schima wallichii-Calliandra calothyrsus

Maesopsis eminii-Melicope accedens
Castanopsis acuminatissima-Weinmannia
blumei
Altingia excelsa-Schima wallichii
Castanopsis acuminatissima-Schima wallichii

Appendix B. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of tree layer (individual H> 130 cm) in abandoned plantation (A1-A11) of corridor Gunung
Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Species
Arau Agathis dammara
Meli Aglaia edulis?
Hama Altingia excelsa
Euph Aporosa frutescens
Faba Archidendron clypearia
Mora Arthocarpus elasticus
Mora Arthocarpus heterophyllus
Mora Arthrophyllum
diversifolium
Mela Bellucia pentamera
Euph Bridelia cf. glauca
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Faba Calliandra portoricensis
Aste Clibadium surinamense
Mela Clidemia hirta
Rubi Coffea arabica
Cyat Cyathea contaminans
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Elae Elaeocarpus punctatus
Aste Eupatorium inulifolium
Thea Eurya acuminata
Mora Ficus fistulosa
Mora Ficus padana

A1
69.361

A2
17.927

A3
12.668

A4
48.432

A5
49.492

A6
12.608

A7

A8

A9
0.774

A10
19.725
0.023

A11

80.516
2.731
2.838
0.024
5.617
0.115
0.104

6.442

78.602

32.312

0.084
0.018
0.037

2.085
0.254
0.418

4.019
13.992
0.008

0.047

0.150

0.017
0.005

0.454
0.122

0.234

0.078
0.020
27.809

4.181
5.311
1.280
3.061

1.107

0.366

25.803
4.889
1.639

0.018
96

0.767
8.757
0.016

4.554
1.164

1.463

0.671

1.420
3.668
0.006

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49

Mora Ficus ribes

Mora Ficus sinuata
Clus Garcinia parvifolia
Euph Glochidion arborescens
Euph Glochidion philippicum
Euph Glochidion sp.
Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Hang Hanguana malayana
Prot Helicia serrata
Verb Lantana camara
Faga Lithocarpus sundaicus
Euph Macaranga tanarius
Euph Macaranga triloba
Laur Machilus
Myrs Maesa repanda
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Euph Mallotus sp.
Mela Melastoma malabathricum
Rubi Mussaenda erythrophylla
Rubi Mussaenda flava
Rubi Mussaenda frondosa
Pipe Piper aduncum
Rubi Psychotria viridiflora
Myrt Rhodamnia cinerea
Rosa Rubus mollucanus
Ruta Rutaceae_1
Thea Schima wallichii

0.018

0.013
0.035

0.008
1.715
0.567
0.003
0.001
0.430

0.029
20.206
0.224

0.351

0.033

0.110

0.110
0.046

0.018
0.006
0.116
0.059
0.870

0.160

0.106

12.195
64.616
0.948

0.353
0.106

0.027
0.011

0.003
0.016

0.009

0.032

0.163

0.045
0.019
0.035
0.008
0.020
0.004

0.061

2.357

0.010
0.534
0.579
0.004

0.078

0.327
14.650

97

0.400

0.023
49.131

50
51
52
53
54

Verb Stachytarpeta indica

Meli Swietenia macrophylla
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Myrt Syzygium cf.magnoliifolium
Poly Xanthophyllum sp.

0.005
74.338
0.110

9.915

0.003
85.860 95.811

97.879
0.172

2.785
0.824

98

0.004

Appendix C. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of tree layer (individual H> 130 cm) in disturbed forest (D1-D7) of corridor Gunung
Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Species
(Huru sereh)
(Ki jambe)
(Ki paray)
(Pasang jambe)
Arau Agathis dammara
Euph Antidesma montanum
Euph Aporosa octandra
Myrs Ardisia zollingeri
Mora Arthrophyllum diversifolium
Laur Beilschmiedia madang
Euph Blumeodendron elateriospermum
Euph Breynia cernua
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Faba Calliandra portoricensis
Arac Caryota rumphiana
Faga Castanopsis acuminatissima
Faga Castanopsis argentea
Faga Castanopsis javanica
Rubi Chinchona pubescens
Olea Chionanthus montanus
Euph Claoxylon longifolium
Verb Clerodendrum sp.
Aste Clibadium surinamense

D1

D2

D3
15.0542

D4

D5

D6

D7
0.6486

1.4116
28.9289
24.4237
0.0102

0.0004
9.6607
0.0197

0.0701

0.0328

2.7320
0.6580

0.0634
1.0172
5.0236

0.0030
43.8749
0.1586
0.9129

2.3571
0.0388
0.0171

0.1456
0.0144
0.0088

0.1477

0.0652
99

0.0164
36.2004

8.9135
8.7313
0.0049

0.2132

24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

Mela Clidemia hirta

Laur Cryptocarya triplinervis
Cyat Cyathea contaminans
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Gesn Cyrtandra cuneata
Gesn Cyrtandra sandei
Meli Disoxylum?
Meli Dysoxylum excelsum
Meli Dysoxylum nutans
Aste Eupatorium inulifolium
Thea Eurya acuminata
Mora Ficus fistulosa
Mora Ficus hamerang
Mora Ficus ribes
Mora Ficus sinuata
Clus Garcinia rostrata
Euph Glochidion arborescens
Anno Goniothalamus macrophyllus
Thea Goordonia excelsa
Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Prot Helicia serrata
Euph Homalanthus populneus
Zing Horsfieldia glabra
Moni Kibara coriacea
Urti Laportea glauca
Rubi Lasianthus sp.
Faga Lithocarpus elegans

0.3099

0.0052

0.0005

0.0010

0.0096

0.0002

0.0097
36.5388 11.0944

0.4858

0.3341

2.7997
3.1616 22.1163
0.0157
0.0142

4.1733

8.5704
0.5179
1.1850
11.2505

0.0043

0.0234

1.7790
28.0642 0.4483
23.9062
2.0335

0.0026
0.7831

0.5326
0.0004

0.0896

0.0203

0.1256
0.0045
0.0083

2.2121
0.0392
2.6239
0.3264

0.4909
7.1575

0.7638

2.5339
0.1152

0.0601
0.1746

0.4599

0.0090
0.0210
0.0052

100

4.2021

51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77

Faga Lithocarpus korthalsii

Faga Lithocarpus sundaicus
Laur Litsea cubeba
Laur Litsea ferruginea
Laur Litsea monopetala
Laur Litsea tomentosa
Euph Macaranga tanarius
Euph Macaranga triloba
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Magn Magnolia macklottii
Anac Melanochyla caesia
Ruta Melicope accedens
Melio Meliosma pinnata
Magn Michelia montana
Rubi Mussaenda erythrophylla
Rubi Mussaenda frondosa
Myrs Myrsine hasseltii
Laur Neolitsea triplinervia
Olea Olea javanica
Faba Paraserianthes
Laur Persea rimosa
Arec Pinanga coronata
Esca Polyosma ilicifolia
Rosa Prunus arborea
Rubi Psychotria viridiflora
Mela Pternandra azurea
Faga Quercus gemelliflora

0.0294

0.0010

0.3523
4.0604
0.0187
0.0240

20.5692

0.2640
0.4243
2.6571 0.1365
54.5918

1.8310
11.8672

0.7152
2.2922

4.2985
2.6275

0.2890
3.8635
6.2389
2.3104
1.8109
0.7059

0.1247
3.7018

0.3846
20.2691

3.2476
0.2242
3.8619

0.0834
0.0148
3.8242
0.0104
0.0707
0.0469
0.0833
4.9772

101

2.7285
1.0172
0.0031
4.1258
0.2890

0.0028
4.4779
0.0037

0.0545
1.8302
3.0680
0.0021
0.1825
1.5973

3.3394
0.0021
60.7037

0.2344
0.2798

78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95

Faga Quercus oidocarpa

Thea Schima wallichii
Elae Sloanea sigun
Sterc Sterculia coccinea
Sterc Sterculia oblongata
Acan Strobilanthes
Symp Symplocos cochinchinensis
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Myrt Syzygium cf.magnoliifolium
Myrt Syzygium lineatum
Myrt Syzygium sp.
Rubi Tarenna dasyphylla
Thea Thea lanceolata
Rubi Uncaria globata
Rubi Urophyllum glabrum
Rubi Urophyllum lineatum
Rubi Urophyllum macrophyllum
Aste Vernonia arborea

2.0071
14.7371
0.0200
0.0036
0.0410
0.7228

0.0888
7.9856
11.2445
0.7391

0.0072
0.0794
0.2840
1.1013

3.9283 15.2989
0.0315
0.0350

4.1491

0.1148
1.3970

0.0305
0.0022

2.5964

0.0077

0.0005
0.0151

1.3305
0.7173
0.0084

0.0025

0.0015

0.5751

1.0033
0.6152

1.2461

0.0275
4.9558

102

2.8096

Appendix D. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of tree layer (individual H> 130 cm)
in disturbed forest (LD1-LD4) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

Species
(Huru beunyer)
(Huru entek)
(K10738)
(K11032)
(Sp.733)
Acer Acer lauranium
Meli Aglaia edulis?
Laur Alseodaphne (K10807)
Hama Altingia excelsa
Mora Antiaris toxicaria
Euph Antidesma cf. stipulare
Euph Antidesma montanum
Euph Aporosa [bihbir]
Euph Aporosa frutescens
Euph Aporosa grandistipulata
Euph Aporosa octandra
Myrs Ardisia zollingeri
Mora Arthrophyllum
diversifolium
Mora Arthocarpus elasticus
Euph Baccaurea (K10730) ?
Laur Beilschmiedia madang
Mela Bellucia pentamera
Euph Blumeodendron tokbrai
Euph Breynia cernua
Euph Bridelia cf. glauca
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Clus Calophyllum (K10853
small l)
Thea Camellia lanceolata
Arec Caryota rumphiana
Faga Castanopsis
acuminatissima
Faga Castanopsis cf. tungurrut
Faga Castanopsis javanica
Rubi Chinchona pubescens
Olea Chionanthus montanus
Meli Chisocheton patens
Laur Cinnamomum sintoc?
Ruta Citrus grandis
Laur Cryptocarya densiflora

LD1
6.351

LD2

LD3

LD4

P2

P3

1.584

0.148
0.019

0.090
0.389
1.034
31.221

0.380
0.016
2.697
5.802

0.039
0.047

0.056
0.014
0.062
0.008

0.396

0.007

0.007
0.126
0.079

0.013

0.293

0.350

0.089

0.002
1.386

21.132
0.003

7.371

1.593
0.515
0.028
0.089

0.081
0.007

0.021

0.288
0.023
0.068
0.385

13.220

90.601

0.082

63.463

3.786

0.132

0.231

0.023
0.610
0.579

0.094
34.002

5.140
5.678

0.047
0.133

0.073
0.033

0.006
0.322
0.005

0.130
0.009

103

0.364

39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82

Laur Cryptocarya glaucescens

Laur Cryptocarya triplinervis
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Cyat Cyathea sp.2
Cyat Cyathea sp.3
Gesn Cyrtandra sandei
Podo Dacrycarpus imbricatus
Burs Dacryodes rugosa
Urti Dendrocnide stimulans
Rubi Diplospora cf. singularis
Meli Dysoxylum excelsum
Meli Dysoxylum nutans
Elae Elaeocarpus oxpyren?
Elae Elaeocarpus punctatus
Elae Elaeocarpus?
Jugl Engelhardia serrata
Thea Eurya acuminata
Mora Ficus
Mora Ficus (K10776)
Mora Ficus aspericula
Mora Ficus fistulosa
Mora Ficus grossularoides
Mora Ficus hispida
Mora Ficus padana
Mora Ficus ribes
Mora Ficus sinuata
Flac Flacourtia rukam
Rubi Gaertnera (K10791) ?
Sapo Ganua (K10849) ?
Clus Garcinia dioica?
Clus Garcinia parvifolia
Clus Garcinia rostrata
Verb Geunsia pentandra?
Euph Glochidion rubrum
Euph Glochidion sp.
Icac Gomphandra javanica
Thea Gordonia excelsa
Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Prot Helicia serrata
Prot Heliciopsis lanceolata?
Myri Horsfieldia glabra
Aqui Ilex cissoidea
Aqui Ilex odorata
Aqui Ilex sp.

1.458
0.358
3.369
0.368
0.375

0.402

0.701

0.002
0.006
0.062
0.059
0.010

0.384
0.255

0.012
0.050
2.228

1.476

0.367
0.009
1.374
0.057
0.048
0.010

0.101
0.025

0.061
0.329

0.050
0.045

0.128

0.015
0.157
0.030
0.121

0.124
0.181
0.020
0.090
0.563
0.174

0.000

0.934
0.043
0.046
0.856

0.936
0.216

0.096
0.011

0.035
1.654
0.007

0.027
0.419
0.007
0.003

9.069
0.102
0.040
2.712

0.220
0.003
0.026

104

0.033
0.070
0.212
0.861

83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125

Aqui Ilex triflora

Rubi Ixora (K11056) ??
Myri Knema subhirtella
Thea Laplacea integrrima
Rubi Lasianthus cf.sylvestris
Rubi Lasianthus laevigatus
Rubi Lasianthus sp.
Sapi Lepisanthes senegalensis
Laur Lindera bibracteata
Laur Lindera polyantha
Faga Lithocarpus (ruui)
Faga Lithocarpus indutus
Faga Lithocarpus sundaicus
Laur Litsea
Laur Litsea angulata
Laur Litsea brachystachya
Laur Litsea cf. resinosa
Laur Litsea cubeba
Laur Litsea diversifolia
Laur Litsea ferruginea
Laur Litsea fulva
Laur Litsea grandis
Laur Litsea javanica
Laur Litsea lanceolata
Euph Macaranga tanarius
Euph Macaranga triloba
Aral Macropanax dispermum
Sapo Madhuca (K10919) ?
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Magn Magnolia elegans?
(maja)
Corn Mastixia trichotoma
Anac Melanochyla caesia
Ruta Melicope accedens
Meli Meliosma lanceolata?
Mela Memecylon cf.
myrsinoides
Mela Memecylon floribundum
Magn Michelia montana
Anno Mitrephora (K11052)
Rubi Mussaenda erythrophylla
Myri Myrica esculenta
Myrs Myrsine hasseltii
Bomb Neesia altissima
Laur Neolitsea javanica

0.015
0.982
0.782

0.005
0.454
1.402

0.009
0.002
0.048
0.022
0.173

0.141

0.054

0.269
1.381

1.383

0.131
0.106

0.090

0.044

0.026

0.040

0.069
0.021

5.545
2.148
1.975

0.040
0.040
0.140

0.018
0.026
0.128

0.027

0.157

0.442
0.002

0.867
0.320

0.453
0.158
0.036

0.041
0.044
0.088
0.093

4.955
0.939

1.367
0.053

0.032

0.167
0.188
0.570
0.037
0.010
0.081

0.188

0.233
0.021
0.053
0.005
0.153
0.162
0.029
0.029

0.001
0.124
0.004
0.018

105

0.744
0.433

0.164
0.350

126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168

Laur Neolitsea triplinervia

Euph Neoscorthechinia kingii?
Laur Nothaphoebe
umbelliflora
Nyss Nyssa javanica
Euph Ostodes paniculata
Pand Pandanus furcatus
[cangkuang]
Mora Parartocarpus venenosus
Sapo Payena acuminata
Laur Persea cf. declinata
Laur Persea rimosa
Laur Phoebe elliptica
Sima Picrasma javanica
Arec Pinanga coronata
Icac Platea excelsa
Icac Platea latifolia
Podo Podocarpus neriifolius
Esca Polyosma ilicifolia
Esca Polyosma sp.
Anno Polyalthia lateriflora
Anno Polyalthia subcordata
Sapi Pometia pinnata
Rubi Prismatomeris javanica?
Podo Prumnopitys amara
Rosa Prunus adenopoda?
Rosa Prunus arborea
Rubi Psychotria viridiflora
Meli Pternandra azurea
Faga Quercus
Faga Quercus (K10944)
Faga Quercus lineata
Faga Quercus oidocarpa
Faga Quercus sp.
Myrs Rapanea affinis
Myrs Rapanea hesseltii
Myrt Rhodamnia cinerea
Flac Ryparosa javanica
Meli Sandoricum koetjape
Saur Saurauia javanica?
Euph Sauropus (K10765)
Thea Schima wallichii
Elae Sloanea javanica
Elae Sloanea sigun
Icac Stemonurus secundiflorus

0.150
1.217
0.150
0.651
0.754
0.016
0.055
0.035
1.136
0.008
0.018

0.029

0.249
0.020

0.009
0.617
2.664
0.006
1.051
0.011
0.918
0.017
0.128

0.304
10.202

26.619
0.003

0.442
0.000

0.628

0.579
0.281

0.565
0.345

0.116
1.333
0.348
1.151
0.270
7.692
0.105

0.276
0.035
0.009
0.058
0.503
0.155

0.210
0.290
0.010
0.470
1.831
2.648
2.762
6.560
1.542

0.025
0.063

0.001
0.126
0.333
0.012

2.165

106

0.762

78.564

7.500

0.009
0.067
10.592 23.308
0.006
0.750
0.680

169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196

Ster Sterculia coccinea

Euph Suregada multiflora
Symp Symplocos
cochinchinensis
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Myrt Syzygium cf. spicata
Myrt Syzygium (K10696
Salam)
Myrt Syzygium (K10921)
Myrt Syzygium (K10923
kopo)
Myrt Syzygium (K10924)
Myrt Syzygium
(K10958)[kisireum/jeret]
Myrt Syzygium (WK17830
caudete l)
Myrt Syzygium cf.
attenuatum(P171)
Myrt Syzygium cf.
bisulea(K10922 big cordate l)
Myrt Syzygium
cf.magnoliifolium
Myrt Syzygium lineatum
Myrt Syzygium napiforme
Myrt Syzygium sp.
Rubi Tarenna dasyphylla
Stap Turpinia montana
Stap Turpinia sphaerocarpa
Rubi Urophyllum arboreum
Rubi Urophyllum glabrum
Rubi Urophyllum
macrophyllum
Rubi Urophyllum?
Capr Viburnum coriaceum?
Cuno Weinmannia blumei
Poly Xanthophyllum sp.
Unident.

0.001
0.005
0.010
0.869

0.000

0.273
0.026
0.029
0.101
0.424

0.027
0.628

0.139

0.097
1.602

0.848

0.495

0.541

0.090
0.150
0.002

0.002
0.010

0.094

2.927

1.092

0.741

0.040

0.007

0.107
0.005
0.014
0.620
0.247

0.016
0.006
0.009

0.271
0.452

0.129

0.022
0.069
0.041

12.645
0.030
0.029

107

1.723

0.162

Appendix E. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of seedling (woody individual H 130 cm) in abandoned plantation (A1-A11) of corridor
Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Species
Fabaceae_1
Arau Agathis dammara
Meli Aglaia sp.
Faba Archidendron clypearia
Mora Arthocarpus altilis
Mora Arthocarpus
heterophyllus
Mela Bellucia pentamera
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Faba Calliandra portoricensis
Sola Capsicum frutescens
Faga Castanopsis
Aste Clibadium surinamense
Mela Clidemia hirta
Rubi Coffea arabica
Aste Eupatorium inulifolium
Thea Eurya acuminata
Mora Ficus fistulosa
Mora Ficus hispida
Mora Ficus lepicarpa
Mora Ficus montana
Mora Ficus padana
Mora Ficus ribes

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8
1.62

A9

A10

A11

1.73
19.68
4.81
10.34
2.34
16.67 22.95
62.71

0.10

0.96

42.20
44.32

2.21

1.89
81.59
9.21

59.02

1.53

2.19

0.28

28.37 62.04

2.83
5.67

40.38

2.42

3.17
0.15

26.41 43.93
63.41

43.80

4.73

30.36
45.18
16.75
1.08

54.39
7.69
2.46
4.59
0.71
108

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41

Mora Ficus sinuata

Faba Flemingia congesta
Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Prot Helicia serrata
Euph Homalanthus populneus
Verb Lantana camara
Laur Litsea firma
Euph Macaranga triloba
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Mela Melastoma
malabathricum
Pipe Piper aduncum
Rubi Psychotria montana
Rosa Rubus mollucanus
Thea Schima wallichii
Malv Sida rhombifolia
Sola Solanum nigrum
Sola Solanum torvum
Verb Stachytarpeta indica
Symp Symplocos fasciculata

0.74
5.26
5.53
0.56

1.42
1.29
2.77

0.18

0.41
0.14
0.69

0.69

5.00
1.41

17.95

0.56
12.27

21.93
0.68

0.95

18.66 16.52

4.94

2.00
5.22

2.76
3.77

1.34

10.86
1.63

8.21
10.09

9.15

10.54
1.24
0.67

9.14

12.96
10.93

109

Appendix F. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of seedling (woody individual H 130 cm) in disturbed forest (D1-D7) of corridor Gunung
Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Species
Euph Antidesma montanum
Mora Arthrophyllum
diversifolium
Laur Beilschmiedia madang
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Faga Castanopsis acuminatissima
Rubi Chinchona pubescens
Olea Chionanthus sp.
Mela Clidemia hirta
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Gesn Cyrtandra sandei
Elae Elaeocarpus punctatus
Mora Ficus fistulosa
Mora Ficus sinuata
Mora Ficus sp.
Clus Garcinia rostrata
Anno Goniothalamus
macrophyllus
Rubi Hedyothis sp.
Euph Homalanthus populneus
Urti Laportea glauca
Rubi Lasianthus sp.
Faga Lithocarpus elegans

D1
7.79

D2
3.91
4.44

D3
17.64

D4
1.15
0.77

D5

D6

D7

0.14
0.73

0.66
0.10

0.46

26.61

32.62

5.13
31.99

4.06
39.83

0.37

5.18
28.43

9.08
74.83

0.86
83.54
12.94

0.10

1.75
84.00
1.49

0.63
1.12

1.34

9.52
0.03

1.06
2.53

2.88

0.65
3.46
23.77
0.02
0.17
110

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Faga Lithocarpus korthalsii

Euph Macaranga tanarius
Euph Macaranga triloba
Mela Melastoma malabathricum
Rubi Mussaenda frondosa
Rubi Psychotria montana
Rubi Psychotria varidifolia
Mela Pternandra sp.?
Faga Querqus lineata
Rosa Rubus mollucanus
Thea Schima wallichii
Acan Strobilanthes
Symp Symplocos cochinchinensis
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Myrt Syzygium lineatum
Rubi Urophyllum glabrum
Rubi Urophyllum macrophyllum
Aste Vernonia arborea

9.32
4.14
3.25
2.55

6.03

1.02
2.73

0.36

0.25

0.32
0.58
0.88

23.44

2.02
29.22

1.33
1.44

0.78

0.55

0.52
1.30

2.44
1.34

4.11

0.87

5.89
0.29

1.30

0.28
0.72
0.69
4.08

0.29
1.30

4.24
3.37

10.35
4.08

5.19
9.09
4.66
9.15
0.72

111

0.14

3.66
1.94

Appendix G. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of seedling (woody individual H

130 cm) in less disturbed forest (LD1-LD4) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak
National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Species

LD1

(Huru)
Meli Aglaia sp.
Mora Antiaris toxicaria
Euph Antidesma montanum
Myrs Ardisia crispa
Myrs Ardisia zollingeri
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Faga Castanopsis acuminatissima
Olea Chionanthus sp.
Mela Clidemia hirta
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Cyat Cyathea sp.2
Elae Elaeocarpus punctatus
Euph Eupatorium inulifolium
Mora Ficus ribes
Mora Ficus sp.
Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Prot Helicia serrata
Rubi Lasianthus cf. sylvestris
Rubi Lasianthus laevigatus
Rubi Lasianthus sp.
Faga Lithocarpus elegans
Laur Litsea angulata
Euph Macaranga tanarius
Euph Macaranga triloba
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Mela Melastoma malabathricum
Ruta Melicope accedens
Myrs Myrsine hasseltii
Arec Pinanga coronata
Rosa Prunus arborea
Rubi Psychotria montana
Rubi Psychotria varidifolia
Mela Pternandra azurea
Faga Quercus oidocarpa
Myrt Rhodamnia cinerea
Rosa Rubus mollucanus
Thea Schima wallichii
Ster Sterculia oblonga

LD2

LD3
0.05

LD4

0.25
0.19
0.40
0.86
3.30
20.78
0.39
3.91
0.54
71.49

63.88
29.18

4.17

6.44
7.70
0.07
0.51
0.25
3.19
1.64
0.22

1.56
0.66
0.03

3.08
0.36
2.82
5.54

0.04
0.85
1.96
55.23
2.45
0.92

0.14
14.08

1.02
1.33

1.06

9.82
2.43

112

0.23
0.40
7.62

40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47

Acan Strobilanthes
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Myrt Syzygium
cf.magnoliifolium
Myrt Syzygium lineatum
Myrt Syzygium sp.
Rubi Urophyllum glabrum
Rubi Urophyllum macrophyllum
Cuno Weinmannia blumei

1.54

0.09
0.11
0.78

2.10
2.49
9.93

4.75

6.21

12.33
2.10
1.14
23.02
0.38

113

Appendix H. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of herb layer in abandoned plantation (A1-A11) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak
National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Species
(Paku-6)
(Poaceae-2)
Acanthaceae-1
Araceae
Araceae_1
Aste Ageratum conyzoides
Arac Alocasia esculenta
Zing Alpinia sp.
Zing Amomum cardamomum
Marat Angiopteris evecta
Aral Arthrophyllum diversifolium
Aspl Asplenium nidus
Poac Axonopus compressus
Mela Bellucia pentamera
Aste Bidens pilosa
Blec Blechnum orientale
Rubi Borreria latifolia
Arec Calamus sp.
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Cype Carex sp.
Apia Centella asiatica
Thely Christella dentata
Thely Christella subpubescens

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9

A10
1.78

A11

3.99
0.36
0.14

0.43

4.09
31.50
0.70

0.36
2.84

6.09
0.36
0.22
0.49

4.45
2.22
0.46

1.56

0.29
0.32
15.94

1.43

2.90
5.28

0.82
0.31
1.84

0.13

0.71
2.90

0.29
1.78

7.35

0.93
10.46
114

0.83

18.68
0.53

24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

Mela Clidemia hirta

Rubi Coffea arabica
Comm Commelina nodiflora
Aste Crassocephalum crepidioides
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Cyat Cyathea sp.
Aspi Cyclosorus megaphylla
Cyperaceae
Cype Cyperus killingia
Gesn Cyrtandra picta
Poac Cyrtococcum acerescens
Glei Dicranopteris linearis
Polyp Diplazium crenato-serratum
Polyp Diplazium esculentum
Polyp Drynaria cordata
Aste Eclipta prostata
Zing Etlingera coccinea
Mora Ficus fistulosa
Aste Galinsoga parviflora
Rubi Hedyothis sp.
Prot Helicia serrata
Bals Impatiens balsamina
Poac Imperata cylindrica
Poac Lophatherum gracile
Aste Mikania cordata
Faba Mimosa pudica
Hypo Molineria capitulata

7.96

6.96

6.75

5.68

16.81

8.45

0.81

12.27

0.14

0.59
7.81

0.58

2.67

0.36

0.08
0.23
0.61

1.42
0.61

13.43

13.50

0.61

4.93

7.95

0.89
11.74
1.62

0.31
0.14
25.98

0.78

31.49

28.99
0.23

1.43
10.50
0.54
0.61
0.41
4.20
0.27
0.07
0.13
5.33

0.69

1.64

1.84

0.58

28.30

0.15

10.09

6.32

41.89

4.07

0.79
0.69

0.13

0.29

0.23
0.61

0.07
0.11

5.11

1.08
115

1.25

1.77

51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71

Hypo Molineria latifolia

Musa Musa sp.
Dava Nephrolepis biserrata
Dava Nephrolepis davallioides
Poac Oplismenus compositus
Oxal Oxalis corniculata
Pand Pandanus furcatus
Poac Panicum notatum
Poac Panicum sp.
Poac Paspalum conjugatum
Area Pinanga coronata
Poly Polygala paniculata??
Pter Pteris??
Poac Saccharum spontaneum
Sell Selaginella plana
Poac Setaria palmifolia
Aste Sonchus arvensis
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Aste Synedrella nodiflora
Aste Wedellia biflora
Poly Xanthophyllum sp.

0.31

3.07
0.13

1.23
0.77

1.58

6.52

0.29
2.90
0.29

1.29
1.72

7.96

2.00
0.53
0.22
0.71

2.23
0.61
0.20
0.47
18.02
24.63
0.88

0.98
8.53

58.14
0.49

13.09
0.20

1.69
0.31

47.24
1.23

1.08
48.54
1.84

9.24
10.39

0.05

20.48
25.78
22.66

0.59
0.24
0.12

42.47
34.95
0.36

20.35
23.04

10.74
0.50

54.27
10.88
0.05

0.24

2.15
6.99
0.15

12.82

1.27
0.20

1.43

2.22

116

14.32
0.65

0.73

17.40

Appendix I. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of herb layer in disturbed forest (D1-D7) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

Species
(ki ajag)
Maranthaceae
Arac Alocasia longiloba
Zing Alpinia scabra
Zing Alpinia sp.
Arac Anadendrum cf. Montanum
Marat Angiopteris evecta
Myrs Ardisia crispa
Rubi Argostemma montana
Arac Arisaema filiformis
Aspl Asplenium nidus
Bego Begonia sp.
Arec Calamus sp.
Arec Calamus sp.2
Arec Calamus sp.3
Arec Caryota rumphiana
Mela Clidemia hirta
Comm Commelina nodiflora
Cost Costus speciosus
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Aspid Cyclosorus megaphylla
Gesn Cyrtandra picta
Glei Dicranopteris linearis
Poac Dinochloa scandens

D1

D2
0.80

D3

D4

D5

D6

6.65

0.29
0.58
7.23

6.74

0.46
0.70
0.35
0.58
0.46
1.16

0.45

2.67

1.49

2.45

0.45

D7

0.61

2.40

0.92
9.74

0.87
5.78

5.36

0.23
1.04
1.51

22.20
4.44

0.46
7.73
1.35
5.62
9.67
9.00
8.77

1.73

36.27

17.20
6.36

0.31
0.31
0.46
6.58

1.51
0.46
2.32
1.16

1.35
0.97
12.55

12.63
21.20

29.86
18.06

117

1.16

25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

Polyp Diplazium crenato-serratum

Polyp Diplazium sorzogonense
Polyp Diplazium sp. 1
Zing Etlingera coccinea
Pand Freycinetia
Rubi Hedyothis sp.
Euph Homalanthus populneus
Zing Hornstedtia pininga
Poac Lophatherum gracile
Euph Macaranga tanarius
Hypo Molineria capitulata
Hypo Molineria latifolia
Musa Musa accuminata
Dava Nephrolepis davallioides
Olean Oleandra pistilaris
Pand Pandanus furcatus
Orch Phaius flavus
Arec Pinanga coronata
Arec Pleocnemia cf. conjugata
Agav Pleomele
Pter Pteridium aquilinum
Arac Schismatoglottis calyptrata
Cyper Scleria
Sell Selaginella plana
Poac Setaria palmifolia
Thely Sphaerostephanos cf.
heterocarpus

2.31
1.12
27.22

13.60
13.33

4.77
30.72

13.44

10.41
0.31
8.88

11.70
13.67

5.79
2.90
1.93
1.54

0.79
0.14
1.69

6.89
0.31
0.34

1.35
2.40
4.50
0.79
2.25
0.90
1.01

8.53

0.53
1.87

4.81
0.29
4.58
0.57
5.16

0.72
0.58

4.59
0.77

8.09

14.40

9.97
0.77
0.39
2.90

0.77

2.43
11.01

1.73
0.90
3.15
0.22

0.53
3.61
0.57

4.16
14.62

8.80

12.49

118

6.50

5.10
0.58
16.34
1.16

0.39
42.66
0.97

51
52

Thely Sphaerostephanos cf.

sagitifolius
Symp Symplocos fasciculata

0.35
0.53

0.23

119

Appendix J. The relative dominance (Rdo, %) of herb layer in less disturbed forest
(LD1-D4) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

Species
Zingiberaceae_1
Zingiberaceae_2
Zing Alpinia scabra
Zing Alpinia sp.
Myr Ardisia crispa
Rubi Argostemma montana
Mora Artocarpus heterophyllus
Aspl Asplenium nidus
Arac Caladium sp.
Arec Calamus sp.
Arec Calamus sp.2
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Thely Christella subpubescens
Mela Clidemia hirta
Cost Costus speciosus
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
Cyat Cyathea sp.
Aspid Cyclosorus megaphylla
Gesn Cyrtandra cuneata
Poac Dinochloa scandens
Polyp Diplazium bantamense
Polyp Diplazium sorzogonense
Zing Etlingera coccinea
Pand Freycinetia
Hang Hanguana malayana
Urti Laportea glauca
Laur Litsea angulata
Euph Macaranga triloba
Hypo Molineria capitulata
Dava Nephrolepis davallioides
Olean Oleandra pistilaris
Pand Pandanus furcatus
Orch Phaius flavus
Arec Pinanga coronata
Arec Plectocomia
Pter Pteridium aquilinum
Thea Schima wallichii
Cype Scleria
Sell Selaginella plana
Poac Setaria palmifolia

120

LD1
1.45
7.26
1.45

LD2

LD3

LD4

45.45

6.29
0.63

0.40
6.06

12.58

2.45

0.36
0.33

5.44
10.16

4.08

0.20

2.52
5.03

1.82
0.54
3.99

1.21
1.62

9.62
1.81

1.57
0.63

4.08
1.27
2.72
6.35
13.05
0.73

0.81
8.65

5.44
0.40

2.02
2.42

0.63
0.63
2.52
8.18

0.81
10.30

0.63

0.40
0.81
24.24

57.23

0.49
6.35

17.62
34.09

9.98
2.36
5.44

0.91

8.32
6.53

41
42
43

Acan Strobilanthes sp.

Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Rubi Urophyllum
macrophyllum

16.33
1.01
0.33

121

0.94

Appendix K. Biomass (ton ha-1) of tree (DBH> 4.8 cm) in abandoned plantation (A1-A11) of corridor GHSNP
No.
1

Species
Arau Agathis dammara

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Hama Altingia excelsa

Euph Aporosa frutescens
Faba Archidendron clypearia
Mora Artocarpus heterophyllus
Mela Bellucia pentamera
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Rubi Coffea arabica
Cyath Cyathea contaminans
Cyath Cyathea latebrosa
Thea Eurya acuminata
Clus Garcinia parvifolia
Euph Glochidion arborescens
Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Prot Helicia serrata
Laur Machilus
Myrs Maesa repanda
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Rubi Psychotria viridiflora
Myrt Rhodamnia cinerea
Thea Schima wallichii
Meli Swietenia macrophylla
Myrt Syzygium cf.magnoliifolium
Total

A1
22.29

A2
14.63

A3
7.48

A4
29.94

A5
31.77

A6
14.48

A7

A8

A9

A10
25.98

A11

14.24
1.17
0.50
2.70
6.66

39.07

16.54

4.78
10.00
1.61

1.22

5.30
1.58
3.28

2.08
6.65
1.97
0.58
0.28

4.16
1.05
5.88
13.12
0.36
0.47
92.97

2.40
67.51

3.03

119.14

47.99

44.96

133.62

47.99

22.96

0.75
26.94

88.80

48.94

53.12

122

16.64

22.96

147.18

17.43

Appendix L. Biomass (ton ha-1) of tree (DBH> 4.8 cm) in disturbed forest (D1-D7) of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

Species

D1

(Huru sereh)
(Ki jambe)
(Ki paray)
(Pasang jambe)
Arau Agathis dammara
Euph Aporosa octandra
Mora Arthrophyllum diversifolium
Laur Beilschmiedia madang
Euph Blumeodendron elateriospermum
Euph Breynia cernua
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
Arac Caryota rumphiana
Faga Castanopsis acuminatissima
Faga Castanopsis argentea
Rubi Chinchona pubescens
Cyat Cyathea contaminans
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
2.83
Meli Disoxylum?
Meli Dysoxylum nutans
Thea Eurya acuminata
Mora Ficus fistulosa
4.15
Mora Ficus hamerang
Mora Ficus ribes
Euph Glochidion arborescens

D2

D3
20.18

D4

D5

D6

D7
0.56

0.66
46.19
22.68
4.43
1.25
0.09
0.72
6.11
29.64
0.22
0.44

3.39
6.59

0.13

26.00
1.59

0.05

0.62
0.36

5.24

0.53
0.51
0.28
7.62
0.44
0.51
123

0.93
18.10

25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51

Thea Goordonia excelsa

Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Prot Helicia serrata
Euph Homalanthus populneus
Faga Lithocarpus elegans
Laur Litsea cubeba
Laur Litsea monopetala
Laur Litsea tomentosa
Euph Macaranga tanarius
Euph Macaranga triloba
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Magn Magnolia macklottii
Anac Melanochyla caesia
Ruta Melicope accedens
Magn Michelia montana
Myrs Myrsine hasseltii
Faba Paraserianthes
Esca Polyosma ilicifolia
Rosa Prunus arborea
Mela Pternandra azurea
Faga Quercus gemelliflora
Faga Quercus oidocarpa
Thea Schima wallichii
Symp Symplocos cochinchinensis
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Myrt Syzygium lineatum
Rubi Tarenna dasyphylla

1.72
0.45
2.83
0.67
2.43
1.07
0.14

1.08

0.18
44.78

0.14
3.66

0.19
1.80

2.39
2.44

0.05
1.49
2.39
0.52
0.36
0.39

4.03
1.91
87.45
0.37
34.54

1.76
1.44

4.13
3.87
1.95

2.54
1.09
5.02

0.72
1.46

0.12

0.96
0.43
32.15
3.36
3.53
0.06

1.81

11.70

4.47

0.68
0.80

124

1.18

52
53
54

Rubi Urophyllum glabrum

Rubi Urophyllum lineatum
Aste Vernonia arborea
Total

0.08

0.37
0.32

1.78
8.06

27.94

2.65
108.92

125

100.98

48.53

61.61

146.91

Appendix M. Biomass (ton ha-1) of tree (DBH>4.8 cm) in disturbed forest (D1-D7)
of corridor Gunung Halimun Salak National Park.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

Species
LD-1
(Huru beunyer)
(Huru entek)
8.53
(K10738)
(K11032)
(Sp.733)
Acer Acer lauranium
1.09
Meli Aglaia edulis?
Laur Alseodaphne (K10807)
Hama Altingia excelsa
33.66
Euph Antidesma cf. stipulare
Euph Antidesma montanum
Euph Aporosa [bihbir]
Euph Aporosa frutescens
2.16
Euph Aporosa grandistipulata
Myrs Ardisia zollingeri
Mora Arthocarpus elasticus
Euph Baccaurea (K10730) ?
Laur Beilschmiedia madang
Mela Bellucia pentamera
0.15
Euph Blumeodendron tokbrai
Euph Bridelia cf. glauca
Faba Calliandra calothyrsus
0.18
Clus Calophyllum (K10853 small l)
Thea Camellia lanceolata
Arec Caryota rumphiana
Faga Castanopsis
acuminatissima
Faga Castanopsis cf. tungurrut
Faga Castanopsis javanica
Olea Chionanthus montanus
Meli Chisocheton patens
Laur Cinnamomum sintoc?
Laur Cryptocarya densiflora
Laur Cryptocarya glaucescens
1.74
Laur Cryptocarya triplinervis
Cyat Cyathea latebrosa
1.30
Cyat Cyathea sp.2
0.16
Cyat Cyathea sp.3
0.16
Podo Dacrycarpus imbricatus
Burs Dacryodes rugosa
Urti Dendrocnide stimulans

126

LD-2

LD-3

LD-4

P2
7.45

P3

0.07

0.08
0.50
1.60
163.38
0.04
0.07

26.10

0.25
0.01
1.00
0.01
8.61
20.63
0.07
0.01
0.06
0.00

0.45
0.85
0.02
0.37
0.13

0.00
0.01

0.63
0.11

0.65

0.18
0.05
0.69
1.69

0.28

0.01

21.95

369.67

236.44

15.93
29.65
0.00
0.81

9.94

0.01

0.12
90.47
0.05
0.15

0.00
0.76

0.37
0.15

0.21

0.00
0.07
0.10

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85

Rubi Diplospora cf. singularis

Meli Dysoxylum excelsum
Elae Elaeocarpus oxpyren?
Elae Elaeocarpus punctatus
Elae Elaeocarpus?
Jugl Engelhardia serrata
Thea Eurya acuminata
Mora Ficus
Mora Ficus (K10776)
Mora Ficus fistulosa
Mora Ficus grossularoides
Mora Ficus padana
Mora Ficus ribes
Mora Ficus sinuata
Flac Flacourtia rukam
Rubi Gaertnera (K10791) ?
Sapo Ganua (K10849) ?
Clus Garcinia dioica?
Clus Garcinia parvifolia
Clus Garcinia rostrata
Verb Geunsia pentandra?
Euph Glochidion rubrum
Icac Gomphandra javanica
Thea Gordonia excelsa
Rhiz Gynotroches axillaris
Prot Helicia serrata
Prot Heliciopsis lanceolata?
Myri Horsfieldia glabra
Aqui Ilex sp.
Aqui Ilex cissoidea
Aqui Ilex triflora
Rubi Ixora (K11056) ??
Myri Knema subhirtella
Thea Laplacea integrrima
Laur Lindera bibracteata
Laur Lindera polyantha
Faga Lithocarpus (ruui)
Faga Lithocarpus indutus
Faga Lithocarpus sundaicus
Laur Litsea
Laur Litsea angulata
Laur Litsea cf. resinosa
Laur Litsea cubeba
Laur Litsea diversifolia
Laur Litsea ferruginea

0.01

1.01
0.30

0.07
2.83

1.53

0.44
0.02
1.47
0.21
0.05
0.01
0.04
0.06

0.56

0.15
0.02

0.14

0.10
0.11
0.21
0.02
0.26
2.21
0.44

0.10
0.01

0.02

0.60
0.90
0.50
0.39
0.40
0.00
25.34
0.54
0.13
4.97
0.05

1.91
0.00
0.02
0.08
0.33
1.25

0.10
0.01

0.09

1.69
1.32

0.00
0.86
3.55
0.03

8.63

2.72

0.23
0.10
0.04

0.08
0.02

0.09

0.10
8.40
2.56
1.83
0.24
0.04

127

0.04
0.02

86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127

Laur Litsea fulva

Laur Litsea grandis
Laur Litsea javanica
Laur Litsea lanceolata
Euph Macaranga tanarius
Euph Macaranga triloba
Aral Macropanax dispermum
Sapo Madhuca (K10919) ?
Rham Maesopsis eminii
Magn Magnolia elegans?
(maja)
Corn Mastixia trichotoma
Anac Melanochyla caesia
Ruta Melicope accedens
Meli Meliosma lanceolata?
Mela Memecylon cf.
myrsinoides
Mela Memecylon floribundum
Magn Michelia montana
Anno Mitrephora (K11052)
Myri Myrica esculenta
Bomb Neesia altissima
Laur Neolitsea javanica
Euph Neoscorthechinia kingii?
Laur Nothaphoebe
umbelliflora
Nyss Nyssa javanica
Euph Ostodes paniculata
Pand Pandanus furcatus
[cangkuang]
Mora Parartocarpus venenosus
Sapo Payena acuminata
Laur Persea cf. declinata
Laur Persea rimosa
Laur Phoebe elliptica
Sima Picrasma javanica
Arec Pinanga coronata
Icac Platea excelsa
Icac Platea latifolia
Podo Podocarpus neriifolius
Esca Polyosma sp.
Anno Polyalthia lateriflora
Anno Polyalthia subcordata
Esca Polyosma ilicifolia
Sapi Pometia pinnata
Rubi Prismatomeris javanica?

0.02
0.04
0.08

0.01

0.08

0.16

0.89
0.16

0.80
0.25
0.05

0.02
0.04
0.12
0.17

2.56
1.01
0.22
0.29
1.20

1.07

0.00

0.12

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.04
0.01
0.13

0.84
0.77

0.29
0.02
0.04
0.00
0.18
0.17
0.02
0.03
0.16
0.15
0.29

0.90
0.10
0.36
1.27
0.01
0.05
0.09
1.08
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.73
4.34
0.01
2.12
0.01
1.08
0.02
0.28

128

0.34
0.04
0.01
0.03
1.18
0.29

0.24
0.23

128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165

Podo Prumnopitys amara

Rosa Prunus adenopoda?
Rosa Prunus arborea
Rubi Psychotria viridiflora
Meli Pternandra azurea
Faga Quercus
Faga Quercus (K10944)
Faga Quercus lineata
Faga Quercus oidocarpa
Myrs Rapanea affinis
Myrs Rapanea hesseltii
Meli Sandoricum koetjape
Saur Saurauia javanica?
Euph Sauropus (K10765)
Thea Schima wallichii
Elae Sloanea javanica
Elae Sloanea sigun
Icac Stemonurus secundiflorus
Euph Suregada multiflora
Symp Symplocos fasciculata
Myrt Syzygium cf. spicata
Myrt Syzygium (K10696
Salam)
Myrt Syzygium (K10921)
Myrt Syzygium (K10923
kopo)
Myrt Syzygium (K10924)
Myrt Syzygium
(K10958)[kisireum/jeret]
Myrt Syzygium (WK17830
caudete l)
Myrt Syzygium cf. Bisulea
(K10922 big cordate l)
Myrt Syzygium cf. Attenuatum
(P171)
Myrt Syzygium lineatum
Myrt Syzygium sp.
Stap Turpinia montana
Stap Turpinia sphaerocarpa
Rubi Urophyllum glabrum
Rubi Urophyllum
macrophyllum
Capr Viburnum coriaceum?
Cuno Weinmannia blumei
Unident.
Total

0.01
0.38

0.50

0.12
11.36

56.78

0.42
0.18

0.42
0.18

0.24
3.17
0.65
2.25
0.73
57.64
0.11

0.55
2.83
8.12
8.57
27.46
2.65

0.27

2.82

1.18

353.49

20.09

0.03
0.17
22.91

0.91
0.01
90.80
0.00

1.33
1.17
0.00
0.27

0.37
0.02
0.02
0.51
0.81

0.03
1.19

0.28

0.18
2.31

0.21
0.11

1.20

1.15

0.99

4.33
0.04

2.36
0.00
0.00

0.01
0.72
0.89

0.43

4.53

0.05
0.05
0.29

369.26

291.06

44.14
140.28

129

385.38

402.31

331.80

0.08