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PRECIPITATION
Learning Objectives
This chapter is designed to assist the students to develop and enhance their
ability and knowledge in:
1. defining precipitation, its forms and types
2. illustrating techniques for estimating point and areal precipitation
Learning Outcome
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
1. estimate point and areal precipitation amounts from gauge data
Hydrology
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Formation of Precipitation
Precipitation
2.3
Classification of Precipitation
Types of precipitation include hail, sleet, snow, rain, and drizzle. Frost
and dew are not classified as precipitation because they form directly on solid
surfaces. The general classes of precipitation are as follows:
(1) Snow Complex ice crystals. A snowflake consists of
agglomerated ice crystals. The average water content of
snow is assumed to be about 10% of an equal volume of
water.
(2) Hail
Balls of ice that are about 5 to over 125 mm in diameter.
Their specific gravity is about 0.7 to 0.9. Thus, hailstones
have the potential for agricultural and other property
damage.
(3) Sleet Results from the freezing of raindrops and is usually a
combination of snow and rain.
(4) Rain
Consists of liquid water drops of a size 0.5 mm to about 7
mm in diameter.
(5) Drizzle Very small, numerous and uniformly dispersed water
drops that appear to float while following air currents.
Drizzle drops are considered to be less than 0.5 millimeter
diameter. The settling velocity is slow, with the intensity
rarely exceeding 1 mm / hr (0.04 in./hr). It is also known as
warm precipitation.
15
Hydrology
2.4
Precipitation Types
16
Precipitation
Measurement of Precipitation
Example 2.1
From the precipitation data given, estimate cumulative rainfall and rainfall
intensity.
Time
(min)
Rainfall
(cm)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0.18
0.21
0.26
0.32
0.37
0.43
0.64
1.14
3.18
Tme
(min)
Rainfall
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
170
1.65
0.81
0.52
0.42
0.36
0.28
0.24
0.19
0.17
17
Hydrology
(cm)
Solution:
Time (min)
Rainfall (cm)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
0
0.18
0.21
0.26
0.32
0.37
0.43
0.64
1.14
3.18
1.65
0.81
0.52
0.42
0.36
0.28
0.24
0.19
0.17
Cumulative
rainfall
(cm)
0
0.18
0.39
0.65
0.97
1.34
1.77
2.41
3.55
6.73
8.38
9.19
9.71
10.13
10.49
10.77
11.01
11.2
11.37
Rainfall intensity
(cm/hour)
1.08
1.26
1.56
1.92
2.22
2.58
3.84
6.84
19.08
9.90
4.86
3.12
2.52
2.16
1.68
1.44
1.14
1.02
18
Precipitation
(1)
For non recording gauge, the standard rain gauge shown in Figure 2.3
is a standard 8-inch-diameter rain gauge (203 mm) (U.S. Weather Service). A
smaller metal tube may be located in this larger overflow can. An 8-inchdiameter receiver cap may be on top of the overflow can and is used to funnel
the rain into the smaller tube until it overflows. The receiver cap has a knife
edge to catch rain falling precisely in the surface area of an 8-inch-diameter
opening.
Measurements are made using a special measuring stick with
graduations devised to account for the 8-inch receiver cap opening, funneling
water into the smaller tube. When the volume of the smaller tube is exceeded,
the volume from the smaller tube is dumped into the larger overflow can.
(2)
19
Hydrology
Weighing gauge
Weighing-type precipitation gauge consists of a storage bin, which is
weighed to record the mass. Certain models measure the mass using a pen on
a rotating drum, or by using a vibrating wire attached to a data logger. The
advantages of this type of gauge to tipping buckets is that it does not
underestimate intense rain, and it can measure other forms of precipitation,
including rain, hail and snow. However, these gauges are more expensive and
require more maintenance than tipping bucket gauges.
The weighing-type recording gauge also contains a device to measure
the quantity of chemicals contained in the locations atmosphere. This is
extremely helpful for scientists studying the effects of greenhouse gases
released into the atmosphere and their effects on the levels of the acid rain.
ii)
Tipping bucket
The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a large copper cylinder set into
the ground. At the top of the cylinder is a funnel that collects and channels the
precipitation. The precipitation falls onto one of two small buckets or levers
which are balanced in same manner as a scale. After an amount of
precipitation equal to 0.2 mm (0.007 in) falls the lever tips and an electrical
signal is sent to the recorder. The recorder consists of a pen mounted on an
arm attached to a geared wheel that moves once with each signal sent from
the collector. When the wheel turns the pen arm moves either up or down
leaving a trace on the graph and at the same time making a loud click. Each
jump of the arm is sometimes referred to as a 'click' in reference to the noise.
The chart is measured in 10 minute periods (vertical lines) and 0.4 mm (0.015
in) (horizontal lines) and rotates once every 24 hours and is powered by a
clockwork motor that must be manually wound.
The tipping bucket rain gauge is not as accurate as the standard rain
gauge because the rainfall may stop before the lever has tipped. When the
next period of rain begins it may take no more than one or two drops to tip the
lever. This would then indicate that 0.2 mm (0.007 in) has fallen when in fact
only a minute amount has. The advantage of the tipping bucket rain gauge is
that the character of the rain (light, medium or heavy) may be easily obtained.
20
Precipitation
Float type
In this type of instrument, the rain passes into a float chamber containing a
light float. As the level of the water within the chamber rises, the vertical
movement of the float is transmitted, by a suitable mechanism, to the
movement of a pen on a chart or a digital transducer. By suitably adjusting the
dimensions of the collector orifice, the float, and the float chamber, any desired
chart scale can be used.
2.6
There are a variety of factors that can affect rain gage measurements. The
positioning of the gage is very important in order to reduce errors in collecting
Buildings, landscaping and trees, and even the wind can impact the amount of
precipitation reaching the rain detector. Proper placement is critical to ensure
that rain sensor readings are an accurate representation of the actual rain
measurement rates and amounts that have fallen. The ideal site for a rain gage
is in an open area that is protected from the wind in all directions. Therefore,
rain gages should be sited in an open area away from the external factors
mentioned above. A good guideline to follow as a minimum distance from
these objects is twice their height.
2.7
Missing Data
21
Hydrology
2.7.1.1
If the average annual precipitation at each of the stations differs from the
average at the missing data station by + 10%, the following formula is used to
estimate the missing daily data:
PX = 1/M
or;
(P i)
PX = 1/M [ P1+P2+P3+..........+PM]
where
PX = estimated daily precipitation volume at the missing
data site, X (depth)
P1, P2, P3, ..PM = estimated daily precipitation volume at the adjacent
stations, 1, 2, 3 M (depth)
Example 2.2:
Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there was a
storm. The rainfall amounts at three adjacent stations A, B, and C were 37, 42,
dan 49 mm, respectively. The average annual precipitation amounts for the
gauges are X = 694, A = 726, B = 752 and C = 760 mm. Using the arithmatic
method, estimate the amount of rainfall for gauge X.
22
Precipitation
Stations
A
B
C
X
Amounts of
precipitation
(mm)
37
42
49
?
Normal annual
precipitation
(mm)
726
752
760
694
Solution:
If NX = 694
10% from NX = 69.4
Precipitation allowed = 624.6 mm ~ 763.4 mm
Since all annual precipitations (726, 752 and 760) are within the ranges,
arithmetic method can be applied:
PX = 1/3{37+ 42+ 49} = 42.7 mm
2.7.1.2
where
NX = average annual precipitation at the missing data site,
X
(cm)
Ni = average annual precipitation at the adjacent sites
(cm)
Example 2.3:
The average annual precipitation amounts for the gauges A, B, C and D are
1120, 935, 1200 and 978 mm. In year 1975, station D was out of operation.
23
Hydrology
Station
A
B
C
D
Normal
annual
precipitation
1120
935
1200
978
Amounts of
precipitation
year 1975
107
89
122
X
Solution
If NX = 978
10% from NX = 97.8
Maximum precipitation allowed = 880.2 mm ~ 1075.8 mm
Since the average annual precipitation amounts for the gauges A and C
exceeded 1075.8 mm, normal ratio method is used;
PX = 978
3
107 + 89 + 122
1120 935 1200
PX = 95.3 mm
2.7.1.3
Quadrant Method
24
Precipitation
Precipitation,
P (mm)
PA
40
45
37.5
50
X
(cm)
0
4
1
3
3
Y
(cm)
0
2
6
2
3
L2
W x 103
P x (W x 103)
0
20
37
13
18
=
0
50
27
76.9
55.6
209.5
0
2000
1215
2883.75
2780.0
8,878.75
PA = 8878.75
209.5
25
Hydrology
PA = 42.4 mm
2.8
Gage Consistency
and
Ma = Pa
P
v)
26
Precipitation
Mo
where
Mo
Pox
Ma
Pax
EXAMPLE 2.5
Measured annual precipitation gauge for five stations (A, B, C, D and E) from
1926 until 1942 are given below. After 5 years, gauge A was relocated at a
new location due to changes in land use that make it impractical to maintain
the gauge at the old location. You are required to adjust the record for the
period from 1926 to 1930 using the records at gauges B, C, D and E.
YEAR
Total
B+C+D+E
Cummulative
precipitation
(mm)
A
B+C+D+E
27
Hydrology
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
32.9
28.1
33.5
29.6
23.8
58.4
46.3
30.8
46.8
38.1
40.8
37.9
50.7
46.9
50.5
34.4
47.6
39.8
39.6
42.0
41.4
31.6
56.5
48.1
39.9
45.4
44.9
32.6
45.9
46.1
49.8
47.3
37.1
45.9
45.7
38.5
48.3
34.6
45.1
53.3
40.1
29.6
41.7
48.1
39.5
44.1
38.9
41.6
49.7
31.9
38.2
P nb = P x Ma
Mo
i)
P1926 = 32.9
ii)
28
0.19
0.26
P1926 = 32.9 (0.73)
P1926 = 24
30.7
41.0
40.4
32.5
36.7
62.4
47.9
32.7
36.1
30.7
35.4
39.2
43.3
49.9
47.9
32.2
52.4
37.4
30.9
42.0
39.9
36.3
36.6
38.6
26.9
32.4
41.6
31.3
44.1
50.6
41.1
39.0
34.5
47.3
153.6
150
172.7
148.4
149.7
208.8
174.7
129.1
155.6
165.3
138.8
173.3
178.9
182.4
183.9
135.7
183.8
33
61
95
124
148
206
253
283
330
368
411
449
499
546
597
631
679
154
304
476
625
774
983
1158
1287
1443
1608
1747
1920
2099
2281
2465
2601
2785
Precipitation
2.9
29
Hydrology
P=
A1 p1 + A2 p2 + A3 p3 + ...... + An pn n Ai pi
=
A1 + A2 + A3 + ...... + An
i =1 A
(17)
If Ai/A = wi, then wi is the percentage of area at station 1 in which the sum of
total area is 100%.
P = wi pi
(18)
i=1
Where:
A = total area
p = average precipitation depth
p1, p2, pn = depth of precipitation at rainfall station
A1, A2, An = sub area at station 1,2,3, .n
Catchment boundary
St2
St3
30
Precipitation
St1
St4
St5
St6
Catchment boundary
St2
St3
A2
A3
St1
A1
St4
A4
A5
St5
A6
St6
31
Hydrology
Example 2.6
Using data given below, estimate the average precipitation using Thiessen
method.
2
Station
Area (km )
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Total
72
34
76
40
76
92
46
40
86
6
568
Precipitation
(mm)
90
110
105
150
160
140
130
135
95
70
1185
Area x precipitation
(km2.mm)
6480
3740
7980
6000
12160
12880
5980
5400
8170
420
69210
32
Precipitation
isohyets. The isohyetal method is the most accurate approach for determining
average precipitation over an area.
+ pi
n p
+ pi
n p
p0 + p1
p + p2
p + pn
Ai i 1
A1 + 1
A2 + ........ + n1
An i12
2
2
2
2
P=
= i=1 n
= i=1
A1 + A2 + ........ + An
A
Ai
i =1
where:
P = mean areal precipitation
A = Area
p1, p2, pn = precipitation depth for each station
A1, A2, An = area for each site
Example 2.7
Use the isohyetal method to determine the average precipitation depth within
the basin for the storm.
70mm
57mm
10mm
A3
45mm
20mm
A1
A5
A4
A6
A2
42mm
51mm
36mm
p4=50mm
p3=40mm
p0=10mm
p1=20mm
p2=30mm
33
p5=60mm
P6=70mm
Hydrology
Isohyetal
interval
Average
precipitation
(cm)
Area (km )
<10.0
10 - 20
20 30
30 - 40
40 - 50
50 - 60
60 - 70
Total
10
15
25
35
45
55
65
0
84
75
68
60
55
86
428
Area x
Average
precipitation
(km2.cm)
0
1260
1875
2380
2700
3025
5590
16830
Q2.
Explain how to measure precipitation and mention five (5) types of data
must be provided to size water transport and storage system.
Q3.
Q4. Develop a hyetograph (rainfall intensity versus time) for the following
precipitation data. Plot the intensity (mm/hour) for 30 minute interval.
Time (min.)
30
60
90
120
150
180
Cumulative
1.02 9.65 27.18 36.58 41.15 43.18
precipitation (mm)
Q5. Using the data given, estimate precipitation depth that has fallen on the
entire watershed.
34
Precipitation
Station
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
Answer: 11.6 mm
Precipitation
(mm)
20
13
18.3
12.5
10
5.8
6.7
14.8
13.9
11
5.5
3.7
Polygon Thiessen
2
area (cm )
112.25
53.5
120.0
62.5
119.0
144.0
72.0
130.0
62.5
85.0
110.0
40.0
Rain
gauge
Precipitation depth
(cm)
Coordinat
X
Y
35
Hydrology
II
III
IV
Answer: 7.9 cm
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
10
3.5
9.5
4.0
0.5
2.3
7.6
2.3
3
18
6
11
14
-4
-10
-21
9
26
4
-8
-26
-22
-5
19
Q10. A watershed has a system of three rainfall gauges as shown on the map
below. The total storm rainfall depths is: A = 74 mm, B = 67 mm and C = 82
mm. Determine the spatial average rainfall for the network of rainfall gauges
using Arithmetic Average and Thiessen Polygon methods.
Answer: 74 ~ 77 cm
1.0 km
1.0 km
36
Figure 1.0
Precipitation
Q11. Gauge X was installed in January 1975 and removed from its original
location in January 1962. Adjust the record as in Table 5 for the period from
1958 to 1962 using the records at gauges P, Q and R.
Answer: Mo = 0.3, Ma = 0.37
Year
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
X
50
58
60
62
52
60
72
76
72
62
56
60
74
Q12. Gauge X was temporarily moved in January 1975 and will be returned to
its original location in January 1979. Adjust the record for the period from 1975
to 1978 using the records at gauges D, E, F, F and G.
Answer: Mo = 0.27, Ma = 0.22
YEAR
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
D
21
27
29
25
19
21
23
X
17
24
25
22
16
20
24
37
Hydrology
1976
1977
1978
17
18
22
16
16
19
18
18
20
20
20
25
20
22
25
Summary
Precipitation input is the main driver of the hydrologic cycle, as it relates to
river flow, water supply and urban drainage. Too much or too little can mean
the difference between prosperity and disaster. In between these extremes are
the normal precipitation event that are experienced with a frequency and
intensity related mainly to geographic position and topographic features.
At the end of this chapter you should be able to estimate point and areal
precipitation amounts from gauge data and conceptualize simple hydrologic
process models.
References
Bedient, P. B., Huber, W. C. and Vieux, B. E. (2003) Hydrology and
th
Floodplain Analysis, 4 ed., Prentice Hall.
Viessman, W., and G. L. Lewis. (2003). Introduction to Hydrology, 5th
ed., Prentice Hall.
38