CHAPTER 2

PRECIPITATION

Learning Objectives
This chapter is designed to assist the students to develop and enhance their
ability and knowledge in:
1. defining precipitation, its forms and types
2. illustrating techniques for estimating point and areal precipitation

Learning Outcome
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
1. estimate point and areal precipitation amounts from gauge data

Hydrology

2.1

Introduction

Precipitation is a major component of the hydrologic cycle. Precipitation that

reaches the surface of the earth can occur in many different forms including
rain, storm, snow, hail, drizzle and sleet. Precipitation can be defined as any
product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor (solid or liquid) that is
deposited on the earths surface, its form and quantity thus being influenced by
the action of other climatic factors such as wind, temperature and atmospheric
pressure.

2.2

Formation of Precipitation

Figure 2.1: Formation of precipitation

The formation of precipitation in clouds is illustrated in Figure 2.1. As air

rises and cools, water condenses from the vapor to the liquid state. Water
14

Precipitation

droplets are formed by nucleation prosess which is condensing of vapor on

tiny solid particles. The diameters of these particles range from 0.001 m to 10
m and the particles are known as aerosols. The tiny droplets grow by
condensation and impact with their neighbors as they are carried by turbulent
air motion, until they become large enough so that the force of gravity
overcomes that of friction and they begin to fall, further increasing in size as
they hit other droplets in the fall path. However, as the drop falls, water
evaporates from its surface and the drop size diminishes, so the drop may be
reduced to the size of an aerosol again and be carried upwards in the cloud
through turbulent action. An upward current of only 0.5 cm/s is sufficient to
carry a 10 m droplet.
The cycle of condensation, falling, evaporation and rising occurs before
the drop reaches a critical size of about 0.1 mm. Up to about 1 mm in diameter,
the droplets remain spherical in shape, but beyond this size they begin to
flatten out on the bottom until there are no longer stable falling through air and
break up into small raindrops and droplets. Normal raindrops falling through
the cloud base are 0.1 to 3 mm in diameter.

2.3

Classification of Precipitation

Types of precipitation include hail, sleet, snow, rain, and drizzle. Frost
and dew are not classified as precipitation because they form directly on solid
surfaces. The general classes of precipitation are as follows:
(1) Snow Complex ice crystals. A snowflake consists of
agglomerated ice crystals. The average water content of
snow is assumed to be about 10% of an equal volume of
water.
(2) Hail
Balls of ice that are about 5 to over 125 mm in diameter.
Their specific gravity is about 0.7 to 0.9. Thus, hailstones
have the potential for agricultural and other property
damage.
(3) Sleet Results from the freezing of raindrops and is usually a
combination of snow and rain.
(4) Rain
Consists of liquid water drops of a size 0.5 mm to about 7
mm in diameter.
(5) Drizzle Very small, numerous and uniformly dispersed water
drops that appear to float while following air currents.
Drizzle drops are considered to be less than 0.5 millimeter
diameter. The settling velocity is slow, with the intensity
rarely exceeding 1 mm / hr (0.04 in./hr). It is also known as
warm precipitation.

15

Hydrology

2.4

Precipitation Types

Precipitation may be classified according to the conditions that generate

vertical air motion. Three major catogories of precipitation are convective,
orographic and cyclonic:

Figure 2.2: Precipitation lifting mechanisms

(1) Convective precipitation Convective precipitation is typical of the

tropics such as in South East Asia. It is brought about by heating of the air at
the interface with the ground. This heated air expands with a resultant
reduction in weight. During this period, increasing quantities of water vapor are
taken up, the warm moisture laden air becomes unstable and pronounced
vertical currents are developed. Dynamic cooling takes place, causing
condensation and precipitation. Convective precipitation maybe in the form of
light showers or storms of extremely high intensity (thunderstorms).
(2) Orographic precipitation Orographic precipitation results from the
mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air currents over natural barriers such as
mountain ranges. This type of precipitation is very common on the West Coast
of the United States where moisture laden air from the Pacific Ocean is
intercepted by coastal hills and mountains.
(3) Cyclonic precipitation - Cyclonic precipitation is associated with the
movement of air masses from high pressure regions to low pressure regions.
These pressure differences are created by the unequal heating of the earths
surface. This precipitation may be classified as frontal or nonfrontal. Any
barometric low can produce nonfrontal precipitation as air is lifted through

16

Precipitation

horizontal convergence of the inflow into a low pressure area. Frontal

precipitation results from the lifting of warm air over cold air at the contact zone
between air masses having different characteristics.
2.5

Measurement of Precipitation

Precipitation is measured as the vertical depth that would accumulate on a flat

level surface if all the precipitation remained where it had fallen. To size water
transport and storage systems, quantitative data for rainfall events must be
provided. These data can be defined in terms of:
(1) Depth (d), is the sum of rainfall, which is mentioned as depth of water on
the flat surface,
(2) Intensity (i), or depth of rainfall per unit time, is commonly reported in the
units of millimeters per hours. Weather stations utilizing gages that provide
continuous records of rainfall can be used to obtain intensity data. These data
are typically reported in either tabular form or graphical form.
(3) Duration (t) is the duration of a storm is the time from the beginning of
rainfall to the point where the mass curve becomes horizontal indicating no
further accumulation of precipitation within a certain time after the rain stops.
(4) Frequency, is the frequency of rain, it is usually called as return period (T),
for example once in T years,
(5) Area (A), is the area of rainfall geographic
Point rainfall can be plotted as accumulated total rainfall or as rainfall
intensity at a particular gauge. The first plot is referred to as a cumulative
mass curve, which can be analysed for a variety of storms to determine the
frequency and character of rainfall at a given site. A hyetograph is a plot of
rainfall intensity (in/hr) versus time.

Example 2.1
From the precipitation data given, estimate cumulative rainfall and rainfall
intensity.
Time
(min)
Rainfall
(cm)

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0.18

0.21

0.26

0.32

0.37

0.43

0.64

1.14

3.18

Tme
(min)
Rainfall

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

170

1.65

0.81

0.52

0.42

0.36

0.28

0.24

0.19

0.17

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Hydrology

(cm)

Solution:
Time (min)

Rainfall (cm)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

0
0.18
0.21
0.26
0.32
0.37
0.43
0.64
1.14
3.18
1.65
0.81
0.52
0.42
0.36
0.28
0.24
0.19
0.17

Cumulative
rainfall
(cm)
0
0.18
0.39
0.65
0.97
1.34
1.77
2.41
3.55
6.73
8.38
9.19
9.71
10.13
10.49
10.77
11.01
11.2
11.37

Rainfall intensity
(cm/hour)

1.08
1.26
1.56
1.92
2.22
2.58
3.84
6.84
19.08
9.90
4.86
3.12
2.52
2.16
1.68
1.44
1.14
1.02

Cumulative rainfall = 0.18 + 0.21 = 0.39 cm. Cumulative rainfall is a plot of

cumulative rainfall versus time (min) while rainfall intensity (cm/hr) data are
typically reported in either tabular form or graphical form (hyetograph).
Time interval, t = 10 minutes = 0.167 hour
Rainfall intensity = 0.18 cm / 0.167 hour = 1.08 cm/hour

2.5.1 Types of Rain Gauges

Rain gauge is an instrument used to measure how much rain has fallen.
There are several different types of rain gauges that are grouped by how they
operate: recording rain gauge, non recording rain gauge and rain-intensity
gauge.

18

Precipitation

(1)

Non recording gauges

For non recording gauge, the standard rain gauge shown in Figure 2.3
is a standard 8-inch-diameter rain gauge (203 mm) (U.S. Weather Service). A
smaller metal tube may be located in this larger overflow can. An 8-inchdiameter receiver cap may be on top of the overflow can and is used to funnel
the rain into the smaller tube until it overflows. The receiver cap has a knife
edge to catch rain falling precisely in the surface area of an 8-inch-diameter
opening.
Measurements are made using a special measuring stick with
graduations devised to account for the 8-inch receiver cap opening, funneling
water into the smaller tube. When the volume of the smaller tube is exceeded,
the volume from the smaller tube is dumped into the larger overflow can.

Figure 2.3: Nonrecording gauge, 8-inch-diameter opening

(2)

Recording gauges (Pluviograph)

In contrast to the non recording gauge which requires an observer to manually

measure the rain at regular intervals (i.e. every 24 hours), recording gauges
does not require constant observation.
There are at least three types of gauges commonly in use to record depth:
i) Weighing gauge
ii) Tipping bucket

19

Hydrology

iii) Float type

i)

Weighing gauge
Weighing-type precipitation gauge consists of a storage bin, which is
weighed to record the mass. Certain models measure the mass using a pen on
a rotating drum, or by using a vibrating wire attached to a data logger. The
advantages of this type of gauge to tipping buckets is that it does not
underestimate intense rain, and it can measure other forms of precipitation,
including rain, hail and snow. However, these gauges are more expensive and
require more maintenance than tipping bucket gauges.
The weighing-type recording gauge also contains a device to measure
the quantity of chemicals contained in the locations atmosphere. This is
extremely helpful for scientists studying the effects of greenhouse gases
released into the atmosphere and their effects on the levels of the acid rain.
ii)

Tipping bucket
The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a large copper cylinder set into
the ground. At the top of the cylinder is a funnel that collects and channels the
precipitation. The precipitation falls onto one of two small buckets or levers
which are balanced in same manner as a scale. After an amount of
precipitation equal to 0.2 mm (0.007 in) falls the lever tips and an electrical
signal is sent to the recorder. The recorder consists of a pen mounted on an
arm attached to a geared wheel that moves once with each signal sent from
the collector. When the wheel turns the pen arm moves either up or down
leaving a trace on the graph and at the same time making a loud click. Each
jump of the arm is sometimes referred to as a 'click' in reference to the noise.
The chart is measured in 10 minute periods (vertical lines) and 0.4 mm (0.015
in) (horizontal lines) and rotates once every 24 hours and is powered by a
clockwork motor that must be manually wound.
The tipping bucket rain gauge is not as accurate as the standard rain
gauge because the rainfall may stop before the lever has tipped. When the
next period of rain begins it may take no more than one or two drops to tip the
lever. This would then indicate that 0.2 mm (0.007 in) has fallen when in fact
only a minute amount has. The advantage of the tipping bucket rain gauge is
that the character of the rain (light, medium or heavy) may be easily obtained.

20

Precipitation

Figure 2.4: Recording tipping bucket gauge

iii)

Float type

In this type of instrument, the rain passes into a float chamber containing a
light float. As the level of the water within the chamber rises, the vertical
movement of the float is transmitted, by a suitable mechanism, to the
movement of a pen on a chart or a digital transducer. By suitably adjusting the
dimensions of the collector orifice, the float, and the float chamber, any desired
chart scale can be used.

2.6

Location of Installation Rain Gauge

There are a variety of factors that can affect rain gage measurements. The
positioning of the gage is very important in order to reduce errors in collecting
Buildings, landscaping and trees, and even the wind can impact the amount of
precipitation reaching the rain detector. Proper placement is critical to ensure
that rain sensor readings are an accurate representation of the actual rain
measurement rates and amounts that have fallen. The ideal site for a rain gage
is in an open area that is protected from the wind in all directions. Therefore,
rain gages should be sited in an open area away from the external factors
mentioned above. A good guideline to follow as a minimum distance from
these objects is twice their height.

2.7

Missing Data

21

Hydrology

Precipitation measuring stations sometimes fail in providing a continous record

of precipitation. Instruments do malfunction and back-up systems may not
always provide accurate data. A tipping bucket may not function for a short
period of time and the back-up volume gage may not provide time related
data. For a nonautomatic recording gage, an individual may fail to record the
data and miss a visit to the site. Thus, there are generally missing data, the
values of which must be estimated.
The procedure for estimating daily totals relies on the data from
adjacent stations. The locations of the adjacent stations are such that they are
close to and approximately evenly spaced around the site with the missing
data.

2.7.1 Point Precipitation

Precipitation events are recorded by gauges at specific locations. Precipitation
measured at a rain gauge is called point rainfall.

2.7.1.1

Arithmatic Mean Method

If the average annual precipitation at each of the stations differs from the
average at the missing data station by + 10%, the following formula is used to
estimate the missing daily data:
PX = 1/M
or;

(P i)

PX = 1/M [ P1+P2+P3+..........+PM]

where
PX = estimated daily precipitation volume at the missing
data site, X (depth)
P1, P2, P3, ..PM = estimated daily precipitation volume at the adjacent
stations, 1, 2, 3 M (depth)

Example 2.2:
Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there was a
storm. The rainfall amounts at three adjacent stations A, B, and C were 37, 42,
dan 49 mm, respectively. The average annual precipitation amounts for the
gauges are X = 694, A = 726, B = 752 and C = 760 mm. Using the arithmatic
method, estimate the amount of rainfall for gauge X.

22

Precipitation

Stations

A
B
C
X

Amounts of
precipitation
(mm)
37
42
49
?

Normal annual
precipitation
(mm)
726
752
760
694

Solution:
If NX = 694
10% from NX = 69.4
Precipitation allowed = 624.6 mm ~ 763.4 mm
Since all annual precipitations (726, 752 and 760) are within the ranges,
arithmetic method can be applied:
PX = 1/3{37+ 42+ 49} = 42.7 mm

2.7.1.2

Normal Ratio Method

If the difference between the average annual precipitation at any of the

adjacent stations and the missing data station is greater than 10%, a normal
ratio is used.
PX = NX/M (Pi/Ni )
or

PX = NX/M [ P1/N1 +P2/N2 + P3/N3 +..........+ PM/NM ]

where
NX = average annual precipitation at the missing data site,
X
(cm)
Ni = average annual precipitation at the adjacent sites
(cm)

Example 2.3:
The average annual precipitation amounts for the gauges A, B, C and D are
1120, 935, 1200 and 978 mm. In year 1975, station D was out of operation.

23

Hydrology

Stations A, B and C recorded rainfall amounts of 107, 89 and 122 mm,

respectively. Estimate the amount of precipitation for station D in year 1975.

Station

A
B
C
D

Normal
annual
precipitation
1120
935
1200
978

Amounts of
precipitation
year 1975
107
89
122
X

Solution
If NX = 978
10% from NX = 97.8
Maximum precipitation allowed = 880.2 mm ~ 1075.8 mm
Since the average annual precipitation amounts for the gauges A and C
exceeded 1075.8 mm, normal ratio method is used;

PX = 978
3

107 + 89 + 122
1120 935 1200

PX = 95.3 mm

2.7.1.3

Quadrant Method

This is station weighting technique. A grid of point estimates is made based on

a distance weighting scheme. Each observed point value is given a unique
weight for each grid point based on the distance from the grid point in
question. The grid point precipitation value is calculated based on the sum of
the individual station weight multiplied by observed station value. Once the
grid points have all been estimated they are summed and the sum is divided
by the number of grid points to obtain the areal average precipitation.
The U.S.A. National Weather Service has developed a procedure for this
method.
a) Consider that rainfall is to be calculated for point X. Establish a set of axes
running through X and determine the absolute coordinates of the nearest
surrounding points P, Q, R, S, T and U.

24

Precipitation

b) The estimated precipitation at X is determined as a weighted average of the

other six points. The weights are reciprocals of the sums of the squares of X
and Y; that is,

Figure 2.5: Four quadrants sorrounding precipitation station X

L2 = X2 + Y2 and W = 1/ L2
d) The estimated rainfall at the point of interest is given by;
PX = (P x W)
W
Example 2.4:
Stations A, B, C, D and E are the gauge stations. Rain gauge at station A was
out of operation. Precipitation amounts for other stations were 40, 45, 37.5, 50
and 42.5 mm. Calculate the rainfall depth at station A with coordinates (0,0)
using the quadrant method.
Station
A
B
C
D
E

Precipitation,
P (mm)
PA
40
45
37.5
50

X
(cm)
0
4
1
3
3

Y
(cm)
0
2
6
2
3

L2

W x 103

P x (W x 103)

0
20
37
13
18
=

0
50
27
76.9
55.6
209.5

0
2000
1215
2883.75
2780.0
8,878.75

PA = 8878.75
209.5

25

Hydrology

PA = 42.4 mm

2.8

Gage Consistency

Estimating missing data is one problem that hydrologists need to

address. A second problem occurs when the catch at rain gauges is
inconsistent over a period of time and adjustment of the measured data is
necessary to provide a consistent record.
Double Mass Curve analysis is a technique commonly employed to
detect changes in data-collection procedures or conditions at a given location.
The changes may result from changes in instrumentation, changes in
observation procedures or changes in gauge location or surrounding
conditions. A double mass curve is a plot of the accumulation of the observed
element over time for one location (test station) versus the accumulation over
time for a reference location (base station). The mass curve is approximately
a straight line if the variations at both test and base stations are quite
consistent. Any break point in the curve suggests a possible change at the test
station in relation to the base station. If a change in slope is evident, then the
record needs to be adjusted, with either the early or later period of record
adjusted.
The first step is to form the double mass curve and compute the slopes
are as follows:
i)
Add the annual precipitation of base stations.
ii)
Cummulate the sums of Step 1.
iii)
Cummulate the annual precipitation for station X.
iv)
Plot graph accumulated annual precipitation Station X versus
accumulated precipitation of Base stations and compute the
slope Mo and Ma.
Mo = Po
P

and

Ma = Pa
P
v)

Adjust the measured precipitation of gauge X using the general

equation:
Pa = Po Ma

26

Precipitation

Mo
where

Pa = adjusted precipitation value at station X

Po = original precipitation value at Station X
Ma = adjusted slope
Mo = original slope

Accumulated total precipitation at Station X

Mo
Pox
Ma

Pax

Accumulated precipitation of base stations

EXAMPLE 2.5
Measured annual precipitation gauge for five stations (A, B, C, D and E) from
1926 until 1942 are given below. After 5 years, gauge A was relocated at a
new location due to changes in land use that make it impractical to maintain
the gauge at the old location. You are required to adjust the record for the
period from 1926 to 1930 using the records at gauges B, C, D and E.

YEAR

Annual precipitation (mm)

Total

B+C+D+E

Cummulative
precipitation
(mm)
A
B+C+D+E

27

Hydrology

1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942

32.9
28.1
33.5
29.6
23.8
58.4
46.3
30.8
46.8
38.1
40.8
37.9
50.7
46.9
50.5
34.4
47.6

39.8
39.6
42.0
41.4
31.6
56.5
48.1
39.9
45.4
44.9
32.6
45.9
46.1
49.8
47.3
37.1
45.9

45.7
38.5
48.3
34.6
45.1
53.3
40.1
29.6
41.7
48.1
39.5
44.1
38.9
41.6
49.7
31.9
38.2

P nb = P x Ma
Mo
i)

P1926 = 32.9

ii)

P1927 = 28.1 (0.73)

P1927 = 20.5

28

0.19
0.26
P1926 = 32.9 (0.73)
P1926 = 24

30.7
41.0
40.4
32.5
36.7
62.4
47.9
32.7
36.1
30.7
35.4
39.2
43.3
49.9
47.9
32.2
52.4

37.4
30.9
42.0
39.9
36.3
36.6
38.6
26.9
32.4
41.6
31.3
44.1
50.6
41.1
39.0
34.5
47.3

153.6
150
172.7
148.4
149.7
208.8
174.7
129.1
155.6
165.3
138.8
173.3
178.9
182.4
183.9
135.7
183.8

33
61
95
124
148
206
253
283
330
368
411
449
499
546
597
631
679

154
304
476
625
774
983
1158
1287
1443
1608
1747
1920
2099
2281
2465
2601
2785

Precipitation

2.9

Mean Areal Precipitation

The representative precipitation over a defined area is required in

engineering application, whereas the gaged observation pertains to the point
precipitation. The areal precipitation is computed from the record of a group of
rain gages within the area by the following methods:

2.9.1 Arithmatic - mean Method

The arithmetic average method uses only those gaging stations within the
topographic basin and is calculated using:
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ....... + Pn
n
P = Pi
n
di mana,
P = average precipitation depth (mm)

29

Hydrology

Pi = precipitation depth at gage (i) within the topographic basin (mm)

n = total number of gaging stations within the topographic basin

2.9.2 Thiessen Polygon Method

Another method for calculating average precipitation is the Thiessen method.
This technique has the advantage of being quick to apply for multiple storms
because it uses fixed sub-areas. It is based on the hypothesis that, for every
point in the area, the best estimate of rainfall is the measurement physically
closest to that point. This concept is implemented by drawing perpendicular
bisectors to straight lines connecting each two raingages. This procedure is
not suitable for mountainous areas because of orographic influences. The
procedure involves:
i) Connecting each precipitation station with straight lines;
ii) Constructing perpendicular bisectors of the connecting lines and forming
polygons with these bisectors;
iii) The area of the polygon is determined.

Average precipitation = Polygon area for each station x precipitation

Total polygon area

P=

A1 p1 + A2 p2 + A3 p3 + ...... + An pn n Ai pi
=
A1 + A2 + A3 + ...... + An
i =1 A

(17)

If Ai/A = wi, then wi is the percentage of area at station 1 in which the sum of
total area is 100%.

P = wi pi

(18)

i=1

Where:

A = total area
p = average precipitation depth
p1, p2, pn = depth of precipitation at rainfall station
A1, A2, An = sub area at station 1,2,3, .n

Catchment boundary
St2
St3

30

Precipitation

St1

St4

St5

St6

Catchment boundary
St2
St3

A2

A3

St1
A1

St4
A4
A5

St5

A6

St6

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Hydrology

Example 2.6
Using data given below, estimate the average precipitation using Thiessen
method.
2

Station

Area (km )

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Total

72
34
76
40
76
92
46
40
86
6
568

Precipitation
(mm)
90
110
105
150
160
140
130
135
95
70
1185

Area x precipitation
(km2.mm)
6480
3740
7980
6000
12160
12880
5980
5400
8170
420
69210

Average precipitation = Area x precipitation

Area
Average precipitation = 69210
568
Average precipitation = 121.8 mm

2.9.3 Isohyetal Method

The isohyetal method is based on interpolation between gauges. It
closely resembles the calculation of contours in surveying and mapping. The
first step in developing an isohyetal map is to plot the rain gauge locations on
a suitable map and to record the rainfall amounts. Next, an interpolation
between gauges is performed and rainfall amounts at selected increments are
plotted. Identical depths from each interpolation are then connected to form
isohyets (lines of equal rainall depth). The areal average is the weighted
average of depths between isohyets, that is, the mean value between the

32

Precipitation

isohyets. The isohyetal method is the most accurate approach for determining
average precipitation over an area.

+ pi
n p
+ pi
n p
p0 + p1
p + p2
p + pn
Ai i 1
A1 + 1
A2 + ........ + n1
An i12
2
2
2
2
P=
= i=1 n
= i=1
A1 + A2 + ........ + An
A
Ai
i =1

where:
P = mean areal precipitation
A = Area
p1, p2, pn = precipitation depth for each station
A1, A2, An = area for each site

Example 2.7
Use the isohyetal method to determine the average precipitation depth within
the basin for the storm.

70mm
57mm

10mm

A3

45mm

20mm

A1

A5

A4

A6

A2
42mm
51mm

36mm

p4=50mm
p3=40mm
p0=10mm
p1=20mm

p2=30mm

33
p5=60mm
P6=70mm

Hydrology

Isohyetal
interval

Average
precipitation
(cm)

Area (km )

<10.0
10 - 20
20 30
30 - 40
40 - 50
50 - 60
60 - 70
Total

10
15
25
35
45
55
65

0
84
75
68
60
55
86
428

Area x
Average
precipitation
(km2.cm)
0
1260
1875
2380
2700
3025
5590
16830

Average precipitation = Area x Average precipitation

Area
Average precipitation = 16830
428
Average precipitation = 39.3 cm
Problems
Q1.

Define precipitation and explain its forms and types.

Q2.

Explain how to measure precipitation and mention five (5) types of data
must be provided to size water transport and storage system.

Q3.

Explain about missing data and gage consistency.

Q4. Develop a hyetograph (rainfall intensity versus time) for the following
precipitation data. Plot the intensity (mm/hour) for 30 minute interval.
Time (min.)
30
60
90
120
150
180
Cumulative
1.02 9.65 27.18 36.58 41.15 43.18
precipitation (mm)
Q5. Using the data given, estimate precipitation depth that has fallen on the
entire watershed.

34

Precipitation

Station
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
Answer: 11.6 mm

Precipitation
(mm)
20
13
18.3
12.5
10
5.8
6.7
14.8
13.9
11
5.5
3.7

Polygon Thiessen
2
area (cm )
112.25
53.5
120.0
62.5
119.0
144.0
72.0
130.0
62.5
85.0
110.0
40.0

Q6. Lines delineating a particular measurement are drawn within the

watershed. Precipitation data and the area in between each isohyet are shown
in the table below:
Isohyetal
30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80 80 - 90 90-100
line (cm)
2
Area (cm )
32
162
155
92
228
120
65
Estimate the average precipitation within this watershed.
Answer: 66.03 cm
Q7. Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there was a
storm. The rainfall amounts at three adjacent stations A, B, and C were 10.3
cm, 9.5 cm dan 13.0 cm, respectively. The average annual precipitation
amounts for the gauges are X = 96.3, A = 111.3, B = 93.0 and C = 106.4 cm.
Estimate the amount of rainfall for gauge X.
Answer: 10.2 cm
Q8. Estimate the amount of precipitation for gauge X in Problem 4 if three
adjacent stations recorded precipitation amounts were A = 42.4, B = 35.3 and
C = 38.4 cm.
Answer: 36 cm
Q9.

Estimate the precipitation depth at station X with coordinates (0,0) using

four quadrant method.
Quadrant

Rain
gauge

Precipitation depth
(cm)

Coordinat
X
Y

35

Hydrology

II
III
IV
Answer: 7.9 cm

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H

10
3.5
9.5
4.0
0.5
2.3
7.6
2.3

3
18
6
11
14
-4
-10
-21

9
26
4
-8
-26
-22
-5
19

Q10. A watershed has a system of three rainfall gauges as shown on the map
below. The total storm rainfall depths is: A = 74 mm, B = 67 mm and C = 82
mm. Determine the spatial average rainfall for the network of rainfall gauges
using Arithmetic Average and Thiessen Polygon methods.
Answer: 74 ~ 77 cm

1.0 km
1.0 km

36
Figure 1.0

Precipitation

Q11. Gauge X was installed in January 1975 and removed from its original
location in January 1962. Adjust the record as in Table 5 for the period from
1958 to 1962 using the records at gauges P, Q and R.
Answer: Mo = 0.3, Ma = 0.37

Year
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970

Table 5: Annual rainfall for each station

Annual rainfall (cm)
P
Q
R
54
50
56
60
60
66
64
58
70
68
66
74
58
58
60
56
52
54
64
68
68
70
68
72
62
58
68
56
54
58
50
44
50
56
50
58
66
60
68

X
50
58
60
62
52
60
72
76
72
62
56
60
74

Q12. Gauge X was temporarily moved in January 1975 and will be returned to
its original location in January 1979. Adjust the record for the period from 1975
to 1978 using the records at gauges D, E, F, F and G.
Answer: Mo = 0.27, Ma = 0.22

YEAR
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975

D
21
27
29
25
19
21
23

Annual rainfall (cm)

E
F
G
19
20
23
24
27
29
28
27
29
23
23
26
22
17
23
20
18
22
20
22
25

X
17
24
25
22
16
20
24

37

Hydrology

1976
1977
1978

17
18
22

16
16
19

18
18
20

20
20
25

20
22
25

Summary
Precipitation input is the main driver of the hydrologic cycle, as it relates to
river flow, water supply and urban drainage. Too much or too little can mean
the difference between prosperity and disaster. In between these extremes are
the normal precipitation event that are experienced with a frequency and
intensity related mainly to geographic position and topographic features.
At the end of this chapter you should be able to estimate point and areal
precipitation amounts from gauge data and conceptualize simple hydrologic
process models.

References
Bedient, P. B., Huber, W. C. and Vieux, B. E. (2003) Hydrology and
th
Floodplain Analysis, 4 ed., Prentice Hall.
Viessman, W., and G. L. Lewis. (2003). Introduction to Hydrology, 5th
ed., Prentice Hall.

38