Running Head: TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

The Effects of Time Management on College Students Academic Performance

Jamie C. Denlinger
Ball State University

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Abstract
The objective of this investigation was to examine the influence that time management
has on 22 of Ball State Universitys college students academic performance and
achievements. By conducting a survey based on gender, grade, major, and extracurricular
activity involvement, I was able to analyze the data in organized charts. Data proves that
being involved in extracurricular activities or demanding majors and having a high desire
to succeed were found to be the main predictors in successful time management skills.
The self-perception of having good time-management skills proved to have a direct
correlation to performance levels. Students that perceive themselves as having good time
management skills were the students who were more involved and had a high desire to
achieve, resulting in a higher level of performance. To improve academic performance
among college students, self-attitudes and participation in activities that keep schedules
busy will help enforce the principle influence; time management practices.
Keywords: academic, influence, performance, time management

The Effects of Time Management on College Students Academic Performance

Do you ever feel as if you cant get everything done that you need to, or that you
work towards raising your GPA and it never seems to rise to the level youd like? As
college students, we are torn between academic responsibilities, athletic obligations, and
even social activities. We drive ourselves crazy trying to be everywhere and do
everything. Even if its for fun, we rush and cram and soon life becomes overwhelming
and the fun fades away. We need to stop spreading ourselves so thin and start enjoying
the things we do again. We all perform better, whether in athletics or academics, when

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

were having fun, because the less stressed we are, the more productive we can be. Its
been theorized that optimally managing time can increase performance and achievement,
but how true is this? Lets explore how this theorys been tested to determine how
efficient use of time affects the productivity of college students.
Britton and Tesser (1991) tested their hypothesis that college grade point averages
could be predicted by time management practices. They had ninety freshman and
sophomore college students at the University of Georgia answer a 35-question time
management survey and submit their SAT scores. They found that two time management
components directly affect the cumulative GPA; planning including utilizing short and
long term goals -- and time attitudes, or, the perception of how their time needs to be
spent. Students that practiced both planning and positive time attitudes found that they
had much more time to complete their tasks because they felt more in control of how
their time was spent therefore knowing when they had to say no to activities. It was
also found that the students who reported using goal-oriented time management had a
higher overall GPA. This seems to indicate that time management practices do have an
influence on college academic achievement, but thats not all they affect.
A study done by Nonis S., Hudson, G., Logan, L., Ford, C. (1998), examines the
effects utilization of time management skills has on several aspects of students lives, and
investigates the theory that perceived time management among college students is used
as a stress coping strategy. Data from a questionnaire was collected from 164 business
students ranging from sophomores to seniors. The results showed, much as Brittons and
Tessers earlier study had, students who perceived themselves as having a high level of
control over their time experienced benefits, in this case a lower level of stress and a

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

higher level of academic performance, problem-solving ability, and health than those
who believed themselves to be less in control over their time. However, students who
dont feel they have control over their time have many other options to ensure a high
GPA.
Grave (2010) performed a study that found other ways to reach that high level of
academic performance. He investigated student time management and distribution
patterns, and their influence on undergraduates grades. His findings showed that
attending class, finishing high school with a high GPA, and participating in social
sciences or engineering sciences lead to higher grades. For all students, not only spending
significant time studying, but also working as a teachers assistant or tutor, proved to be a
positive influence on grades. But to attend all classes or serve as a teachers assistant
requires a high level of motivation, and knowing that time management plays such an
important role in our achievements is a strong motivator.
Kelly (2004) also proposed the theory that efficient use of time is directly
associated with increased academic performance and achievement. To investigate this
possibility among college students, 141 advanced undergraduates were given the Time
Use Efficiency Scale (TUES), a social desirability scale, and self-reported their overall
GPA. The TUES is based on how well the participants claim to use their time, and the
social desirability scale is a true/false questionnaire based on socially desirable responses.
First he defined making the best use of ones time into three elements: an awareness of
time, an awareness of that which fills time, and having positive in-task work habits. His
results support the positive correlation between judicious time management, academic
performance, and GPA. They also deemed the social desirability scale insignificant

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

related to time use or the GPA, while elevated TUES scores were directly tied to higher
GPAs and overall academic achievement.
Although all of these studies seem to point to the benefits of using study time
wisely to increase GPA and academic performance, it is necessary to also address some
more negative influences on time utilization, such as multi-tasking and distractions. A
study done by Junco, R., & Cotton, S. (2011), examines the effect that multitasking has
on college GPAs. With the increasing availability of social media, such as Facebook and
text messaging, more students have engaged in multitasking as a way to manage their
lives. By analyzing the results of a web survey they had conducted, Junco and Cotton
found that these technologies have been an interruption because students spend much
time using them while doing schoolwork, thereby fractioning their concentration and
limiting absorption of new material. This has led to a decrease in students academic
performance and overall GPA. Students might attempt to dispute these findings,
however, claiming they spend quite a few hours each week studying, while grossly
under-reporting the amount of this study time being spent in social networking pursuits.
Having such self-reported data can skew an entire study and make its findings
inconsistent, along with neglecting the many other means students use to distract
themselves from actual studying.
An article by Brint, S., & Cantwell, A. (2006), for example, makes note of
previous studies having already found that extra study time increases students academic
performance, but their research addressed other potentially beneficial ways of spending
free time. Their results were drawn from more than 6000 student responses to the 2006
University of California Undergraduate Experience Survey. Aside from confirming that

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

study time has a strong influence on academic attentiveness and GPAs, they found that
physical exercise and participating in volunteer work have a strong influence on
academic awareness, but not necessarily on GPAs. There was no direct correlation found,
in this particular study, between engaging in campus life activities and increased
educational benefits. The biggest obstacle to positive academic performance, however,
was found to be holding an off-campus job. Those students who spent significant time
working for pay suffered with lower GPAs. Apparently some activities are better suited
to strong academic performance than others.
Pierce (2007), conducted a survey that was given to student athletes in the
engineering field at a Division 1 University to study the academic success of collegiate
level athletes enrolled in a demanding and intense course of study. A survey was
distributed to the nineteen athletes in the program, though only twelve responded. The
survey was developed to recognize characteristics and behaviors that led to their average
GPA of a 3.24 on a 4.0 scale. This study found that time management, sense of
organization, and problem solving skills were the key traits. The athletes were able to
apply their concentration and desire to achieve, qualities that are so vital in athletics, to
their academics. And though the demands of their sports were high, their free time was
generally spent with their engineering peers and professors; something they claimed to be
essential to their academic performance.
Time management practices have been proven to be some of the top indicators
toward achieving a high level of academic success and performance. They arent the only
influences on achievement, but time management also doesnt serve only one purpose.
Participating in events and being engaged in other outside-class work, not necessarily a

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

job, but being active in organizations also has a strong correlation to reaching a high
GPA. And time management practices lead not only to a high level of academic
performance, but to good health and lower levels of stress. Now that we know why we
need to improve our time management skills, research should be done on successful ways
to help us make that happen. How and where do we start? What methods will prove most
promising and easiest to use? We need research that will help us help ourselves by
teaching us how to use our time wisely. One of the best ways to learn to do something is
to observe others. By comparing college students who have good time management skills
with those who dont, we can track the techniques and adapt them to our own schedules.
Methods
Hypothesis: Previous studies have investigated the influence of time management
practices on academic performance, leading me to conduct my own, similar study:
College students will benefit in academic performance and achievement by
managing their time more efficiently. The sense of personal control of their time helps
students balance academic work with extracurricular activities. And by balancing their
workload, they become less stressed and begin to enjoy what they are doing.

Participants and Setting

A sample size of 22 college students enrolled in Ball State University participated
in this study. The sample is made of one male and one female from each of the eleven
categories of majors: education, business, science, mathematics, English, architecture,
technology, languages, history, music, and medical. Of the 22 students, five were
freshman, five were sophomores, six were juniors, and six were seniors.

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

To even out the studys results, I balanced not-only their gender, grade, and

major, but their participation in extracurricular activities as well. Eight students, two from
each grade, participate on an official athletic team at Ball State. Another eight, two from
each grade, do not participate in any extracurricular activities. Four, one from each grade,
half male and half female, are members in a sorority or fraternity. And the last two
students hold jobs, one on-campus and one off-campus, on top of their academic
responsibilities.
Table 1 Characteristics of study participants
Characteristics

Freshmen

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Total
22

3
3

3
3

11
11

Gender
Male
Female

2
3

3
2

Major
Education
Business
Science
Mathematics
English
Architecture
Technology
Languages
History
Musical
Medical
Extracurricular
Athletics
Nothing
Greek
Employed

1
1

1
1
1

1
1
1

2
2
1

1
2
2
1
1

8
8
4
2

1
1

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

1
1
1
2
2
1

1
2
1

1
1
1

2
2
1
1

Procedure
In the fall of 2012, a survey measuring the correspondence between self-belief of
time regulation and overall academic performance was dispersed to college students at
Ball State University. By distributing this survey, via email and hard copy to selected

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

students, I was able to evaluate the relationship between the students intensity of
scheduled responsibility (influenced by their career major and involvement in
extracurricular activities), self-belief of time control, and cumulative grade point average
(GPA).
Questions regarding self-efficiency evaluate the confidence and assurance
students have in their ability to finish tasks on time and to their best ability. Being certain
that one has the capability to complete their task may increase their chance of better
performance. Other questions asked, also reveal the level of significance that their
academic performance is to them. The choice of major can also influence that aspect,
because depending on the students pursuit, their efforts could be so heavily focused in
that one area that they lack control in other areas, causing unevenness and a lower overall
GPA. Comparing the students schedules with their self-perceived academic performance
and GPA reveals much about their time management practices. A student with a heavy
schedule of classes and extracurricular activities must have a high level of organization if
they posses a high GPA.
Students were given a questionnaire containing six question topics that were all selfopinionative. Students rated what they believed their level of time-management practices
were at: 1 is lowest and four is highest, similar to the GPA scale. They were also asked to
think back to what their thoughts were before completing tasks they regularly do, such as:
homework and reading assignments, tests, midterm exams, and finals. They scored their
confidence level based on their certainty that they could accomplish the task within the
time constraints of their schedules. Then they self-reported how well they thought they
did at the task. Next, they determined their importance of having a high GPA, and what

10

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

their academic performance was in relation to how they thought they did, whether they

did better or worse than expected. Additionally, students were asked to rate the intensity
of their schedules in contrast to what they think others face, one being somewhat easier
and four being much more difficult, as well as listing their scheduled responsibilities.
Results
Table 2 Measurements
Self-reflected
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Time-management
Self-confidence
Desire for high GPA
Academic performance
Intensity of schedule
Activity influence is positive

Students responses
L

LM

Mean

2.545
1.91
3
2.77
2.818
3.36

5
9
1
3
2
1

5
7
4
5
5
2

7
5
11
8
10
7

5
1
6
6
5
12

I found that the students that perceived themselves as having a better handle on their
time also had a higher desire for a high GPA, a schedule that forced them to organize
their time, and saw their participation in activities to be of assistance in timemanagement. Students that felt uncertain that they could complete their tasks were also
the ones who rated their schedules as very demanding, but their time-management was
average and their academic performance opposed their level of confidence. This suggests
that the pressure to finish a task among all others, forces students to manage their time in
a way to effectively execute their responsibility. This is also proven by the recording of
answers to question topic number six, Do you think that participating in extracurricular
activities has a positive influence on time-management? The concentration of highranking answers indicates that the students that have busy schedules find it to be
beneficial in managing their time.

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TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Table 3 Measurements
Analyzed
Time-management
1. Low (5)
2. Low-medium (5)
3. Medium (7)
4. High (5)
Self-confidence
1. Low (9)
2. Low-medium (7)
3. Medium (5)
4. High (1)
Desire for high GPA
1. Low (1)
2. Low-medium (4)
3. Medium (11)
4. High (6)
Academic performance
1. Low (3)
2. Low-medium (5)
3. Medium (8)
4. High (6)
Intensity of schedule
1. Low (2)
2. Low-medium (5)
3. Medium (10)
4. High (5)
Activity influence is positive
1. Low (1)
2. Low-medium (2)
3. Medium (7)
4. High (12)

Actual performances
L

LM

Mean

1.6
2
2.857
3.4

3
2
0
0

1
1
1
1

1
2
3
1

0
0
3
3

2.89
2.714
2
3

2
1
1
0

1
2
3
0

2
2
1
1

4
2
0
0

1
1.75
3.18
3.67

1
2
0
0

0
1
1
0

0
1
7
2

0
0
3
4

2
2.2
3.125
3.167

1
1
0
0

1
2
2
1

1
2
3
3

0
0
3
2

2.5
2.2
2.6
2.8

0
1
2
0

1
2
2
1

1
2
4
2

0
0
2
2

2
1.5
3.57
3.67

0
1
0
0

1
1
0
0

0
0
3
4

0
0
4
8

The students that felt as though they didnt put enough effort into managing their time
performed at a lower level than those who sensed to have good time-management skills.
The data shows that the higher score that students assigned to their perception of their

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

12

own time-management practices, the higher they performed. It was found that about half
of the students who felt uncertain about their ability performed better than they expected,
and the other half performed just as poorly as they guessed. Students that reported having
a great interest in attaining a high GPA also performed better than those who didnt,
because its sort of an internal goal that motivates them to reach that high level of
achievement. Students were asked to report what level they thought their performance
was, and the findings show that the two extremes, those who reported low and high, were
the furthest off. This could indicate that some students have a higher standard set for
themselves, and even though they did well, they thought they should have done better.
On the other hand, the students that thought they did poorly actually performed better
than expected. When it came to performance levels and hectic schedules, it is clear that
those who participate in time demanding events are forced to manage the remainder of
their time in a way that generates high-quality effort and execution. Supporting that is the
evidence found in the last question. The students that believed extracurricular activities
promote time-management skills and increased academic performance proved to perform
to a much higher level than those who saw little benefit.

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TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Table 4 Measurements
Comparison Means of Actual Performance
Management Confidence Desire Performance Intensity Activity
Male (11)

2.36

2.9

2.9

2.9

2.55

3.73

2.9

2.36

2.64

2.64

1.6

1.8

2.8

2.4

2.6

2.6

2.8

1.8

3.2

3.2

3.5

3.33

2.83

2.83

3.67

2.5

3.33

2.83

2.67

2.167

3.83

Education (2)
Business (2)
Science (2)
Mathematics (2)
English (2)
Architecture (2)
Technology (2)
Languages (2)
History (2)
Music (2)
Medical (2)

2
3.5
2
1.5
2
4
2.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
4

2
3.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
3
3.5
3
3
2.5

3.5
3.5
3.5
2.5
3.5
3.5
2.5
2
3
1.5
3.5

2
3.5
2
3.5
2.5
3.5
2.5
2.5
3
2.5
3

2
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
4
2.5
2
2.5
2
4

3.5
4
3.5
4
3.5
3.5
3
3
3.5
2
3.5

Athletics

3.125

3.25

3.125

3.5

3.625

1.5

2.875

2.375

1.625

2.75

2.75

3.5

2.75

3.5

3.5

Total: 17.34

Female (11)
Total: 16.54

Freshmen (5)
Total: 13.8

Sophomore (5)
Total: 17

Junior (6)
Total: 19.16

Senior (6)
Total: 16.827

Total: 19.625

Nothing
Total: 13.125

Greek
Total: 19.5

Employed
Total: 18.5

Here I compared the data by each influential factor and its relation to their overall
academic performance, judged according to their cumulative GPA. The findings show

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

14

that the male population used in this study, performed to a higher level than the females,
but not by much. It was also found that the students in the most time-demanding majors
perceive themselves as having excellent time-management skills, resulting in an overall
higher performance level. And the students that have the least intense schedules actually
had the lowest performance level. This could establish the theory that students with a
busy schedule perform better because they are required to balance their responsibilities.
And that goes for those students involved in extracurricular activities as well; they not
only reported having a higher desire to achieve and higher levels of confidence, but they
did perform better and as a result.

Discussion
The primary objective of this study was to determine whether or not effectively
managing ones time has a direct correlation to increased academic performance.
Through this study the data suggests that college students who are involved in
extracurricular activities are forced, by the nature of their schedules, to manage their time
better than those not involved. And those that are involved, proved to have a higher
overall academic performance, as well as a higher desire to perform well. The desire to
perform well could be a result of their competitive character that has transferred from
their activities. Data also suggests that, those enrolled in demanding majors perceive
themselves as having a high level of time-management, resulting in a higher performance
level.
Results from Britton and Tesser (1991) are parallel to the findings of this study.
Students who felt more in control when scheduling their tasks reported a higher academic
performance level, as well as the relationship between time attitudes and confidence and

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

15

their performance level. Another similarity among studies is that this and a study
conducted by Pierce (2007) suggest that those involved in extracurricular activities
perform better. Pierce concluded that athletes were able to apply their concentration and
desire to achieve from athletics to their academics. My study proved this to be true in two
ways, first that students involved had a greater desire to succeed in academics, and
second is that they actually did achieve a greater academic standing.
Just because my study verified the findings in previous studies, that does not
make this data precise to all students worldwide. My sample size was only 22 students of
Ball State Universitys (2012) 22,147 students, leaving room for error. I also only
conducted this study on 11 majors and did not include the students race or their parents
education and professional standing. Each of those could potentially fluctuate results, so
to conduct a more accurate study, a much larger sample size should be used, and every
influential factor should be taken into consideration.
There are some questions that developed during this study but were not answered.
For example, why is it that some students find it easy or difficult to manage their time?
And some students that dont practice any time-management skills still accomplish the
same status that others who do budget their time wisely reach. I wonder; how is that?
Many underlying factors could be the result to those, so the next step is to figure those
out and develop a treatment for them. These could be in the form of effective examples
that can be applied to any ones schedule.
Everybody wants to succeed at something, and the important thing here is that we
found a way that makes it possible for everyone: time-management. Whether you have a
high desire to succeed and are willing to do whatever it takes, or you would love to

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

16

succeed but dont necessarily want to take the steps you think you need to, simple timemanagement practices can help you reach your goal. Writing down in one location what
your due dates are gives you a visual representation of when to complete the tasks.
Including other activities in your schedule will also display the times you are and arent
available to complete them. By doing this, you can understand and have confidence that
you will complete it, relieving any stress or anxiety that is caused without your
awareness. And because being less stressed allows for more enjoyment, you will also see
an improvement in your performance level because we all function better when we are
having fun.

TIME MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

17

References
Ball State University. (2012). Fact Book (students/enrollment). Retrieved from
http://cms.bsu.edu/About/FactBook/Enrollment.aspx
Brint, S., Cantwell, A. (2006). Undergraduate Time Use and Academic Outcomes:
Results from University of California Undergraduate Experience Survey 2006.
Center for Studies in Higher Education, 1-14.
Britton, B., Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of time-management practices on college grades.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 405-410.
Grave, Barbara S. (December 2010). The Effect of Student Time Allocation on Academic
Achievement. Ruhr Economic Papers, 235, 4-23.
Junco, R., Cotton, S. (2011, November 27). No A 4 U: The Relationship between
Multitasking and Academic Performance. Elsevier, 58(1), 505-514.
Kelly, William E. (2004). As Achievement Sails the River of Time: The Role of Time
Use Efficiency in Grade-Point-Average. Educational Research Quarterly, 27(4),
3-8.
Nonis, S., Hudson, G., Logan, L., Ford, C. (1998). Influence of Perceived Control Over
Time on College Students Stress and Stress-Related Outcomes. Research in
Higher Education, 39(5), 587-605.
Pierce, Charles E. (2007, December 1). An Academic Survey of Engineering Student
Athletes at a Division 1 University. College Student Journal, 41(4), 801-812.