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3D tsunami simulation
1 Terminology
Numerous terms are used in the English language to describe waves created in a body of water by the displacement of water. None of the terms in frequent use are
The Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his late- entirely accurate.
1
HISTORY
1.1
Tsunami
1.2
Tidal wave
3.1
Seismicity
3
of water is usually attributed to either earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely
by meteorites and nuclear tests.* [27]* [28] The waves
formed in this way are then sustained by gravity. Tides
do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis.
3.1 Seismicity
to tsunamis either, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring o the coast of the island.* [22]
Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the
Mediterranean Sea region and Europe in general. Of
historical and current (with regard to risk assumptions)
importance are e.g. the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and
tsunami (which was caused by the AzoresGibraltar
Transform Fault), the 1783 Calabrian earthquakes, each
causing several ten thousand deaths and the 1908 Messina
earthquake and tsunami. The latter took more than
123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the
most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe. The
Storegga Slide in the Norwegian sea and some examples
of Tsunamis aecting the British Isles refer to landslide
and meteotsunamis predominatly and less to earth quake
induced waves.
Tsunami can be generated when the sea oor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake
that are associated with the Earth's crustal deformation;
when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position.* [29] More specically, a tsunami can be
generated when thrust faults associated with convergent
or destructive plate boundaries move abruptly, resulting
in water displacement, owing to the vertical component
of movement involved. Movement on normal faults will
also cause displacement of the seabed, but the size of the
largest of such events is normally too small to give rise to
a signicant tsunami.
Drawing of tectonic plate boundary before
earthquake
Overriding plate bulges under strain, causing
tectonic uplift.
Plate slips, causing subsidence and releasing energy
into water.
As early as 426 BC the Greek historian Thucydides in The energy released produces tsunami waves.
quired in his book History of the Peloponnesian War
about the causes of tsunami, and was the rst to argue
Tsunamis have a small amplitude (wave height) oshore,
that ocean earthquakes must be the cause.* [5]* [6]
and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometres long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength
The cause, in my opinion, of this pheof only 30 or 40 metres),* [30] which is why they gennomenon must be sought in the earthquake. At
erally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell
the point where its shock has been the most viusually about 300 millimetres (12 in) above the normal
olent the sea is driven back, and suddenly resea surface. They grow in height when they reach shalcoiling with redoubled force, causes the inunlower water, in a wave shoaling process described below.
dation. Without an earthquake I do not see how
A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide
such an accident could happen.* [23]
can still inundate coastal areas.
The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (Res Gestae 26.10.15-19) described the typical sequence of a
tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden
retreat of the sea and a following gigantic wave, after the
365 AD tsunami devastated Alexandria.* [24]* [25]
On April 1, 1946, a magnitude-7.8 (Richter Scale) earthquake occurred near the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. It generated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island of
Hawai'i with a 14-metre high (46 ft) surge. The area
where the earthquake occurred is where the Pacic Ocean
oor is subducting (or being pushed downwards) under
Alaska.
Generation mechanisms
GENERATION MECHANISMS
3.2
Landslides
In World War II, the New Zealand Military Forces initiated Project Seal, which attempted to create small
In general, landslides generate displacements mainly in
tsunamis with explosives in the area of today's Shakespear
the shallower parts of the coastline, and there is conjecRegional Park; the attempt failed.* [38]
ture about the nature of truly large landslides that end in
water. This is proven to lead to huge eect in closed bays There has been considerable speculation on the possibiland lakes, but an open oceanic landslide large enough to ity of using nuclear weapons to cause tsunamis near to
cause a tsunami across an ocean has not yet happened an enemy coastline. Even during World War II considsince before seismology has been a major area of scien- eration of the idea using conventional explosives was extic study, and only very rarely in human history. Sus- plored. Nuclear testing in the Pacic Proving Ground by
ceptible areas focus for now on the islands of Hawaii and the United States seemed to generate poor results. OpLa Palma in the Canary Islands, where large masses of eration Crossroads red two 20 kilotonnes of TNT (84
relatively unconsolidated volcanic shield on slopes occur. TJ) bombs, one in the air and one underwater, above and
Considerable doubt exists about how loosely linked these below the shallow (50 m (160 ft)) waters of the Bikini
Atoll lagoon. Fired about 6 km (3.7 mi) from the nearslopes actually are.* [34]
est island, the waves there were no higher than 34 m
(9.813.1 ft) upon reaching the shoreline. Other under3.3 Meteotsunamis
water tests, mainly Hardtack I/Wahoo (deep water) and
Hardtack I/Umbrella (shallow water) conrmed the reSome meteorological conditions, especially deep sults. Analysis of the eects of shallow and deep undepressions such as tropical cyclones, can generate a derwater explosions indicate that the energy of the ex-
5
plosions doesn't easily generate the kind of deep, allocean waveforms which are tsunamis; most of the energy
creates steam, causes vertical fountains above the water,
and creates compressional waveforms.* [39] Tsunamis are
hallmarked by permanent large vertical displacements of
very large volumes of water which don't occur in explosions.
Characteristics
When the wave enters shallow water, it slows down and its amplitude (height) increases.
5 Drawback
The wave further slows and amplies as it hits land. Only the
largest waves crest.
Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and
the destructive power of a large volume of water draining
o the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it,
even with waves that do not appear to be large.
While everyday wind waves have a wavelength (from
crest to crest) of about 100 metres (330 ft) and a height of
roughly 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in the deep ocean has
a much larger wavelength of up to 200 kilometres (120
mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800 kilometres per
hour (500 mph), but owing to the enormous wavelength
the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only
about 1 metre (3.3 ft).* [40] This makes tsunamis dicult to detect over deep water, where ships are unable to
feel their passage.
ood waters to drain and drawback to occur again. This 7 Warnings and predictions
may sweep victims and debris some distance from land.
The process repeats as the next wave arrives.
See also: Tsunami warning system
Drawbacks can serve as a brief warning. People who ob-
6.1
Intensity scales
In the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami drawback was not reported on the African coast or any other east-facing coasts
that it reached. This was because the wave moved downwards on the eastern side of the fault line and upwards on
the western side. The western pulse hit coastal Africa and
other western areas.
6.2
Magnitude scales
7.1
10 FOOTNOTES
9 See also
Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
Disaster preparedness
Earthquake Early Warning (Japan)
Higher Ground Project
Index of wave articles
List of earthquakes
List of natural disasters
Minoan eruption
Rogue wave
Seiche
Sneaker wave
Supervolcano
Tauredunum event
A seawall at Tsu, Japan
Tsunamis in lakes
Tsunami-proof building
Tsunami Society
10 Footnotes
[1] Tsunami Terminology. NOAA. Retrieved 2010-0715.
[2] Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 736. ISBN 0-58205383-8. Entry: tsunami
[3] Barbara Ferreira (April 17, 2011). When icebergs capsize, tsunamis may ensue. Nature. Retrieved 2011-0427.
[4] Fradin, Judith Bloom and Dennis Brindell (2008).
Witness to Disaster: Tsunamis. Witness to Disaster.
Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. pp. 42,
43.
[5] Thucydides: A History of the Peloponnesian War,
3.89.14
[6] Smid, T. C. (April 1970). 'Tsunamis' in Greek Literature.
Greece & Rome 17 (1) (2nd ed.). pp. 100104.
[7] [a. Jap. tsunami, tunami, f. tsu harbour + nami waves.
Oxford English Dictionary]
[30] Facts and gures: how tsunamis form, Australian Geographic, March 18, 2011.
[37] Eyewitness video of Supertyphoon Haiyan's meteotsunamic storm surge on November 6, 2013
10
12 FURTHER READING
11
References
12 Further reading
Boris Levin, Mikhail Nosov: Physics of tsunamis.
Springer, Dordrecht 2009, ISBN 978-1-4020-88551.
Kontar, Y. A. et al.: Tsunami Events and Lessons
Learned: Environmental and Societal Signicance.
Springer, 2014. ISBN 978-94-007-7268-7 (print);
ISBN 978-94-007-7269-4 (eBook)
Kristy F. Tiampo: Earthquakes: simulations, sources
and tsunamis. Birkhuser, Basel 2008, ISBN 9783-7643-8756-3.
Linda Maria Koldau: Tsunamis. Entstehung,
Geschichte, Prvention, (Tsunami development,
history and prevention) C.H. Beck, Munich 2013
(C.H. Beck Reihe Wissen 2770), ISBN 978-3-40664656-0 (in German).
Walter C. Dudley, Min Lee: Tsunami! University
of Hawaii Press, 1988, 1998, Tsunami! University
of Hawai'i Press 1999, ISBN 0-8248-1125-9, ISBN
978-0-8248-1969-9.
11
13
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