International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering ISEEE-2015, Galati, Romania

A.Monitoring, control of the energy, heat and

cold using PLC
Neculaide Nicusor
AbstractThe modern home contains a variety of
systems, such as central heating, fire and security
alarms, and devices, such as televisions and lights, that
usually exist in total isolation from each other. In the
smart house, these systems and devices are able to pass
information and commands between them so that, for
example, the security alarm can turn the lights on or off
and this we can use PLCs.
Index TermsPLC, HMI, automation, human
interface, system control.
I. INTRODUCTION
A programmable logic controller (PLC) or
programmable controller is a digital computer used for
automation of electromechanical processes, such as
control of machinery on factory assembly lines,
amusement rides, or light fixtures. PLCs are used in many
industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose
computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and
output arrangements, extended temperature ranges,
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration
and impact. Programs to control machine operation are
typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile
memory. A PLC is an example of a hard real time system
since output results must be produced in response to input
conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended
operation will result

Fig. 1. Siemens Simatic S7-400 system at rack, left-to-right: power

supply unit PS407 4A,CPU 416-3, interface module IM 460-0 and
communication processor CP 443-1

II. PLC FUNCTIONALITY

The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the
years to include sequential relay control, motion control,
process control, distributed control systems and
networking. The data handling, storage, processing power
and communication capabilities of some modern PLCs
are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLClike programming combined with remote I/O hardware,
allow a general-purpose desktop computer to overlap
some PLCs in certain applications. Regarding the
practicality of these desktop computer based logic
controllers, it is important to note that they have not been
generally accepted in heavy industry because the desktop
computers run on less stable operating systems than do
PLCs, and because the desktop computer hardware is
typically not designed to the same levels of tolerance to
temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as the
processors used in PLCs. In addition to the hardware
limitations of desktop based logic, operating systems such
as Windows do not lend themselves to deterministic logic
execution, with the result that the logic may not always
respond to changes in logic state or input status with the
extreme consistency in timing as is expected from PLCs.
Still, such desktop logic applications find use in less
critical situations, such as laboratory automation and use
in small facilities where the application is less demanding
and critical, because they are generally much less
expensive than PLCs. In more recent years, small
products called PLRs (programmable logic relays), and
also by similar names, have become more common and
accepted. These are very much like PLCs, and are used in
light industry where only a few points of I/O (i.e. a few
signals coming in from the real world and a few going
out) are involved, and low cost is desired. These small
devices are typically made in a common physical size and
shape by several manufacturers, and branded by the
makers of larger PLCs to fill out their low end product
range. Popular names include PICO Controller, NANO
PLC, and other names implying very small controllers.
Most of these have between 8 and 12 digital inputs, 4 and
8 digital outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Size is usually
about 4" wide, 3" high, and 3" deep. Most such devices
include a tinypostage stamp sized LCD screen for
viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion
of the program being visible at a given time) and status of
I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied
by a 4-way rocker push-button plus four more separate
push-buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote

International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering ISEEE-2015, Galati, Romania

control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most
have a small plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to
a personal computer so that programmers can use simple
Windows applications for programming instead of being
forced to use the tiny LCD and push-button set for this
purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually modular
and greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular
or expandable, but their price can be two orders of
magnitude less than a PLC and they still offer robust
design and deterministic execution of the logic.
III. FEATURES
A.

Communications

Control panel with PLC (grey elements in the center).

The unit consists of separate elements, from left to right;
power supply, controller, relay units for in- and output
The main difference from other computers is that PLCs
are armored for severe conditions (such as dust, moisture,
heat, cold) and have the facility for extensive input/output
(I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC to sensors and
actuators. PLCs read limit switches, analog process
variables (such as temperature and pressure), and the
positions of complex positioning systems. Some use
machine vision.[4] On the actuator side, PLCs operate
electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders,
magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. The
input/output arrangements may be built into a simple
PLC, or the PLC may have external I/O modules attached
to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.
PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose
of configuration, alarm reporting or everyday control. A
human-machine interface (HMI) is employed for this
purpose. HMIs are also referred to as man-machine
interfaces (MMIs) and graphical user interface (GUIs). A
simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with
the user. Text displays are available as well as graphical
touch screens. More complex systems use programming
and monitoring software installed on a computer, with the
PLC connected via a communication interface.
PLCs have built in communications ports, usually 9-pin
RS-232, but optionally EIA-485 or Ethernet. Modbus,
BACnet or DF1 is usually included as one of the
communications protocols. Other options include various
fieldbuses such as DeviceNet or Profibus. Other
communications protocols that may be used are listed in
the List of automation protocols.
Most modern PLCs can communicate over a network to
some other system, such as a computer running a SCADA
(Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) system or
web browser.
PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer
(P2P) communication between processors. This allows
separate parts of a complex process to have individual
control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over
the communication link. These communication links are
also often used for HMI devices such as keypads or PCtype workstations.

B.

Programming

PLC programs are typically written in a special

application on a personal computer, then downloaded by a
direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The
program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up
RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a
single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of
relays.
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be
programmed using standards-based programming
languages. A graphical programming notation called
Sequential Function Charts is available on certain
programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized
Ladder Logic Diagram Programming, a model which
emulated electromechanical control panel devices (such
as the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced.
This model remains common today.
IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming
languages for programmable control systems: function
block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), structured
text (ST; similar to the Pascal programming language),
instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language) and
sequential function chart (SFC). These techniques
emphasize logical organization of operations.
C.

Digital and analog signals

Digital or discrete signals behave as binary switches,

yielding simply an On or Off signal (1 or 0, True or False,
respectively). Push buttons, limit switches, and
photoelectric sensors are examples of devices providing a
discrete signal. Discrete signals are sent using either
voltage or current, where a specific range is designated as
On and another as Off. For example, a PLC might use 24
V DC I/O, with values above 22 V DC representing On,
values below 2VDC representing Off, and intermediate
values undefined. Initially, PLCs had only discrete I/O.
Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range of
values between zero and full-scale. These are typically
interpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC, with
various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and
the number of bits available to store the data. As PLCs
typically use 16-bit signed binary processors, the integer
values are limited between -32,768 and +32,767.
Pressure, temperature, flow, and weight are often
represented by analog signals. Analog signals can use
voltage or current with a magnitude proportional to the
value of the process signal. For example, an analog 0 - 10
V input or 4-20 mA would be converted into an integer
value of 0 - 32767.
Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise (i.e.
from welders or electric motor starts) than voltage inputs.
D.

PLC compared with other control systems

PLCs are well-adapted to a range of automation tasks.

These are typically industrial processes in manufacturing
where the cost of developing and maintaining the
automation system is high relative to the total cost of the
automation, and where changes to the system would be
expected during its operational life. PLCs contain input
and output devices compatible with industrial pilot

International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering ISEEE-2015, Galati, Romania

devices and controls; little electrical design is required,
and the design problem centers on expressing the desired
sequence of operations. PLC applications are typically
highly customized systems so the cost of a packaged PLC
is low compared to the cost of a specific custom-built
controller design. On the other hand, in the case of massproduced goods, customized control systems are
economic due to the lower cost of the components, which
can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic" solution,
and where the non-recurring engineering charges are
spread over thousands or millions of units.
For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks,
different techniques are used. For example, a consumer
dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical
cam timer costing only a few dollars in production
quantities.
A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate
where hundreds or thousands of units will be produced
and so the development cost (design of power supplies,
input/output hardware and necessary testing and
certification) can be spread over many sales, and where
the end-user would not need to alter the control.
Automotive applications are an example; millions of units
are built each year, and very few end-users alter the
programming of these controllers. However, some
specialty vehicles such as transit buses economically use
PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the
volumes are low and the development cost would be
uneconomic.
Very complex process control, such as used in the
chemical industry, may require algorithms and
performance beyond the capability of even highperformance PLCs. Very high-speed or precision controls
may also require customized solutions; for example,
aircraft flight controls. Single-board computers using
semi-customized or fully proprietary hardware may be
chosen for very demanding control applications where the
high development and maintenance cost can be supported.
"Soft PLCs" running on desktop-type computers can
interface with industrial I/O hardware while executing
programs within a version of commercial operating
systems adapted for process control needs.
Programmable controllers are widely used in motion
control, positioning control and torque control. Some
manufacturers produce motion control units to be
integrated with PLC so that G-code (involving a CNC
machine) can be used to instruct machine movements.
PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback
analog control loop, a "proportional, integral, derivative"
or "PID controller". A PID loop could be used to control
the temperature of a manufacturing process, for example.
Historically PLCs were usually configured with only a
few analog control loops; where processes required
hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed control
system (DCS) would instead be used. As PLCs have
become more powerful, the boundary between DCS and
PLC applications has become less distinct.
PLCs have similar functionality as Remote Terminal
Units. An RTU, however, usually does not support control
algorithms or control loops. As hardware rapidly becomes
more powerful and cheaper, RTUs, PLCs and DCSs are
increasingly beginning to overlap in responsibilities, and
many vendors sell RTUs with PLC-like features and vice

versa. The industry has standardized on the IEC 61131-3

functional block language for creating programs to run on
RTUs and PLCs, although nearly all vendors also offer
proprietary alternatives and associated development
environments.
In recent years "Safety" PLCs have started to become
popular, either as standalone models (Pilz PNOZ Multi,
Sick etc.) or as functionality and safety-rated hardware
added to existing controller architectures (Allen Bradley
Guardlogix, Siemens F-series etc.). These differ from
conventional PLC types as being suitable for use in
safety-critical applications for which PLCs have
traditionally been supplemented with hard-wired safety
relays. For example, a Safety PLC might be used to
control access to a robot cell with trapped-key access, or
perhaps to manage the shutdown response to an
emergency stop on a conveyor production line. Such
PLCs typically have a restricted regular instruction set
augmented with safety-specific instructions designed to
interface with emergency stops, light screens and so forth.
The flexibility that such systems offer has resulted in
rapid growth of demand for these controllers.
IV. TRIGENERATION
Trigeneration, also called CCHP (combined cooling, heat
and power), refers to the simultaneous generation of
electricity, useful heating and useful cooling from the
same original heat source such as fuel or solar energy.
Waste heat insufficient in energy to produce electricity
through mechanical means, such as through a steam
turbine, contains usable energy that is harnessed for
thermal regulation purposes as described in cogeneration.
Trigeneration differs from cogeneration in that some of
the waste heat is used for cooling. CCHP systems can
attain higher efficiencies per unit fuel than cogeneration
or traditional power plants.
Trigeneration (CCHP) is defined as the extraction of
electrical power and heat from fuel where a percentage of
the heat byproduct is used for cooling. Heating and
cooling output may operate concurrently or be
interchanged based need and system construction.
A power plant operating on the basis of the Carnot cycle
will convert energy from heat to mechanical energy based
on a temperature differential as described by the Rankine
cycle.[1] Mechanical energy is converted into electrical
power by an electric generator. Waste heat which is
insufficient in energy as input to the electric generator is
then recycled for other purposes such as heating or
cooling of living space or industrial facility or as input to
other industrial processes. Cooling is achieved through an
absorption chiller or an adsorption chiller as the original
byproduct is heat.

International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering ISEEE-2015, Galati, Romania

REFERENCES
[1]

Fig. 2. Trigeneration Cycle

Trigeneration (CCHP) is defined as the extraction of

electrical power and heat from fuel where a percentage of
the heat byproduct is used for cooling. Heating and
cooling output may operate concurrently or be
interchanged based need and system construction.
A power plant operating on the basis of the Carnot
cycle will convert energy from heat to mechanical energy
based on a temperature differential as described by the
Rankine cycle.[1] Mechanical energy is converted into
electrical power by an electric generator. Waste heat
which is insufficient in energy as input to the electric
generator is then recycled for other purposes such as
heating or cooling of living space or industrial facility or
as input to other industrial processes. Cooling is achieved
through an absorption chiller or an adsorption chiller as
the original byproduct is heat.
V.

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Trigeneration has its greatest benefits when scaled to fit

buildings or complexes of buildings where electricity,
heating and cooling are perpetually needed. Such
installations include but are not limited to: data centers,
manufacturing facilities, universities, hospitals, military
complexes and colleges. Localized trigeneration has
addition benefits as described by distributed generation.
Redundancy of power in mission critical applications,
lower power usage costs and the ability to sell electrical
power back to the local utility are a few of the major
benefits.
Most industrial countries generate the majority of their
electrical power needs in large centralized facilities with
capacity for large electrical power output. These plants
have excellent economies of scale, but usually transmit
electricity long distances resulting in sizable losses,
negatively affect the environment. Large power plants can
use cogeneration or trigeneration systems only when
sufficient need exists in immediate geographic vicinity for
an industrial complex, additional power plant or a city. An
example of cogeneration with trigeneration applications
in a major city is the New York City steam system.

B.K. Hodge, (2009).

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Controllers