TOPIC ONE

IDENTIFICATION AND PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

Contextual Outline
Humans have always exploited their natural environment for all their needs including
food, clothing and shelter. As the cultural development of humans continued, they
looked for a greater variety of materials to cater for their needs.
The twentieth century saw an explosion in both the use of traditional materials and in
the research for development of a wider range of materials to satisfy technological
developments. Added to this was a reduction in availability of the traditional
resources to supply the increasing world population.
Chemists and chemical engineers continue to play a pivotal role in the search for new
sources of traditional materials such as those from the petrochemical industry. As the
fossil organic reserves dwindle, new sources of the organic chemicals presently used
have to be found. In addition, chemists are continually searching for compounds to
be used in the design and production of new materials to replace those that have
been deemed no longer satisfactory for needs.
This module increases students understanding of the implications of chemistry for
society and the environment and the current issues, research and developments in
chemistry.

Section ONE
Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene,
for the production of other substances

Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking

of some of the fractions from the refining of petroleum.

Petroleum is a mixture of crude oil and natural gas

Petroleum is separated by fractional distillation where each fraction contains a

mixture of molecules that have a specific range of boiling points

Fractions such as Petrol are high in demand, but low in output, thus cracking
is used to increased the output of petrol

Cracking is the process of breaking up heavy residues of crude oil into shorter
carbon chains to boost up the production of material to meet societies
demands
-

Catalytic cracking process by which high molecular weight fractions

from crude oil are broken into lower molecular weight fractions using a
catalyst and low temperatures

Increases output of high demand fractions such as petrol

Alkanes with 15-25 carbon atoms are broken into alkanes and
alkenes, and the alkenes continue splitting until ethene or
propene is reached.

Thermal cracking very high temperatures are used

Expensive

Ethylene and propylene are products of the cracking process and are
important raw materials in the petrochemical industry

Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its

double bond, is readily transformed into many useful
products.

Due to the reactivity of its double bond, many addition reactions can take place,
forming polyethylene, and other intermediate products such as plastics,
pharmaceuticals and industrial chemicals

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which

polymers are made.
Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the
meaning of this term.

Addition polymers are formed when many monomers chemically combine

without any by-product

Ethene undergoes several addition processes to form the additional polymer

polyethylene.
-

The double bond is broken, and forms single bonds with its
neighbouring atoms

Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an

example of a commercially and industrially important
polymer

Initiation, Propagation and Termination

o

A substance called an initiator is added to begin the reaction by

breaking the double bonds to form a reactive monomer free radical.
This then combines with the alkene monomers in an addition reaction
and continues to form the polymer.

LDPE (low density polyethylene)

o

Occurs at pressure of 1500-3000 atmospheres, at high temperatures

(300C), and organic peroxide (-O-O molecules) as an initiator

Product contains chain branching, causing the alkane chains to be

unable to tightly pack or arrange themselves in an orderly way

Causes low density and non-crystalline

The initiator is not a catalyst so it is part of the product, with one

initiator molecule every 2000-3000 monomer units

HDPE (high density polyethylene)

o

Lower pressure (2-3 atmospheres), low temperatures (approx. 60C),

and a catalyst (mixture of titanium (III) chloride and a
trialkylaluminium compound)

Product have none/fewer side chains, so the alkane chains can pack
tightly and linearly

Causes high density and crystalline

Some impurities are present due to the catalyst

Known as Ziegler-Natta process

Identify the following as commercially significant

monomers:
vinyl chloride
styrene
by both their systematic and common names.

Vinyl Chloride
-

Systematic name chloroethene

Common name Vinyl chloride

Polymer PVC (polyvinylchloride)

PVC is rigid and hard due to the bulky side chain and thus used
in plumbing pipes and flooring

Styrene
-

Systematic name ethenyl benzene

Common name styrene

Polymer poly styrene

Polystyrene is very rigid and hard and thus used in tool

handles, and CD cases because of the bulky benzene side chain

When styrene is formed with gas blowing through it, it forms

soft beads or form which is used in insulation foam cups or
surfing boards

Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above

monomers in terms of their properties.

The properties relating to a polymer are

o

Melting/softening point

Stability to heat/light

Chemical stability

Mechanical strength

Flexibility/rigidity

These properties are affected by

o

Average molecular weight

The longer the chain length (greater the average molecular weight)
the higher the melting point and the harder the substance due to
dispersion forces

The molecular weight is average as chains can be of different lengths

Chain branching
Little-no chain branching, chains can intertwine and align closely and
forms a crystalline and orderly arranged substance due to dispersion
forces (high density, high melting point, and a relatively hard and
tough material)
Chain branching prevents chains packing tightly and forms a noncrystalline substance (low density, low melting point, greater
flexibility and softness)

Side chains

The flexibility of a polymer is dependent upon the side chain.

Polyethylene is more flexible than Polystyrene because polystyrene

contains bulky and heavy benzene side chains where as polyethylene
have no side chains.

Cross linking

Process where two or more linear chains are joined together by cross
linking chains to form an extended 2D network

Increases rigidity and hardness of the polymer

Extensive cross linking elastomers that always return to their

original shape when a force is applied and removed

No cross linking plastics where they do not change back to

their original shape if a force is applied and removed.

Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to
compare the reactivity of appropriate alkenes with the
corresponding alkanes in bromine water

A few drops of cyclohexane were added to 2ml of bromine water (clear orange
brown) in a test tube and shaken. Decolourisation would indicate the presence of
the double bond and identify the chemical as an alkene.

The investigation was repeated with cyclohexane and all variables as volume and
temperature were held constant so that a fair comparison can be made. This was
carried out in a fume cabinet because bromine is volatile and poisonous.

Cyclohexane and cyclohexane were used because they are liquids and as such
easier to handle than gases and they only vary by a double bond so that other
variables do not influence the results. Bromine is used because it will readily
react with double bonds but not single bonds

Section TWO
Some scientists continue to research the extraction of materials from
biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels

Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds

presently obtained from the petrochemical industry

Raw materials used for making most polymers come from crude oil.
o

Crude oil is non-renewable, so the supplies will run out in the future.

Crude oil is also used as fuel, so the resources needed for the
photochemical industry will run out faster.
As crude oil diminishes, cost will increase.

Alternatives are needed to avoid the above problems such as biomass

Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer

Condensation polymers are polymers that form by the elimination of a small

molecule (often water) when pairs of monomer molecules join together

Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer

is formed

E.g. glucose => cellulose

HO C6H10O4 OH + HO C6H10O4 OH + HO C6H10O4 OH

|
|
V

O C6H10O4 O C6H10O4 O C6H10O4 O + xH2O

Alternatively
n(HO C6H10O4 OH) H (O C6H10O4)n OH + (n-1)H2O

When two glucose monomer molecules react through two hydroxy groups -OH, an HOH molecule is condensed out, leaving an -O- linking the two monomer molecules.
The first two glucose molecules to join condense out an H-OH, and every glucose
molecule added to the growing chain then condenses out another H-OH.

Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example

of a condensation polymer found as a major component of
biomass

Beta - Glucose monomer:

For cellulose to form, OH on the right hand side bonds with the H on the left forming
water
Cellulose polymer:

For bonding to occur, alternating beta- glucose units must be inverted. Thus the
bonding O and CH2OH will alternate for every monomer.

A linear molecule is produced due to C O C bond angles

Cellulose is the major component of plant material or biomass (material produced by
living organisms; mainly plant material but also includes animal excreta and
materials made by algae)

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain

structures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its
potential as a raw material

Each glucose unit of cellulose has 4 carbon units, so it could be regarded as a

basic structure for making starting molecules for petrochemicals ethene (2 C
atoms), propene (3 C atoms) and butene (4 C atoms).

Cellulose is made from glucose monomers through condensation polymerisation

and has the advantages of:
o

If there was an efficient way to decompose cellulose into glucose then ethanol
can be obtained from the fermentation of glucose

Ethanol itself can be a promising alternative fuel to replace petrol obtained

from fossil fuels

Ethene can be obtained through the dehydration of ethanol and thus be used
in the production of the petrochemical industry

Cellulose is a renewable resource and its products are biodegradable and thus
reduces pollution

Despite the potential as a raw material, it is currently uneconomical and not

viable to use cellulose as a resource because:
o

There is no economical way to break cellulose into glucose as it is expensive

Takes up a lot of space to grow enough to be of any use

Unfortunately there is no simple and efficient way to break down cellulose into
glucose and this is a major issue in using cellulose as a raw material for chemicals.

Use available evidence to gather, process and present data

from secondary sources and analyse progress in the
development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis
should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used
to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or
potential use of the polymer produced related to its
properties

Biopol is a commercially produced biopolymer and is a PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoate).

The biopol polymer is a copolymer made up of two monomers; PHB
(polyhydroxybutyrate) and PHV (polyhydroxyvalerate).

Biopol is produced by bacteria, either industrially; Alcaligenes or genetically modified

by E.Coli., growing in thanks with the presence of a carbon based food source for
nutrition, e.g. whey, molasses, agricultural wastes

Properties:
o

Insoluble

Permeable to oxygen

Resistant to UV, acids and bases

Soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons

Biocompatible

Biodegradable

High melting point

High tensile strength

Denser then water

Non-toxic

Uses (due to its biocompatibility and biodegradable features)

o

medical applications

gauzes

surgical pins

filaments

bone replacements

disposable containers

shampoos

cosmetics

disposable items

razors

rubbish bags

nappies

fast food utensils

More expensive then conventional polymers but is biodegradable resulting in better

waste management and uses renewable crops rather then fossil fuels

Biodegradability and biocompatibility are important features for medical applications

and there is often no better fossil fuel-based alternative

Section Three
Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable
resources such as plants

Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethene and identify

the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst
Describe the addition of water to ethene resulting in the
production of ethanol and Identify the need for a catalyst in
this process and the catalyst used

Ethene is made from ethanol by dehydration. This is a reaction, which involves the
removal of water.

Diluted H2SO4

Concentrated H2SO4

Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent

for polar and non-polar substances

Ethanol is a good solvent for polar substances due to the fact that Ethanol contains a
polar head and a non-polar tail.

The O-H end is polar due to oxygens high electronegativity and thus can interact
with polar substances via dipole-dipole or hydrogen bonds.

The non-polar tail CH3-CH2- can interact with non-polar substances via dispersion
forces

These two ends make ethanol an effective solvent for both polar and non-polar
substances

Uses include:
o

Cosmetics (perfumes, deodorants, after-shaves)

Food colourings and flavourings (cochineal, vanilla essence)

Medical preparations (antiseptics)

Cleaning agents

Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be

called a renewable resource

Ethanol is a useful fuel as it

Readily burns to release energy

o

C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) =>2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

Easily transportable

Used as petrol extender

Ethanol is renewable because:

It is a biomass fuel

Ethanol is made from CO2, H2O and sunlight by photosynthesis and fermentation

When it is burnt, it becomes CO2 and H2O; hence returning to original materials
which can be reconverted into Ethanol, thus renewable

Energy inputs are significant as they require a lot of energy; if this energy is
obtained from fossil fuels, there would be little difference in greenhouse gas
emissions then using oil

Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is

promoted

Fermentation is a process in which glucose is broken down to ethanol and carbon

dioxide by the action of enzymes present in yeast.

For fermentation to take effect:

o

Suitable fruit or grain is mashed up with water

Yeast is added

Oxygen is excluded to prevent oxidation of ethanol

The mixture is kept at blood temperature (37C)

The ethanol must be constantly removed to sustain a concentration of 15% as

any higher would kill the yeast

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Present information from secondary sources by writing a
balanced equation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol

When fermentation is in progress, enzymes (biological catalysts) in the mixture first

convert any starch or sucrose in the mixture to glucose and/or fructose, than other
enzymes convert glucose or fructose into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
C6H12O6 (aq)

2CH3CH2OH

(aq)

+ 2CO2 (g)

Yeast

Bubbles of CO2 gas are given off: hence the name, fermentation. Yeast can
produce ethanol contents of about 15%.

Alcohol concentrations above this level kill the yeast and stop further
fermentation.

To produce further alcohol it is necessary to distil the liquid.

Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and

calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data

Molar heat of combustion of a substance is the amount of heat liberated when

one mole of the substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at a
constant pressure of 1 atmosphere, with the final products being CO2 and H2O

Molar heat of combustion = -KH for a combustion process

For ethanol, the molar heat of combustion is 1360 kJ/mol

C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) =>2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) KH = -1360 kJ/mol

Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and

discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use ethanol

Advantages

Renewable resource and would reduce use of non-renewable oil

Could reduce greenhouse gas emissions (if greenhouse friendly energy inputs
were used for distillation)

It is a cleaner fuel as it undergoes complete combustion more readily due to the

shorter carbon chain and the presence of the oxygen and thus produces less
carbon monoxide and soot

Used as a fuel extender that reduces CO emissions by 25-30%

Disadvantages

Large areas of land would need to be devoted for growing suitable crops with
consequent problems of erosion, deforestation, fertiliser run off, desalination

Disposal of large amounts of smelly waste fermentation liquors after removal of

ethanol would present major environmental problems

For Ethanol to be completely used as a fuel then extensive engine modification

would be needed

Assessment ethanol has the potential to be used as an alternative fuel, but due to
current technology and methods, it is not viable to use ethanol as an alternate fuel
due to the environment problems.

Process information from secondary sources to summarise the

processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from
sugar cane

Sugar cane, and waste from sugar can production (bagasse), can be used to produce
ethanol through fermentation, as both these products are rich in sucrose.
C12H22O11 + H2O 2C6H12O6 4C2H5OH + 4CO2
Distillation of the ethanol and water mixture separates ethanol from the water.

Process information from secondary sources to summarise the

use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success
of current usage.

Two forms of ethanol are

Anhydrous up to 24% blend with petrol (no engine modifications needed)

Hydrous contains some water (engine modifications needed)

Plans by Brazil to develop Ethanol purely for car fuel has proved unsuccessful due to
the large cost of arable land needed to grow the sugar cane, and the cost of energy
required for input.
In Australia, USA and Canada, ethanol is used as fuel extender as a mixture of up to
10 -12% with petrol.
Future research that could enhance current technology include improving the
efficiency of solar powered distillation processes, genetic engineering of bacteria and
developing mechanisms for the decompositions of cellulose to produce glucose
economically.

Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to

carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass
changes

The fermentation of glucose in water releases gaseous carbon dioxide as a

product. Fermentation occurs best at about 30oC. Above this elevated
temperature, significant evaporation of water, and hence more mass loss occurs.

Mass losses due to release of carbon dioxide and evaporation of water can be
allowed for in planning and performing this first-hand investigation.

Carry out the fermentation in a gas tight container with a pipe or bendy straw
leading into a beaker of limewater (saturated Ca(OH)2 solution and thus react

The carbon dioxide will be trapped in the limewater. Water passing out of the
fermentation container will also be collected in the limewater beaker.

Section Four
Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of
energy

Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of

transfer of electrons

A displacement reaction is where a more reactive metal converts the ions of other
metals into its neutral atom through a transfer of electrons
e.g.

Zn(s)

Cu2+(aq)

Zn2+ (aq)

Cu(s)

In this example, Zinc atoms has displaced copper ions

Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in

solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals

The more reactive metal is the one that will displace the other metal from a solution
of its ions
Oxidation is loss of electrons
Reduction is gain of electrons
The metal activity series is
K Na Li Ba Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu Ag Pt Au
More Reactive <====================== Less Reactive
This means that the metals further to the left loses its electronics more easily or it is
more easily oxidised and thus more likely to be the reductant

Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of

their loss or gain of electrons

Oxidation state is the degree of oxidation

Monatomic ions: equal to valance state

Uncombined elements have an oxidation state of 0

Oxygen: 2 in oxides and 1 in peroxides

Hydrogen: 1 when combined with metals and +1 when combined with non
metals

A change in oxidation state occurs with gain/loss of electrions

o

E.g. Zn2+ => Zn3+ + e-

Change in oxidation state from +2 to +3 and thus oxidation has occurred

Oxidation is increase of oxidation state
Reduction is decrease of oxidation state => has been reduced

Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of

oxidation/reduction reactions
Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction
of electron flow

Galvanic cells are devices that use the chemical energy released by a spontaneous
redox reaction to create electrical energy
Electricity is generated by setting up two redox reactions in two different electrodes
with an external circuit allowing the flow of electrons
At the anode =>

Zn(s)

Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

At the cathode =>

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-

Cu(s)

Oxidation
Reduction

Above are the two half equations occurring at each electrode.

Overall net equal - Zn(s)

Cu2+ (aq)

Zn2+(aq)

In this example, Zn was oxidised and thus is the reactant

Cu ions were reduced and thus is the oxidant
The Oxidant is one that causes another to be oxidised and thus undergoes
reduction
The Reductant is one that causes another to be reduced and thus undergoes
oxidation

Cu(s)

Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to

describe galvanic cells

Anode the negative electrode where oxidation occurs

Cathode the positive electrode where reduction occurs
Electrode a conductor of a cell (usually the metal of the ion), connected to an
external circuit
Electrolyte substance that in solution which conducts electricity

Perform a first hand investigation to identify the conditions

under which a galvanic cell is produce
Perform a first hand investigation and gather first hand
information to measure the difference in potential of different
combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution

Required conditions of a galvanic cell

Two electrodes (an anode and a cathode) each of a dissimilar metal

Each electrode must be in a 1M conductive salt solution containing its own ion
(the electrolyte)

A conducting wire connecting the two half cells

25C; 100kPa

A salt bridge between the cells to allow the migration of ions between each cell

Practical points

The purpose of the salt bridge is to maintain electrical neutrality by allowing the
migration of ions. It also completes the circuit

The salt bridge is created by using filter paper soaked in an electrolyte such as
KNO3

The conditions of the electrolyte are:

must not interfere with the reaction (e.g. AgCl will precipitate)

must be able to dissociate and produce ions

The greater difference in reactivity between the metal resulted in a greater

potential difference

Conditions such as temperature and concentration of the electrolytes also

affected the magnitude of the potential difference

Observations of a chemical reaction

Metal deposits are formed on the cathode

Some of the metal of the anode disappears

There could be a colour change due to the change in concentration of

the ions

Section Five
Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and

describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable

Unstable isotopes give off energy or particles in an attempt to become stable. The
nucleus is radioactive and the stabilising process is known as radioactive decay.
Unstable nucleus occurs when there are
Too many neutrons for the number of protons present

Results in beta decay O-

A neutron turns into a proton and electron

Too many protons for the number of neutrons present

Results in beta decay O+

A proton turns into a neutron and a positron (positively charged

electron)

Too many protons and neutrons

Elements from 1 20

The proton to neutron ratio is 1:1

Elements from 20 83

The proton to neutron ratio increases to about 1.5:1

Elements from 83+

Results in alpha decay P

All are unstable

Describe how transuranic elements are produced

Nuclear reactor a suitable target is placed at the core, and is then
bombarded with neutrons; the target picks up the neutrons and then
undergoes beta decay

Produces neutron rich radioisotopes

Accelerators (e.g. cyclotrons) fires protons at high speeds into the nuclei of
atoms

Produces neutron deficient radioisotopes

Transuranic elements are elements past uranium

Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

Accelerators creates neutron-deficient elements with too many protons for number
of neutrons present
e.g. fluorine -18 is prepared by bombarding nitrogen with helium nuclei
Nuclear reactions create neutron rich elements
e.g. cobalt - 60 is used for cancer treatment is made by placing normal cobalt 59
in a nuclear reactor which captures a neutron

Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect

radiation

Geiger-Muller Counter a sealed glass tube containing Ag gas is ionised by

radiation, which causes electrons to flow through an external circuit which is
attached to a counter
Photographic film film is affected by radiation in similar fashion to light and
exposure can be measured on the film
Scintillation Counter phosphorescent counter is used as any radiation
excites electrons causing them to move to an outer shell, as the electrons
return to their original shell, they give off flashes of lights which are picked up
by the counter

Identify one use of a named radioisotope in industry and

medicine

Describe the way in which these radioisotopes are used and

explain their use in terms of their chemical properties

Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems

associated with the use of radioisotopes in identified industries
and medicine

Medical Cancer Treatment Cobalt-60

Isotope is made from neutron bombardment of Cobalt-59, which becomes Cobalt60 then undergoes beta decay to become Nickel-60

Gamma rays are also emitted which carry a suitable level of energy to destroy
biological molecules deep within the body

Cobalt-60 has a suitable half life (4-6 years) which ensures a reasonable lifetime
of equipment, but short enough to emit a reasonable intensity of radiation

Can penetrated deeply into body where surgery cannot reach

Can also kill good cells as well as intended target

Industry Thickness Gauges Strontium-90

Source of radiation and detector are fixed, and the material is passed between
them
Level of radiation picked up by detector indicated amount of radiation absorbed
by the material, and hence its thickness
Low energy emission is used for safety precautions and the material needs to
absorb a significant amount of it
Reasonable long half life (28 years) so equipment is long lasting