Handbookofmechan00nord BW

HANDBOOK
of
MECHANICAL DESIGN
'7S~
/
HANDBOOK
of
MECHANICAL DESIGN
BY
GEORGE
NORDENHOLT
F.
Editor of Product Engineering
JOSEPH KERR
Managing Editor
of Product Engineering
AND
JOHN SASSO
Associate Editor of Product Engineering
First Edition
Third Impression
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY,

NEW YORK AND LONDON
1942
Inc.
HANDBOOK OP MECHANICAL DESIGN

CksPYRIGHT, 1942, BY THE
McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

All rights reserved. This book, or
parts thereof,
may not
be reproduced
in any form without permission of

the publishers.
THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK,
PA.
PREFACE
Many engineering departments, perhaps most, compile and keep up to date a
manual which may be called the standards book, reference book, engineering department standards, or which may be given some other name. Also, many design
In such books will be found a vast fund
engineers build their own book or manual.
of engineering data and many methods of design procedure not found in existing
handbooks.
When
Product Engineering was launched as a pubhcation to serve the design

was obvious to the editors that a great service could be rendered to the
profession by gathering and publishing data, information, and design procedures such
Thus, the first number of
as are contained in engineering department manuals.
Product Engineering in January, 1930, contained a reference-book sheet for design
Soon
calculations, a feature which has been continued in practically every number.
afterward, there was added to Product Engineering's editorial content another regular
engineers,
it
feature, a two-page spread illustrating standard constructions, possible variations
by
which to achieve a desired result, and similar design standards covering constructions,
drives, and controls.
It was soon found impossible to meet all the requests for additional copies of
reference-book sheets and design standards. The demand continued to increase and
numerous readers suggested that the material be compiled into book form and pubIt was in answer to this demand that the authors compiled this book.
lished.
Other than the major portion of the chapter on materials and a few other pages
that have been added to round out the treatment of certain subjects, all the material
in this book appeared in past numbers of Product Engineering, although some of it has
been condensed or re-edited. Very little of the material in this book can be found in
the conventional handbooks, for this Handbook of Mechanical Design contains practically no explanations of theoretical design.
It confines itself to practical design
methods and procedures that have been in use in engineering design departments.
The authors wiU welcome suggestions from users of this book and especially
desire to be notified of any errors.
We wish to make special acknowledgment of the material on typical designs
appearing in Chapters IV and VI, by Fred Firnhaber, now of Landis Tool Company;
the nomograms by Carl P. Nachod, vice-president of the Nachod & U. S. Signal Co.;
the standard procedure in the design of springs
by W. M.
Griffith of Atlas Imperial
Company; the spring charts by F. Franz; the methods for calculating

and other nomograms by Emory N. Kemler, now associate professor of
mechanical engineering at Purdue University; the nomograms for engineering calculations by M. G. Van Voorhis, now on the editorial staff of Product Engineering; and
to S. A. Kilpatrick and 0. J. Schaefer for their brilliant series of articles, which have
Diesel Engine
belt drives
PREFACE
vi
slightlj^ condensed form, on the design of formed thin-sheet aluminumAcknowledgment is also made here of data on properties of materials
contributed by the Alimiinum Company of America, United States Steel Corporation,
and the American Foundrymen's Association.
Other engineers whose contributions to Product Engineering have been incorporated in this book are H. M. Brayton, 0. E. Brown, E. Cowan, C. Donaldson, R. G. N.
Evans, C. H. Leis, A. D. McKenzie, G. A. Schwartz, A. M. Wasbauer, B. B. Ramey,
been included in
alloy sections.
Harper, H. M. Richardson, G. A. Ruehmling, T. H. Nelson, E. Touceda,

Rigby, R. S. Elberty, Jr., and G. Smiley.
J.
W.
George
F.
Nordenholt,
Joseph Kerr,
John Sasso.
New
York,
April, 1942.
W.
S.
CONTENTS
Pa.qe
Preface
CHAPTER
Charts and Tables for General Arithmetical Calculations
Arc length versus Central Angle. Chordal Height and Length of Chord. Length of Material for Bends.
Volumes in Tanks, Horizontal Round. Volumes in Tanks, Vertical Round. Volume,
Circular Segments.
Weight, and Cost. Weights of Cylindrical Pieces. Chart of Unit and Total Weights. Chart of Weights
and Volumes. Moment of Inertia of Prisms; Flywheels; Gears and Armatures. Radii of Gyration.
Transferring Moments of Inertia to Parallel Axis.
WR^ of Symmetrical bodies. Centrifugal Force.
Mean Cooling Temperature. Solution of
Forces in Toggle Joint. Linear Motion. Rotary Motion.
Ohm's Equations. Total Resistance of Parallel Circuits.
CHAPTER
II
Materials
33
Cast Irons. Alloy Cast Irons. Effect of Nickel and Chromium on Cast Iron.
Malleable Iron Castings. Cast Carbon Steels. High Alloy Cast Steels. Low Alloy Cast Steels. CorroIron-nickel-chromium Alloys. AlumiProperties of Stainless Steel.
sion and Heat-resistant Cast Steels.
num Base Alloys. Magnesium Base Alloys. Insulating Materials. Plastic Materials. Phenolic
Selection of Materials.
Laminated Molded Materials.
Steels for
Automotive Parts.
CHAPTER
III
Beams and Structures
71
Thin Aluminum Sheet
Sections.
Compression Members. Angles in Compression.
Shear Resisting Webs. Diagonal Tension Webs. Hollow
Box Sections Subjected to Torsion. Chart for Determining Bending Moments. Deflection of
Girders.
Variously Loaded Beams. Stresses in Cantilever Beams. Tensile Strength of Round Wires. Rectangular
Stress Calculations for
Shear Members.
Moments
Vertical
Stiffeners
for
of Inertia.
CHAPTER
IV
Latches, Locks and Fastenings
95
Locking Devices. Retaining and Locking Detents. Wire Locks and Snap Rings. Taper- Pin Applications.
Hinges and Pivots. Clamping Shoes and Plugs. Lock Bolts and Indexing Mechanisms. Machine
Clamps. Door and Cover Fastenings. Bolt Diameter, Load, and Stress.
CHAPTER V
Springs
121
Spring Wire Specifications. Design Stresses. Torsional Moduli. Allowable

Based on Endurance Limits. Natural Frequency. Formulas for Helical Springs. Permissible
Manufacturing Tolerances. Form for Design Calculations. Standard Drawings for Springs. Table of
Wire Gages and Diameters, with Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers. Inspection and Testing of
Designs of Helical Springs.

Stresses
Graphical Solution of Helical Spring Formulas. Helical Spring Charts for Specified Ratio of
Designs of Tension Spring Ends. Graphical Designs of Flat Cantilever Springs.
Graphical Designs of Semielliptic Laminated Springs.
Springs.
Loads and Lengths.
59376
CONTENTS
viil
Page
CHAPTER
VI
Power Transmission Elements and Mechanisms

Flexible Couplings.
151
Shaft Diameters for Torsion and Bending.
Shaft Diameters for Torsional Deflection.
Shaft Diameters for Lateral Deflection. Shaft Diameters A.S.M.E. Code. Two-bearing Shafts of
Uniform Strength. Stress in Rotating Disk. Velocity Chart for Gears and Pulleys. Flat-belt Length and
Flat-belt Speed-Horsepower Charts.
Belt Horsepower Charts. Flat-belt Horsepower
and V-belt Horsepower Charts. V-belt Lengths. Short-center Belt Drives. Chart for
Calculating Needle Bearings. Thrust Bearing Friction Moments. Bronze Bearing Alloys. Shaft Seals.
Gibs and Guides.
Roller-Bearing Seals. Sleeve-bearing Seals. Safety Gears. Shifting Mechanisms.
Cam Designs. Variable-speed Devices. Transport Mechanisms. Automatic Feed Hoppers. Glueapplying Mechanisms.
Pulley Diameter.
Charts.
Flat
CHAPTER
VII
Drwes and Controls
207
WR^. Analysis of Motor Load. Selection of Motor Type. Inquiry 'Form for Electric
Motors. Winding Connection Diagrams for Multispeed Motors. Electric Control Methods. Electrically
Operated Values. Automatic Timers. Trigger Switch Mountings. Thermostatic Mechanisms. Automatic Stops.
Significance of
CHAPTER
VIII
Design Data on Production Methods

Fusion
Welding.
Welding.
Die Casting.
Resistance
Permanent Mold Casting.
251
Flame Hardening. Centrifugal Casting.
Flame Cutting. Powdered Metal Pressings.
Furnace Brazing.
Forging.
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHAPTER
CHARTS AND TABLES

For General Arithmetical Calculations
The
charts and
nomograms
in this chapter include only those pertaining to
Nomograms,
general arithmetical calculations, as hsted below.

for use in the design of specific
machine elements or structures
and tables
be found in the
charts,
will
chapters devoted to the design of those elements or structures.
Moment
Len^jth
of Inertia, Radius of Gyration,
and
Page
Arc Length vs. Central Angle

Chordal Height and Length of Chord
Length of Material for Bends
WRPage
Prisms
16
Flywheels, Gears, and Armatures
17
Radii of Gyration
Transferring to Parallel Axis
17
WR-
19
Area
of
18
Symmetrical Bodies
Force
Circular Segments
8
Centrifugal
26
Forces in Toggle Joint
27
Volume
Tanks, Horizontal Round
Tanks, Vertical Round
Volume, Weight, and Cost
Force, Velocity,
9
10
11
and Acceleration
Linear Motion
28
Rotary Motion
29
Heat and Temperature
Mean
Weight
Cooling Temperature
CyUndrical Pieces
Unit and Total Weight
12
14
Solution of
Weight and Volume
15
Total Resistance of Parallel Circuits
30
Electrical
Ohm's Equations.
31
32

ARC LENGTH VERSUS CENTRAL ANGLE
(Angle of Bend, Length, and Radius)
Draw
a straight hne through the two
known
points.
The answer
will
at the intersection of this line with the third scale.
Example: For a
6-in. radius
and 45-deg. bend, length
of arc is 4.7 in.
be found
CHARTS AND TABLES

CHORDAL HEIGHT AND LENGTH OF CHORD
^vill be found
a straight line through the two known points. The answer
height h of
Example: Length of chord is 3 in., and radius of circle is 4 in. The
Draw
the chord
is
0.29
in.

LENGTH OF MATERIAL FOR
90 -DEG.
BENDS
As shown in Fig. 1, when a sheet or flat bar is bent, the position of the neutral plane with respect to the outer and
For a sharp corner,
inner surfaces will depend on the ratio of the radius of bend to the thickness of the bar or sheet.
As the radius of the bend is
the neutral plane will lie one-third the distance from the inner to the outer surface.
This
increased, the neutral plane shifts until it reaches a position midway between the inner and outer surfaces.
factor should be taken into consideration when calculating the developed length of material required for formed pieces.
The table on the following pages gives the developed length of the material in the 90-deg. bend. The following
formulas were used to calculate the quantities given in the table, the radius of the bend being measured as the distance
from the center of curvature to the inner surface of the bend.
For a sharp corner and for any radius of bend up to T, the thickness
1
a 90-deg. bend will be
.
L =
2.
for
(-D
For any radius of bend greater than 2T, the length
L =
3.
1.5708
of the sheet, the developed length
for a 90-deg.
bend
will
be
(r +
^^
1..5708
R=
For any radius of bend between IT and 2T, the
T= Stock thickness
Inside radius
value of L as given in the table was found by interpolation

The developed length L of the material in any bend
other than 90 deg. can be obtained from the following
-M h-
Neutral
1t-5*>2
irl
line
formulas:
1.
For a sharp corner or a radius up to T:

T
L =
2.
0.0175 (li
For a radius
L =
of
+ t) X
2T
degrees of bend
Sharp corner
R=Torless
or more:
5(S+|)
0.0175
R=iTto2T
Fig.
R= 2T or more
1.
degrees of bend
For double bends as shown
in Fig.
2, if fii
X = V2BiR, +Ri- B/2)

With Ri, Ri, and B known:
flo - B
fl,
""^ ^ =
rT+rT
L = 0.0175(S, + R2)A
where A is in degrees and L is the developed
-|-
Ss
is
greater than B:
-t-
If
Ri
Y =B
Ri
is less
cosec
The value
of
than B, as in Fig.
{Ri
X when B
+
is
fl2)(cosec
cotan A)
greater than Ri
X =B
The
length.
3,
total developed length
cot
Ri
To
be
7S2)
(cosec
A -
cotan A)
0.0175(^1 4- R2)A
'
simplify the calculations, the table on this page gives the equations for X, Y, and the developed length for
common angles of bend. The table on following pages gives L for values of R and T for 90-deg. bends.
EQUATIONS FOR
Angle A,
deg.
required for the material in the straight section plus that in the two arcs will be
L = Y
various
will
-h {Ri
X, Y,
AND DEVELOPED LENGTHS
CHARTS AND TABLES

DEVELOPED LENGTH IN INCHES OF MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR
90-DEG.
BEND

90-DEG.
BEND
{Continued)
CHARTS AND TABLES

7
90-DEG.
BEND
(Continued)
AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS

-50
-7000
-40
5,000
F-2
-
3,000
2,000
-30
1,000
-20
1^
500
0.9
rO.8
A=
-0.7
Note: The ang/e
0.01745 Rârc cos

is
-~
300
- (R-H)Vh('2R-H)
-200
expressed in degrees
~
100
10
0.5
0.5
-7
E-30
i-20
0.4"
=-5
<.
10
-5
-0.3
=-3
'-2
-0.25
-2
-0.2
hO.5
-0.3
-0.2
-0.15
^0.1
h 0.05
0.03
0.1
=-0.02
Dra'w a straight
line
through the two kno'wn points.
The answer
will
be found
Example: For a
sq. in.
10-in. radius
and
4.0 in.,
H/R =
0.40
in.
Area
A =
46
CHARTS AND TABLES
VOLUMES
IN
HORIZONTAL ROUND TANKS WITH FLAT ENDS
F-30
/Turning
line
Notes: Shift decimal point on volume

scale two' points for a one-point
sliift
on
diameter scale; one point for a one-point

shift on length scale.
= 0.9 ft. H/D = 0.15. Join 0.15 on

Example: Tank is 6 ft. in diameter and 15 ft.' long.
scale with 6 on diameter scale.
From point of intersection with turning line, draw line to
15 ft. on the length scale.
The volume scale shows 300 gal. If D had been 0.6 ft.,
0.09 ft.,
and length the same, the answer would be 3.00 gal.
H/D
10
VOLUMES
10
IN VERTICAL
ROUND TANKS WITH FLAT BOTTOMS
r^'OOO
f-io
-9
^9
r4,000
-8
'-7
r- 3,000
-2,000
-6
r6
- 1,000
800
^5
-5
^600
r80
f-60
-2
40
30
Draw a straight line through the two known

points.
-20
The answer
^6
be found at the
In reading the answer on the volume scale,

decimal point on volume scale two places
for one-place shift on diameter scale, and
one place for one-place shift on height scale.
Example: Diameter of tank is 4 ft. Depth
of liquid is 2.5 ft.
Volume as read is 230 gal.
If diameter of tank is 0.4 ft. and depth 2.5 ft.,
shift
r-10
will
intersection of this line with the third scale.
volume
is
2.3 gal.
CHARTS AND TABLES

VOLUME, WEIGHT, AND COST CHART
11
12
CHARTS AND TABLES

WEIGHTS OF CYLINDRICAL
Diam-
PIECES,
POUNDS PER INCH OF LENGTH
13
(Continued)
14

UNIT AND TOTAL WEIGHTS
Draw a straight line

througli the two known
The answer will be
points.
found at the intersection of
with the third scale.
Example: Given 7 pieces
this line
per
pound
or 0.143
lb.
per
piece; 15 pieces weigh 2.15 lb.
1
1
CHARTS AND TABLES
15
WEIGHT AND VOLUME

Q09Z
Aluminum
0.065
Mercury
Magnesium
0.5 i
0.50
-|-Q05 Fiber
0.40
Monel mefai
Copper
Mckel
\\
Pfios. bronze
1
I
Brass
Cl
\
0.35
0.3/
Steel 0.285
Cast iron
Roiled zinc
0.06
^'^'^
K,^,
1
0-253
- -
y^^
>,
--0,05
0.22-1
0.20
Q030
1.7
017
0.025
1.5
0.15
H-
1.2
0.020
0.015
012
0.010
Draw
a straight line through the two known points.

Exam-pie: 4 cu. in. of aluminum weighs 0.37 lb.
QIO
-I
The answer
will
be found
16
MOMENT OF
INERTIA OF A PRISM ABOUT THE AXIS
aa
CHARTS AND TABLES

RADII OF GYRATION FOR ROTATING BODIES
Solid
cylinder
about
own
its
axis
Hollow
cylinder
about
own
ii2
7-2i
-j-
r'^.
its
axis
Rectan-
KC-1
gular
prism
about
R^
12
axis
through
center
Rectanl-c-1
ri
gular
prism
about
fl2
4b^
+ c'
12
axis at
one end
l^c-M
Rectangular
prism
about
outside
R'
462
-I-
c2 -f
12bd
12
12d-
17
18
CHART FOR TRANSFERRING MOMENT OF INERTIA

7
7o
WX'-
X- Distance Be+ween the Parallel Axes0.5
0.75
1.2

1.6
1.4
1.7
I
1.8
I
1.9
I
2
I
in
2.1
2.2
I
Inches
2.3
I
2.4
2\5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
CHARTS AND TABLES
19
WR^ OF SYMMETRICAL BODIES

For computing WR'^ of rotating masses of weight per unit volume p, by resolving the body into
See page 208 for effect of WR^ on electric motor selection.
elemental shapes.
Note: p in pounds per cubic incli and dimensions in inches give WR'^ in Ib.-in. squared.
1.
Weights per Unit Volume
of Materials.
Weight, Lb.
per Cu. In.
Material
Cast iron
260
250
0.283
0.319
0.410
0.318
.
Cast-iron castings of heavy section
i.e.,
flywheel rims
Steel
Bronze
Lead
Copper
2.
Cylinder, about Axis Lengthwise through the Center of Gravity.
\o\Mme = '^L{D\- D\)

4
(a)
For any material:

WR-'
where p
(6)
is
~ pL{D\ - DS)
the weight per unit volume.
For cast
iron:
WR'-
= L{D\ - DS)
39.2
(c)
For cast iron (heavy sections)
LjDS - PS)
^^ _
~
40.75
(d)
For
steel
LjDh - D\)
WR^ =
36.0
3.
Cylinder, about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through Center of Gravity.
Volume
(a)
For any material:
(6)
For
L{D\ - D\)
^g
steel:
*^""-""
4.50
^yj
4. Solid Cylinder, Rotated about an Axis Paredlel to a Line that Passes through the Center of
Gravity and Is Perpendicular to the Center Line.
V
r
If
11
'
Volume = ^
D'-L
(a)
For any material:
(b)
For
steel:
WR "'"
4.50 Vl2
16
20
5.
to
Rod
of Rectangular or Elliptical Section,
Rotated about an Axis Perpendicular
and Passing through the Center Line.

For rectangular cross sections:
K, = }U;
For
K, =
elliptical cross sections:

IT
Volume = KâbL
(a)
For any material
WR
(b)
'x'-x'
For a cast-iron rod of
wm
6.
Elliptical Cylinder,
^ + T,{n + L)
= pahLU
4:90
elliptical section (p
[y +
''^^^^
+ ^) +
K,a '}
0.260)
leJ
about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through the Center of
Gravity.
Volume =
(a)
abL
For any material:

16
(b)
7.
For
steel:
Cylinder with Frustum of a Cone
Volume =
WR\_a =
8.
Frustum
of a
2(Di
abL /a-
OOV
16
b'-
Removed
>.,)
irpL
8(Di
D2)
Cone with a CyUnder Removed.

ttL
Volume =
2(Z)i
WP2
wa,_, =
D2)
'^
8(i)i
D2)
{D\
^ iD\
4
\{D\ -D\)\
CHARTS AND TABLES

Solid
9.
Frustum
of a Cone.
Volume
V uiumt; =
- D,)
{D\ - D\)
(Di - D2)
12
(Di
TTpL
160
10.
21
Chamfer Cut from Rectangular Prism Having One End Turned about a
Center.
Distance to center of gravity, where
f^
ii2S5
volume X {1
>2
R2/R1 and
- 3A +
(A'
A)
- A -A
+ ^[1
^(^1
hC
A =
log,
log.
B =
C/2Ri
2)
+ Af(^^-2^ +
jj
l)
+ J^^(3A^-4A^+l)
672 A
-H
Volume
jR\B
(2A^
TnT-.
40 A
^10
log,
- 3A +
3)
log,^-
(1
1)
^-^
(4^^
^-n
224 A
^
- 2A +
B^-{A'
5A*
1)
l)
1)
-A) + ^f^(2A'-3A^ +
Volume
lî^Vs
22)^2
= "^-^
(D'
3r^)
Outside Part of a Torus.
Volume =
g-
-a-A)
Complete Torus.
J
12.
B^
|-
1)
gg^^ |(A^ _ 4A +
WR\^.
11.
2A
?^{<-A)
(1
I- -9 a
1
Z)2
Mî2=
Trpr-
27rr
(5^+4.)+,.=(|z>+Ar);
22
13. Inside
Part of a Torus.
T
-g
Volume =
WR\^, =
14.
Circular
TTpr^
Segment about an Axis through Center
a = 2
axis
12
X area
-^ 4r""
Area =
-i!
(a)
Any
For
229:2
"
229:2
15. Circular
6 r^"^
sin
;^^ deg.
ZK
i2= a
114.59
i^-
2 / 2
V^' ~ Y;
Segment about Any Axis
V^
V^
Parallel to an Axis through the Center of
(Refer to 14 for Figure.)
WR%.-.'
16,
of Circle.
steel:
WP2
the Circles.
-A'):
material
FE^_. = pT
(5)
\2
Gravity
'^
2irr
= WR\_.
weight
{r'
r^)
Rectangular Prism about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through the Center of
Gravity.
Volume =
-W
AT
(a)
For any material:
WR\_. = pWLT
(h)
WLT
For
^"^ +
if)
1-^2 +
^'
[
steel:
-j-x
^^^-- =
3:534
CHARTS AND TABLES

17. Isosceles
23
Triangular Prism, Rotated about an Axis through Its Vertex.
Volume =
f-
axis
CUT
2
pCHT
\2
Triangular Prism, Rotated about
18. Isosceles
Any Axis
12/
Parallel to
an Axis
through the Vertex.
Volume =
CHT
WK.._^.
\2
9^+V
12
19. Prism with Square Cross Section and Cylinder Removed, along Axis through
Center of Gravity of Square.
Volume = L {h- -
WR\^, =
20.
Any Body about an Axis

Known.
"^
'^)
{l.miH'
Parallel to the Gravity Axis,
When
D')
WR"^ about the
Gravity Axis Is
-y
-en'^/A
WR\^, = WR\_,
>'*-/i
weight
r^
^Pc
'-<^//e/,
o*/s
21. WR'' of a Piston, Effective at the Cylinder Center Line, about the Crankshaft
Center Line.
'^^^
where
r =
L =
^''^'
crank radius
center-to-center length of connecting
rod
Q
Wj,
i)
=
weight of complete piston, rings, and pin
24
WR^
22.
Connecting Rod, Effective at the Cylinder Center Line, about the
of a
Crankshaft Center Line.
WR^ =
where
=
L =
r'
(- +
+ Tf4J
Fi
W2 =
crank radius
Wr =
Li =
rod
weight of the lower or rotating part of
the rod = [Wr(L Li)]/L
8L2-
weight of the upper or reciprocating part

of the rod = WrLi/L
W2, the weight of the complete rod
Wi
center-to-center length of connecting
Wi =
distance from the center line of the crank-
pin to the center of gravity of the con-
necting rod
Mass Geared
23.
question
to a Shaft.
The
equivalent
at the shaft in
flyvi^heel effect
is
WR^ = hîWR'Y
where h
=
_
(WR"^)'
gear ratio
mass geared to shaft
r.p.m. of
flywheel effect of the
about
its
own
body
in question
axis of rotation
r.p.m. of shaft
Mass Geared
24.
Main
to
r>*-j^~ Driven
,^2)'
Shaft and Connected by a Flexible Shaft.
gear
C^^^^j
'""^^
of the
mass
(TTî?-)'
gear on the main shaft
'^^^
=
_
""
{WR^y =
gear ratio
flywheel effect of geared-on mass
The equivalent
torsional
shaft, in
sec.
connecting
pound-inches per radian
of
rigidity
flexible
flywheel effect of the driven
T\^
mass at the
is
WR^ =
Vi^
^ yDriving
V4
9.775C
natural torsional frequency of the shafting
driving shaft
-^1
/HS
\
C =
r.p.m. of driving gear
"
system, in vibrations per
r.p.m. of driven gear
25. Belted Drives.
Driven
is
("TFTP'VP
^
^^n
r..nr
Driving gear
where h
effect
^KWR'^y
K _
TI7P2
VV
^Mainshaff
The
at the position of the driving
^'^'^'
"
9.775C
pulley
puiiey
where h
C = RÂE/L
A = cross-sectional area of
E = modulus of elasticity
= Rx/R
~
[WR-y =
r.p.m. of pulley belted to shaft

r.p.m. of shaft
flywheel effect of the driven
about
/ =
its
natural
own
frequency of the
system, in vibrations per
sec.
of belt material in
tension, in lb. per sq. in.
body
axis of rotation
torsional
belt, in sq. in.
R =
L =
radius of driven pulley, in
in.
length of tight part of belt which

of the pulley, in in.
is
clear
CHARTS AND TABLES

26. Effect of the FlexibiUty of
WR^
Flywheel Spokes on
25
WR^
Rim.The
of
effective
of the rim is
iWR')'
WR' =
{WRyp
m
where (WR^)'
/
=
=
9.775(7
flywheel effect of the rim
^ _
the system of which the fly-
wheel
is
a member,
= number of spokes
E = bending modulus of
where g
in vibra-
tions per sec.
C =
12Eka^bR (
natural torsional frequency of
torque required to move the

rim through one radian relative
to the
elasticity of the
spoke material
hub
and h
rectangular section spokes
7r/64 for elliptical,
}^2 for
All dimensions are in inches.
For cast-iron spokes
of elliptical section:
E =
C =
15
X lO*^ lb.
XIO'/L
ga'bR
0.1132L2
per sq.
in.
Ib.-in.
(i+!-0 radians
Note: It is found by comparative calculations that with spokes of moderate taper very
assuming the spoke to be straight and using cross section at mid-point for area calculation.
little
error
is
involved in
TYPICAL EXAMPLE
The
flywheel
shown below
Diesel engine installation.

to determine effective
of
is
used in a
Part
Formula
of fly
It is required
WR- for calculation
IFie=
wheel
10[(52)^
ural
The
anticipated nat-
frequency of the system
is
(r)
16a
neglecting
/ ir^
L^ \
Section A-A
Note: Since the beads at the ends of the spokes comprise

but a small part of the flywheel WR', very little error
will result in assuming them to be of rectangular cross
section.
Also, because of the effect of the clamping
bolts, the outer hub will be considered a square equal
to the diameter.
The spokes will be assumed straight
and of mid-point cross section.
12
(rf)
56
ie)
26
if)
2.375[(43)-
26
(b)
56.4
vibrations per sec.
(43)^]
40.75
one of the natural frequencies of tor-
sional vibration.
2f
(o)
19
(39) <]
955,300
26

CHART FOR DETERMINING CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
F =
0.000341 Mî^n^
F7
10,000
r-8iOOO
'-
6,000
-4,000
3,000
2,000
10
R= Radius of Gyration
15
20
in Ft.
30
40
50 60
80
100
CHARTS AND TABLES
27
FORCES IN TOGGLE JOINT WITH EQUAL ARMS

P ^ S^
F
10,000
8,000
-:
6,000
-:
5,000
4,000
-:
II i|iiii|i
ii
0.1
0.2
iii|ii
i|iii
0.3
0.4 0.5 0.6
i
I
4/i
0.8
I
'
" " ""|""
i"| " l""

i
'
'
'
'
'
10
in in.
Example: Use mutually perpendicular lines drawn on tracing cloth or celluloid.

In the example given for S = 10 in. and h = 1 in., a force F of 10 lb. exerts pressures P
of 25 lb. each.
28

ACCELERATED LINEAR MOTION
2S
T-
2S
8 i9
32.16F
= G
W
20
10
30
ft per sec.
per sec.
40
50
I,...i,..,l,..,
60
I
80
^100
WLb.
=
F =
(S =
T =
F
W
G =
*
turning point
velocity at time T, in
ft.
per sec.
distance passed thi-ough, in
time during which force

accelerating force, in
ft.
acts, in sec.
lb.
weight of moving body, in

constant acceleration, in
lb.
ft.
per sec.
120 140
100
CHARTS AND TABLES
29
ROTARY MOTION
P ^ S ^ 2irRn
V
F
12
'
'
60
'l|llll|llll|
l|IMP|l
o
O
tX3
o
o
O O
O
U-
CO
o d
4-
30
MEAN COOLING TEMPERATURE
e;-l
CHARTS AND TABLES
31
SOLUTION OF OHM'S EQUATIONS

Volts
100
Ohms
1 1000
500
50
100
Draw
a straight line through the two
The values
two unknowns
known
points.
be found at the
intersections of this line with the other two scales.
Use boldface scales or lightface scales according to
10
100
of the
position of decimal point.
will
aoi'0.1
32
TOTAL RESISTANCE OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS

1
J_+
+ ...
+ +
R2
Ri
Rz
Ri
For convenience, list the resistances of the different parallel circuits in descending order
Locate Ri on the diagonal scale and connect it with ^2 on the horiof magnitude.
total resistance is found at the intersection with the Total Resistance
The
scale.
zontal
For more than two parallel circuits, project horizontally from the intersecon the Total Resistance diagonal to the diagonal Resistance Ri, draw a
line to i? 3 on the horizontal scale, and the answer will again be found at the
Repeat successively for
intersection with the Total Resistance diagonal.
diagonal.
tion point
additional resistances Rt, Ri, etc.
The light dashed
lines indicate the
procedure for finding the total
resistance of five parallel circuits, Ri =100, R^
Ri =
30, Rti
25.
The answer
as given
Conversely, the resistances of individual parallel

cuits to give a desired total resistance can
from
Rs =
60,
by the chart
40,
is 8.0.
cir-
be determined
this chart.
|ll
llll
ll
|ll
Ol
M|llll|l
ll l[
lll l|ll ll|I
UI|
lll
lpl
l|
ll
lll|ll
l|nil
|l
ll
|N
I|l
lll|MII|lll
10
20
30
40
60
50
Resisi'ances,
70
80
R2,R3,R4""
90
100
110
120
CHAPTER
II
MATERIALS
Page
Page
34
Properties of Stainless Steel
Cast Irons
35
Alloy Cast Irons
36
Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys
Wrought Brasses and Bronzes
Corrosion-resisting Metals and Alloys
Aluminum Base Alloys
Magnesium Base Alloys
Selection of Materials
Effect of Nickel
and Chromium on Cast Iron
38
Malleable Iron Castings
39
Cast Carbon Steels
40
High Alloy Cast
42
Low
Steels
Alloy Cast Steels
Corrosion and Heat-resistant Cast Steels ....
Insulating Materials
Plastic Materials
44
Phenolic Laminated Molded Materials
46
Steels for
33
Automotive Parts
50
52
54
58
60
64
65
66
68
70
34
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
The
universal problem in engineering design
is
the selection of the materials from which the
various parts of the device, machine, or product are to be made.
It
is
also the first
problem because
the material selected will govern the allowable stresses, the types of construction that might be
adopted, the manufacturing methods employed, the assembly operations, the finishes that might be
applied, and, of greatest importance, the cost
and
by the materials
But the
relative
The
ably for different types of design.
is
designs,
will
importance of the different properties
unit strength of the material
many
selected.
determine which
vary considerpractically always a factor
In practically every design, the physical and other properties required

materials might be used.
In
sales appeal of the product.
the commercial success or failure will be determined definitely
will
though often a minor one.

For constructions subjected to only a steady tension, the yield point on the
stress-strain curve
can withstand with a specified elongation,
But for a compression-loaded column, both the tensile strength and
will be the first consideration.
For vibratory or repeated stresses, the endurance limit of
the elastic modulus must be considered.
the material becomes the governing strength consideration, whereas for low-temperature service and
shock loads the impact values are of great importance. And, of course, there is also to be considered
the compressive strength or the shear strength, according to the type of stresses to which the mem-
or the yield strength of the material,
i.e.,
the unit tension
it
ber will be subjected.

In addition to the unit strength considerations, any one or a group of almost innumerable other
properties must be considered.
If, as in most machine tools, it is important to have little or no
damping capacity, such as cast iron, might be considered

Hardness, wear resistance, porosity, and ductility are some of the other properties that may
be of major importance.
In addition to physical properties; corrosion resistance, heat conductivity, electrical conductivity, dielectric strength, frictional properties, and many others may enter into the problem.
There is no formula or equation by which the most suitable material from the standpoint of
properties can be selected.
Nor is il always advisable to use the material that has the highest values
Invariably the final selection must be a compromise largely because two
for the properties desired.
other important factors enter into the problem, namely, the workability of the material and its cost.
vibration, a material with a high vibration
first.
When
number
have been selected, each of which possesses the desired

properties to a satisfactory degree, the next step toward the final selection is the determination of
the manufacturing methods that might be employed. Aluminum, zinc, and many of the nonIron, steel, aluminum, and some
ferrous alloys naturally suggest die-casting, stamping, and forging.
a
of different materials
other metals offer great possibilities
bj^
virtue of their weldability.
Casting
is
suitable for almost
metals and alloys. Plastics are mostly molded; some are sheet-laminated or are in the form of
To mention only a few other manufacturing processes, we have impact
sheets; a few are extruded.
all
drawn shapes and rolled shapes, and roll-formed sheet sections.

has been determined what types of construction might be used, the design must be
analyzed with reference to such things as the use of inserts, consolidating different parts into one
extrusion, die extrusion,
After
it
standard purchased parts, and similar possibilities.

hand with the types of construction that might be employed are the costs of machining,
Included in this category may be pimchgrinding, and other operations, which will vary greatly.
ing, hand reaming, riveting, buffing, and polishing.
Not until all the factors discussed above have been studied closely and analyzed should any
piece, use of
Hand
in
consideration be given to the cost per
that aluminum at 30
per
cts.
per
lb.
pound
of the material.
or zinc at 10
cts.
per
lb. is
A complete analysis may often reveal

cheaper to use than gray iron at 5 cts.
lb.
A complete analysis of all the items to be considered in the selection of materials and the associated problems of types of constructions and workability considerations would require volumes and
even then would obscure the problem rather than clarify it. In the final analysis, nothing can be
substituted for clear engineering thinking based on broad experience and knowledge.
MATERIALS
35
CAST IRONS
GRAY IRON
Per Cent
by Weight
Chemical Composition
Graphitic carbon
Combined carbon
Iron
0.25-0.3
Silicon
Manganese.
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Lb. per Sq. In.

21,000- 42,000
36,000- 60,000
70,000-200,000
15,000,000
Tensile strength
Shear strength
Compressive strength
Gray
0.5 - 1
0.07- 0.12
0. 10- 1.05
Average Physical Properties
Modulus
-3
0.8 max.
93.7 -94.3
of elasticity
iron ordinarily
is
easily machinable.
WHITE IRON
Per Cent
by Weight
Graphitic carbon
Trace
3 30
94.93
0.60
52
0.15
0. 50
Combined carbon
Iron......
Silicon
Manganese
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Average Physical Properties

Tensile strength
per Sq. In.

20,000-70,000
Modulus
20 ,000 ,000
Lb.
of elasticity
White iron
is difficult
to machine.
When
not heat-treated, white iron has great
resistance to wear bj^ abrasion.
MOTTLED IRON
Per Cent
by Weight
Graphitic carbon
50
80
95.07
0.92
36
Combined carbon
Iron
Silicon
Manganese
Sulphur
Phosphorus
0. 13
0.
22
Mottled iron is a mixture of gray iron and white iron.

ChUled cast iron are those parts of castings which after pouring are cooled
quickly by chills in order to retain the carbon in the iron carbide form found in white
iron, whereas other parts of the casting cool slowly to form gray iron.
36
ALLOY CAST IRONS

To
obtain exceptional properties such as high tensile strength, hardness, wear resistance, corroand heat resistance, many alloys of cast iron with other elements have been developed.
sion resistance,
The
effect of various alloying additions are indicated in the
accompanying
table.
EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ADDITIONS ON CAST IRON

Addition
MATERIALS
EFFECT OF ALLOYS ON CAST IRON
280
ro
37
38
EFFECT OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM ON CAST IRON

Addition of Nickel.
1. Increases strength and elasticity
especially the sUicon content.
2.
3.
4.
when composition
of the iron
is
adjusted,
Refines the grain and reduces porosity.

Increases hardness.
Eliminates hard spots and thus improves machinability when nickel additions
amount to
to 4 per cent depending upon the sUicon content and section
thickness.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Decreases the amount of sihcon needed to keep castings gray and machinable.
Increases wearing quahties.
Improves impact resistance.

Improves heat and corrosion
resistance.
9. Raises electrical resistance.
Addition of Chromium.
1.
Improves
2.
Refines the grain.
3.
Increases hardness.
tensile strength.
Produces hard spots when used alone or in excessive
amounts.
4.
Increases chilling power, depth of
5.
Increases heat resistance.
6.
Increases wear resistance.
7.
Increases corrosion resistance.
chill,
and the combined carbon.
Decreases machinability.
Addition of Nickel and Chromium Together.
8.
1.
By using two or three

chromium
2.
is
parts of nickel to one of chromium, the chilling action of
restrained
and the
chromium are retained.

Amounts needed to obtain maximum
beneficial effects of
Increases strength and hardness.
and also hardness and strength, in castings of various

section thickness are shown in the accompanying table.
Applications for Nickel and Nickel -chromium Cast Iron.
Cylinders, cams, gears, hardware, bushings, machine frames, liners, and plates.
machining
qualities,
NICKEL AND CHROMIUM IN CAST IRON FOR MAXIMUM MACHINABILITY

Sections
}/i-}>4 in.
thick
MATERIALS
39
MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS

AVERAGE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Tensile strength,
per sq. in
lb.
Yield point in tension,

Elongation in 2 in
Reduction in area
Modulus
lb.
(see note 1)
19 per cent
of elasticity in tension, lb. per sq. in
Compressive strength (see note 2)

Ultimate shearing strength, lb. per
Yield point in shear,
Modulus
lb.
sq. in. (see
note 3)
48,000
per sq. in
23 ,000
lb.
12,500,000
per sq. in
24 ,000
of rupture in torsion, lb. per sq. in.
Brinell hardness
Charpy impact
Wedge
25,000,000
of elasticity in shear, lb. per sq. in
Yield point in torsion,
Modulus
54 ,000
36 ,000
18 per cent
per sq. in
58,000
100-140
16.5
number
value,
ft. -lb.
(see note 4)
impact (see note 4)

Fatigue endurance limit (no definite data, probably about 25,000 to 26,000
lb.
test for
per sq.
in.)
Effect of temperature (see note 5)
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
7 15-7 45
Specific gravity
Shrinkage allowance, in. per ft

Coefficient of thermal expansion per deg.
M~^l6
0000066
Specific heat, c.g.s. units
0.
122
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Resistivity,
microhms per
28-37
cc
Magnetization properties (see note 6)

Magnetic hysteresis (see note 6)
Notes on Malleable Iron Castings
1.
Reduction of
restricted locally.
Area.^The elongation usually is spread quite evenly over the entire gage length, instead of being
This may be construed to mean that cohesion is more uniform in malleable iron than in other
ferrous metals.
2.
Compressive Strength.
In ductile ferrous metals, the yield point
tension that testing for the latter, being
much more
in compression so closely
approximates that in
easily determined, avoids the necessity of testing for the former.
Also, it is impractical to determine the compressive strength of such products, because once the yield point has been
passed the specimen flattens out, yielding no well-marked fracture.
In determining shear by the "direct method," approximate results only can be
3. Shear and Torsion Tests.
secured because a certain amount of distortion caused by the combined effect of compression and bending during the
Consequently, shearing properties are better studied from torsion tests. The number of
test can not be avoided.
twists per foot of length will furnish an estimate of the toughness of the material, and their distribution yields some
indication of the variation in hardness which tends to cause an uneven localization of the twists, there being less
distortion at planes of greater hardness.

4. The wedge test will furnish a more accurate idea of what can be expected of castings that are to be subjected to
shock and occasional overload in service than will a notched bar test, wherein the stresses are concentrated at the root
of the notch.
5.
carbon
Effect of Temperature.
reverted.
6.
If
malleable iron
is
heated to a temperature in excess of
its critical
range, the temper
back to the combined form, and if heated to around 1600F. practically

Malleable iron can be heated to around 800F. without loss in tensile properties.
will start to revert
Magnetization Properties.
When high permeability
temper carbon, whereas combined carbon or

and permeability and low hysteresis loss.
is
all of it
wOl be
required in iron, the carbctn should be in the form of

Malleable iron possesses high induction
free cemenite should be absent.
HANDBOOK
40
OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
CAST CARBON STEELS
Mechanical properties
Chemical composition
Carbon,
per
cent
0.11
ganese,
per
0.73
Phosphorus
Sili-
Sul-
con,
phur,
per
cent
per
cent
cent
0.27
0.027
0.028
per
Tensile
strength,
lb.
per
0.81
0.67
0.83
Under
Under
0.03
0.03
0.031
0.028
0.03
0.70
0.68
0.67
0.78
0.32
0.28
0.34
0.28
0.030
0.030
0.029
0.024
0.025
0.024
0.68
Impact
Hardness
per
area,
num-
cent
per
cent
bers"
33.0
13.2
28.2
29.5
31.0
36.0
30.0
53.0
59.5
54.0
34.0
28.5
34.0
52.5
40.2
49.0
3.7'
2.1
15.0'
13.7'
126B
119B
116B
126B
Treatment
Annealed
As cast
in
1650F. (900C.)
1825F. (995-0.)
(6).
furnace cooled
furnace cooled
(5).
furnace cooled
34,000
37,000
14.0
26.5
18.6
31.6
15'
As
36'
leoO-F. (870''C.), furnace cooled
70,000
71,500
74 500
36 500
46 500
51.2
58.0
16/
24/
48,000
33.0
34.0
32.0
55.1
26/
62,000
63 500
42,000
44,000
36.5
39.0
59.8
67.0
01
leSOT.
64'
1700F. (930C.)
1600F. C870''C.)
1200F. (650<'C.)
(1), air
cooled
(1). air
cooled
(1), air
cooled
149B
149B
156B
1650F. (gOO-C.)
1650-1^. (OOO-C.)
1650F. (900C.)
(3), air
cooled
(3), air
cooled
119B
136B
As received
lOSOT. (900C.)
32.0/
136B
(830'C.) (1), air cooled

air cooled; 1525F.
1650F. (900C.)
(1),
(830C.) (1), air cooled; 600F. (315C.)
34.0/
133B
1650F.
71,000
72,000
73,500
71,000
37.000
43.000
43,500
33.0
32.5
33.0
28.0
53.5
52.4
49.7
47.8
67,000
77,000
27,000
44,000
22.0
30.5
33.0
51.0
43,000
1650F. (900C.)
20.1/
32.6/
137B
139B
143B
As
cast
cast
1650F. (900C.)
16S0r. (900C.)
75,000
72,000
33.0
32.9
54.2
57.6
cooled
furnace cooled
(1), air
(1),
(900''C.) (1). furnace cooled
cooled
1650F. (900C.), furnace cooled
(1), air
0.41
furnace cooled
(6),
Annealed
0.32
0.37
(6),
Annealed
3.7''
(3), air
(1),
air
cooled;
1525''F.
cooled
(900C.)
(830<'C.)
0.84
0.71
commercial furnace
1475^. (800C.)
(1), air
0.26
0.27
of steel**
67,000
70,000
77,000
0.25
gation, tion of
35,000
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.24
per sq. in.
duc-
62,000
64,000
73.000
0.19
point, lb.
26,000
24.000
35,000
35,000
0.20
0.23
0.30
0.20- 0.70- 0.250.35

0.25
0.80
ElonYield
sq. in.
0.40
0.11
0.15
0.17
0.18
Re-
Man-
(1),
(1),
air
air
cooled;
cooled;
1000F.
1525''F.
(540C.)
cooled
.Annealed, furnace cooled
35. 5
1650F.
quenched;
water
(900C.)
1300F.
(705C.), furnace cooled
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.28
0.72
0.75
0.69
0.65
0.28
0.32
0.31
0.26
0.27
0.034
0.034
0.032
0.032
0.027
0.029
0.027
0.027
82,500
74,500
76,000
74 000
44.500
40 000
41,500
43,000
28.0
35.0
28.0
28.0
47.7
45.7
44.8
42.0
68,000
42,000
33.3
51.1
163B
153B
156B
16oOF. COOO-C.)
1650r. (gOO-C.)
1650F. (900C.)
(3), air
cooled
(3), air
cooled
(3), air
cooled
furnace
(840''C.)
1550F.
(7),
lOOO-F. (540C.) air cooled
37.5'
1650F. (900C.)
cooled
furnace cooled
cooled
(1). air cooled
(1), air cooled
(1), air
43 500
37.8
63.3
75,000
76,000
84 000
36,000
42,000
57,000
19.5
25.5
30.0
29.0
31.5
65.0
156B
143B
160B
95,000
68,000
24.0
57.0
192B
1650F. (900C.) water quenched,

1300F. (705C.), air cooled
1650F. (900C.), water quenched,
220B
1100F. (595''C.) air cooled

108,000
79,000
19.0
46.0
45.5'
119,000
90,000
14.0
33.0
238B
130,000
100,000
9.0
18.0
250B
to
(1),
1700F. (930C.)
1600F. (870C.)
1200F. (650C.)
69,000
0.79
As cast
Annealed

oOOF. (260C.), air cooled
drawn
drawn
drawn
drawn
drawn
MATERIALS
CAST CARBON STEELS
Chemical composition
(Conlinued)
41
42
HIGH ALLOY CAST STEELS

Manganese
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Steel.
Contains 10 to 14 per cent manganese with less than 1.5 per cent carbon.
Extremely hard, strong, and tough, with high resistance to wear.
Usually cast to form, but can be forged at a yellow heat.
Difficult to machine, can be partly softened by quenching from about 1830F.
Hardness is restored by heating to about 1380F. and coohng slowly in air.
Nickel Steel.
1.
2.
3.
Contains ordinarily 0.52 to 3 per cent nickel with 0.15 to 0.60 per cent carbon.
Has high elastic limit and tensUe strength.
Corrosion resistance increases mth the nickel content.
Chrome
1.
Steel.
Contains usually 0.5 to 3.5 per cent of chromium with 0.2 to 0.6 per cent
carbon.
2.
Has high
3.
Up
to
elastic limit, tensile strength,
per cent of
chromium has
and hardness.
on steel.
httle effect
With
per cent car-
5.
bon and 2 per cent chromium, great toughness is attained.

Low-carbon chrome steels can be forged with as high as 12 per cent chromium
present, but the alloy becomes brittle as the carbon increases.
Chrome steel attains great hardness when quenched in water.
6.
Steels with
4.
Vanadium
1.
about 15 per cent chromium are relatively corrosion
resistant.
Steel.
Small percentages of vanadium combined with chromium and manganese in

an alloy that has high tensUe strength and elastic hmit.
Vanadium makes nickel steel more homogeneous and decreases the fragility;
it is seldom used with more than 8 per cent nickel.
Additions of 0.15 to 0.25 per cent vanadium to chrome steel counterbalances
the extreme hardness of chromium and produces an alloy with better machinsteel result in
2.
3.
ing properties.
Tungsten
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Steel.
very hard and brittle, difficult to forge, and cannot be welded when the
tungsten exceeds 2 per cent.
Can be worked at a red heat, but is usually cast in the form of tools and ground
to the desired form.
Addition of tungsten to steel produces a close and uniform structure.
High-carbon tungsten steel retains high magnetism.
Steel alloys with 5 to 8 per cent tungsten are self-hardening.
Is
MATERIALS
Molybdenum
1.
2.
43
Steel.
molybdenum on steel is between that of tungsten and chromium.

Molybdenum in chrome steel improves the forging qualities.
Effect of
High-speed Steels.
1
Derive their properties from selected combinations of the several metals listed
above.
2.
3.
Cobalt, uranium, titanium, and silver are also used in high-speed steels.
typical high-speed steel analysis is iron, 68.79 per cent; carbon, 0.51;
manganese, 0.26; silicon, 0.14; phosphorus, 0.02; sulphur, 0.04; chromium,
7.08; tungsten, 22.68; and molybdenum, 0.48 per cent.
44
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MATERIALS
45
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PROPERTIES OF CORROSION- AND HEAT-
MATERIALS
RESISTANT CAST STEELS
CoeflBcient of
thermal expansion
47
48

PROPERTIES OF CORROSION- AND HEAT-
MATERIALS
RESISTANT CAST STEELS
(Continued)
49
50
PROPERTIES OF
AUoy
STAINLESS STEEL
U.S.S.
U.S.S. stabihzed 18-8
U.S.S. 18-8
Typical chemical composition
Carbon
Manganese
Phosphorus
Type 302*
Type 304
Type 321
Type 347
08/20
1 .25 max.
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
0.75 max.
18.0/20.0
8.0/10.0
0.08 max.
2.00 max.
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
0.75 max.
18.0/20.0
8.0/10.0
0.10 max.
2.00 max.
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
0.75 max.
17.0/20.0
7.0/10.0
4 X C min.
2.00 max.
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
.75 max.
17.0/20.0
8.0/12.0
Sulphur
Silicon
Chroniium
Nickel
Titanium
Columbium
10 max.
10
X C
Physical properties
Microhms per
cc
Microhms per
cu. in
70 (cold worked,
70-82)
27.6 (cold worked.
27 6-32 3)
6.4
.
steel
Melting range, deg.
Low-carbon
0.286
0.286
Density. lb. per cu. in

Specific electrical resistance at 68r.:
1.00
Structure
6.5
2550-2590
2550-2590
Austenitic
Austenitic
Austenitic
003
003
10
10
ji
0.12
1.
1.1
113
33
9.6
9.3
10.3
Cold
Annealed
1.1
0.32
9.3
10.3
Cold
worked
Annealed
worked
105-300t
60-250
29- 26
50- 2
65- 30
80- 95
35- 45
105-300t
60-250
29- 26
50- 2
65- 30
80- 95
35- 45
55- 60
55- 65
105-300t
60-250
29- 26
50- 2
65- 30
80- 95
35- 45
29
55- 60
55- 65
75-110
35
135-185
90- 95
170-460
138-185
90- 95
170-460
45
135-185
B75-B90
C5-C47
B75-B90
C5-C47
B75-B90
153
10.2
worked
003
1.10
1
112
153
Annealed
=
=
0.12
0.32
0.
Cold
It
112
150
9.
10.
0.
150
003
1.10
1
1.1
0.
=
=
0.12
113
Mechanical properties at room

temperatures
28
2550-2590
=
=
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at212r

Low-carbon steel = 1.00, at 100C.
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at 932F
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
10 (32-212F.)
Per deg. F.
10 (32-932F.)
Per deg. F.
Austenitic
After 10 per cent reduction of area.

Specific heat:
B.t.u./deg. F./lb., at 32-212F
Low-carbon steel = 1.00 (0-100C.)..
Thermal conductivity:
.
71
71
2550-2590
Magnetic permeability;
As annealed
.
0.285
0.285
70 (cold worked,
70-82)
27 6 (cold worked,
27 6-32 3)
6.4
Cold
Annealed
worked
Tensile strength, 10^ lb. per sq. in

Yield point, 10' lb. per sq. in
Modulus of elasticity. 10^ lb. per sq. in
Elongation in 2 in., per cent
Reduction of area, per cent
Charpy impact strength, ft. -lb
Izod impact strength, ft. -lb
Endurance Umit (fatigue), 10 lb. per sq.
number
Rockwell hardness number
29
in.
Brinell hardness
_.
Stress causing 1 per cent elongation (creep)

in 10,000 hr.:
At 1000F., lb. per sq. in
At 1500F.. lb. per sq. in.
Scaling temperature, deg. F. (approx.)
Initial forging temperature, deg. F
Finishing temperature, deg.
35
and quench
and quench
Good
Good
Fair tough
Very good, anneal
heavier than J-s in.
Fair tough
Very good, not
mum
resistance
(A)
for
i-i
i-i
Hard
Hard
Hard
Full hard
=
=
=
125.000
150.000
175.000
185.000
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
per
per
per
per
sq.
sq.
sq.
sq.
in.
in.
in.
in.
105-300t
60-250
29- 26
50- 2
65- 30
45
135-185
90- 95
170-460
B75-B90
C5-C47
17,000
7,000
3,000
850
1.650
2.200
Not under
1600-1700
1900-2000F.
i
and quench
i
Good
[Fair tough
good,; not
Very
necessary to anneal
necessary to anneal
(B)
(B)
maximum corrosion resistance
U)
* U.S.S. 18-8 free machining. Type 303. same as 302 except S or Se 0.07 min. or
t Commercial grades, thin gages of sheet and strip
90- 95
170^60
C5-C47
17,000
7.000
3.000
850
1,650
2,200
Not under
1600-1700
1900-2000F.
and quench
Excellent
Cold forming, drawing, stamping
Fair tough
Machinability
Very good, anneal
Welding (arc. gas. resistance, atomic hydro.
after welding for maxigeK)
corrosion
Precautions (see notes)
80- 95
35- 45
29
50- 55
55- 65
77
75-110
17,000
7.000
3,000
850
1,650
2,200
Not under
1600-1700
1900-2000F.
.A.nneaUng treatment.
50- 55
55- 65
77
17,000
7.000
3.000
850
1,650
2.200
Not under
1600-1700
1900-2000F.
29
molybdenum
0.60 max.
MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF
U.S.S. 18-8
Alloy
Typical chemical composition
Carbon
Manganese.
Chromium.
Nickel
U.S.S. 27
410J;
Type 430
Type 446
max.
0.20 max.
2.00 max.
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
0.75 max.
22.0/26.0
12.0/14.0
max.
0.75 max.
03 max.
0.03 max.
0.75 max.
10.0/14.0
0.12 max.
0.75 max.
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
0.75 max.
14.0/18.0
max.
1.00 max.
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
0.75 max.
23.0/30.0
Molybdenum
U.S.S. 17
Type
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
0.75 max.
16.0/18.0
14.0 max.
2.00/3.00
Silicon
U.S.S. 12
Type 309
2 00 max.
.
U.S.S. 25-12
(Continued)
Type 316
0. 10
Phosphorus.
Sulphur
STAINLESS STEEL
U.S.S.
Mo
51
0. 15
.
0..35
Physical properties
0.283
0.291
per cu. in
Density,
Specific electrical resistance at 6S''F.:
Microhms per cc
Microhms per cu. in
Low-carbon steel = 1.00
lb.
72.3
28.5
0.276
78
30.7
2.273
57
0.270
67
59
Melting range, deg. F
2500-2550
2530-2570
22.4
5.2
2750-2790
23.2
5.4
2710-2750
2710-2750
Structure
Austenitic
Austenitic
Martensitic
Ferritic
Ferritic
Ferromagnetic
Ferromagnetic
Ferromagnetic
Ferromagnetic
Ferromagnetic
Ferromagnetic
0.11
1.0
7.1
Magnetic permeabihty:
As annealed
After 10 per cent reduction of area.

Specific heat:
fi
B.t.u./deg. F./lb. at 32-212F

Low-carbon steel = 1.00 (0-100C.)
Thermal conductivity:
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at 212F
steel = 1.00, at 100C.
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at932F
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
10= (32-212F.)
Per deg. F.
10= (32-932''F.)
Per deg. F.
Low-carbon
= 1.003
*i
0.12
0.11
0.11
1.1
1.1
i.d
1.0
Annealed
87-116
25-0 34
_.
90-110
40- 60
29
145
181
169
6.1
7.2
35- 50
45- 60
53
150-185
25,000
18,000
8,000
3,000
6.0
6.7
100-200
60-180
25- 10
65- 25
5.9
6.3
Cold
worked
Cold
Annealed worked
70- 90
40- 55
100-180
65- 30
75- 95
45- 60
29
29
29
25- 2
40- 20
30- 20
50- 40
85-175
55-155
29
25- 2
55- 25
185-270
50
140-185
150-250
30- 20
55- 40
100- 60
100-
8- 25
135-165
293-390
50
145-185
17,000
11,000
3,400
850
13,000
2,300
1,400
8,500
2,100
1,200
2200
2100
2150
1300
2100
1550
2000
Not under
Not under
mate)
1650
Anneahng treatment.
170-375
0.42
B75-B90 C5-C40 B80-B90 C5-C40 B75-B85 C30-C40 B80-B90 B90-B105 B80- 90
Stress causing 1 per cent elongation

(creep) in 10,000 hr.:
At 1350F.. lb. per sq. in
Scahng temperature, deg. F. (approxi-
65- 85
35- 45
28
35- 25
65- 60
110-270
65-230
29- 26
25- 2
55- 20
6.1
169
0.49
QuenchCold
Cold
Annealed
worked
worked Annealed ed and Annealed
90- 95
43
135-185 170^60
temperature, deg.
0.50
199
8.3
9.6
80- 95 105-300t
35- 45 60-250
29- 26
29
50- 55 50- 2
55- 65 65- 30
70-110
number
Finishing temperature, deg.
173
125
drawn
Tensile strength, 10^ lb. per sq. in

Yield point, 10^ lb. per sq. in
Modulus of elasticity, 10= lb. per sq. in.
Elongation in 2 in., per cent
Reduction of area, per cent
Charpy impact strength, ft.-lb
Izod impact strength, ft.-lb
Endurance Umit (fatigue), 10=* lb. per sq.
Rockwell hardness number
1.003
0.12
8.4
9.6
Mechanical properties at room

temperatures
Initial forging
1^
1.10
108
0.31
145
X
X
Brinell hardness
= 1.003-
26.4
1600-1700
1950-2050F.
1600-1700
1950-2050F.
and quench
and quench
C0-C25
1,600
400
2100
2000
Not over
Not over 1450
Not over 1400
Furnace cool
from 1550-
Air cool from
Rapid cool from
1500-1400'F.
1650-1550F.
1400-1450
1100F. or air
Cold forming, dra\ving, stamping

Machinabihty
Welding (arc, gas, resistance, atomic
hydrogen)
Precautions (see notes)
Good
Good
Fair tough
Fair tough
Very good, anneal Very good, anneal
for
maximum
for
maximum
corrosion
resistance
corrosion
resistance
(A)
(-4)
cool from
1300-1400F.
Fair
Fair
Fair
Welding hardens
Anneal to restore
ductiUty
(C)
Good
Poor
Fair
Fair
Fair
Fair
Welds
are brittle
when cold
Welds
are brittle
cold
when
Shght response
Shght response
to anneal
to anneal
(-D)
(fl)
X U.S.S. 12 free machining, Type 416, same as 410 except S or Se 0.07 min. or molybdenum 0.60 max.
{A) Preheat slowly to 1600F.. then heat rapidly to the forging or annealing temperature.
Exposure to temperatures between 800 to
1600F. produces marked susceptibihty to intergranular corrosion.
If the metal is unattached, this can be cured by repeating the anneahng
treatment.
{B) For maximum corrosion resistance in high temperature ser\dce, use following stress reheving operations
heat 2 hr. at 1550F..
air cool.
(C) Preheat slowly to 1450F., then heat rapidly to 2100F. for forging.
Full corrosion resistance is developed only in the heat-treated
condition.
(Temper below 1000F.)
(D) In forging, preheat slowly to 1450F. Excessive grain growth takes place above 2000F. Expert welding is required to avoid
excessive grain growth.
Prolonged exposure at 850 to 950r. produces cold brittleness. To prevent this, heat to 1650 to 1550F. before
cooling, and quench.
Stainless steels cannot be forge hammer welded.
52
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF IRON-NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS

Group
composition of
each type, per cent
classification, typical
MATERIALS
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF IRON-NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
53
54
MATERIALS
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CORROSION-RESISTING
Metal or
alloy
MATERIALS
METALS AND ALLOYS
59
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DEÎUN
60
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MATERIALS
a
p
63
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64
CAST AND
A.S.T.M.
WROUGHT MAGNESIUM -BASE ALLOYS
MATERIALS
65
PROPERTIES OF INSULATING MATERIALS

Properties
Power
Hard rubber
Vulcanized fiber
Laminated phenolic
0.01-0.03
0.05
0.03-0.07
2.7-4.0
4.5-6
factor, at radio frequencies
Dielectric constant,
at radio fre-
quencies
strength (specimen l-s
Step by step test at
thick.
Dielectric
in.
25-250 volts per mil
500-1,000 volts per mil

3,000-5,000 lb. per sq. in.
25C.)
Tensile strength
Water absorption, per cent in 24 hr.
9.000-16,000
150-600 volts per mil

6,000-20,000 lb. per sq. in.
in.
0.3-2.5
1.3-1.4
20-60
1.2-1.4
0.02
1.2-1.5
Specific gravity
per sq.
lb.
Coefficient of linear expansion, per

deg.
60-80
10^6
25
Effect of aging
Deteriorates slowly unless well

vulcanized and protected from
Effect of heat
Softens
10-G
20-30
Improves
Improves
Will not melt; not readily inflammable, but chars and becomes
brittle
at high temperature.
Not
10-
light
at
50 to 65*C.
Melts
at 200C.
Burns at about 340C.
Tem-
readily inflammable.
peratures from BO-ISO^C. tend

to renew chemical reactions,
resulting in shrinkage and loss
in weight
Effect of sunlight.
Discolors and disintegrates after
No
effect
No
No
data
Lowers surface
visible effect
Sulphate films
a few months.
formed on surface reduce surface resistivity
Effect of ultraviolet light.
few hours exposure
is
in its
resistivity
equivalent
to
many
months exposure to sunlight
effects
Effect of moist air.
Effect of steam.
No
Absorbs water freely but without

permanent injury; while saturated it becomes soft and flexible
and swells; warps and twists
effect
The only
effect is that resulting
from^ the high temperature
upon drying
Same as above, except
is
absorptirfm
more rapid
Absorbs shght amount
of water,
reducing dielectric properties
Best grades not affected beyond

slight absorption of moisture
after a few days in steam the
cheaper grades will swell appresuperheated
ciably and split
steam tends to warp and blister
all grades
;
Solvents.
Affected by most organic solvents

and mineral oils; unaffected by
alkalies,
Metallic inserts.
Machining quahties
weak
acids,
and certain
concentrated acids
Hard rubber is rapidly deteriorated by contact with iron or
copper, the metals themselves
Inserts should
also corroding.
be coated with tin, paper, unvulcanized rubber, or other mutually protecting medium^
of a high-polish but machines less accurately than would
be supposed, because of its great
Admits
has tendency to
warp, can be molded but not ac-
resiliency.
It
curately to size
Organic solvents have no permanent effect; oils are sUghtly absorbed; affected
by
acids and
oils,
by
or
most
weak
organic
acids; at-
tacked by alkahes and strong
No
effect
Admits
affected
solvents,
acids
alkalies
No
Not
of
fine
may Admits
drilled,
of a good pohsh; can be

sawed, punched, drilled, stamped,
turned,
turned,
planed,
bossed,
milled,
finish;
be sawed, punched,
embossed,
stamped,
planed, bent, tapped
effect
knurled,
tapped
emeither
with or against the grain, though

not so easily as hard rubber and
vulcanized fiber
66
MATERIALS
Q S
67
68
MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHENOLIC LAMINATED MOLDED MATERIALS
MATERIALS
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF PHENOLIC LAMINATED MOLDED MATERIALS
69
70
CHAPTER
III
BEAMS AND STRUCTURES

Page
Paqe
Stress
Calculations
for
Thin
72
72
75
75
Sheet Sections
Compression Members
Angles in Compression
Shear Members
Vertical
Stiff eners
for
Webs
Diagonal Tension
Hollow Girders
Aluminum
Shear
Resisting
77
Webs
Box
80
Sections Subjected to Torsion
Chart for Determining Bending Moments.

Deflection of Variously
Loaded Beams
Beams
Tensile Strength of Round Wires
Rectangular Moments of Inertia
Stresses in Cantilever
77
71
85
.
90
91
92
93
94
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN,
72
Aluminum Sheet Sections
Stress Calculations for Thin
A condensation of the article by the same title by S. A. Kilpatrick and 0.

Company, in Product Engineering, February, March, April, and May, 1936.
J. Schaefer, of
The Glenn L. Martin
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
By the method presented here, compression members made of formed ahiminum sheet for
shapes as shown in the table below can be calculated for any length of member and any thickness
pf sheet.
L =
length of the column, in
in.
thickness of the sheet, in
=
K =
ultimate compressive stress of material,

generally taken as yield point
radius of gyration
in.
^ =
modulus
=
C =
10,500,000 for 24
shape factor at given L/p

shape factor for short columns at about
L/p = 20
P/A =
allowable stress, in
lb.
per sq.
In the preceding equation,
ST aluminum
end
Rankine formula
coefficient for
failing stress
by the
in.
of elasticity
restraint,
load at failure divided
section area
r^
l+B
/
as in the
'
(1)
'
(2)
For compact
sections, tubing, corrugated sheet,
First, calculate a
/(I
+B
and the simplest
B)
+ B^
Apply the shape
from the equation.
sections, use
factor Ko, given in the
table, to the following equation
= 7C
("A"'
(3)
tanh {Kt)
(4)
Then,
J
tanh
(7
= hyperbohc
Note: In general, for sections having a high shape factor,

external dimensions.
If
the shape factor thus calculated
is
A",
less
tangent
the shape factor, will be inversely proportional to the

10, as would obtain if the external dimensions of
than
were doubled, the value calculated should be squared and the value of I- should be used in place of I in Eq. (4).
ample fixity along one edge as represented by the wood block or as obtainable by closely spaced stiffeners, the section should be calculated as a simple angle.
shape
If
section such as shape 3 does not have
As an example of the use of the table, a column of section similar to shape 2, shown
in the table, is to be designed to be made of 24 ST aluminum sheet 0.051 in. thick and
the length of the column is such that L/p is 50. The straight edges of the column are
restrained.
From
Ko =
12.
the table, for a short column of this section, for L/p less than 25, we get
The yield point of the material by test, or from figures given by material
manufacturer,
restraint
is
is 1.
50,000,
and
E =
10,500,000 for 24 ST.
The
coefficient of
end
73
SHAPE FACTORS FOR FORMED ALUMINUM COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Shape
Material
Test
End
aluminum
i/p
condition
a, lb.
at test
test
\.- 0.025- 0.080
K-/5-
24ST
per
sq. in., at
L/p
Test, yield
point, lb.
per sq. in.
Flat
48.000
<25
Flat
59 800
<25
Flat
50,000
50,000
45,000
46 000
pitch
0.25
0.052
"Âh
,TJ
Rivets spaced
at i"in double
"^
R=4i'
<
L=575
iO.J75"
row
Wood block
(not bearing at ends]
24ST
L=/0
U-lf-A
1
Y '2
0064 fo 0128
\KKIVt
Rivets
at
'pitcfi,
Woodblock
^^^Qg^red
(not bearing
=;
<N
,
(][)
at ends) ^
>
J
1
24ST
nc
'-r-
o/i
<^
X
i^-^to'
5c
Rivet at 2 "pitch
on
5a, b
~ ~ Stiorf blocks,
g
Sect
From
ÎCO
"0.0/6
S^
5b
<25 on 5a
and 56
Câandb
R (inside)
and c
gaps
15 to
70 on 5c
Flat on 5a
and 56
(a)
14.3
(a)
22.6
(6)
14.3
22.6
(a)
(6)
Knife on 5c
(c)
15.4 (at
(c)
14.5
(c)
L/p =
15)
(6)
(at
0)
52,000
52,000
55,000
L/p =
(a)
(6)
(c)
50,000
50,000
50,000
(avg.)
74
SHAPE FACTORS FOR FORMED ALUMINUM COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Shape
Material
Test
End
aluminum
L/p
condition
17ST
k1'^ r
-J
r*r*i
(Continued)
a, lb.
it at test
Ko
per
sq. in., at
test
Flat
L/p
Test, yield
point, lb.
per sq.
in.
43.000
40 000
30,000
44,000
'
K"H
V 5"/'
17ST
-Azr^'
Flat
23 at L/p
bb
19.0
at
L/p = 55
Vs- c//'am. liqhtening

" hole, pifch
2f
tiD4
jp-
Afeffective)=A
A= Area wiihout
D= Diam.
27-35
hole
hole; P=pi+ch
17 ST
35.4
Flat
17ST
Length =
24 in.
Flat
34,500
41,000
H"-t
/
''
^ holes
rivets,
P=/'
I Flat shee/ simply

[supported on edges
-\ W
_i
Bu reou
Ko
of S+ds. tesfs
K X 33
f
aMoTooo
V:32,000
2%/W
29.6*/"'
32,000
About
40,000

Calculate
Use
in
Eq.
this value of
From Eq.
(2)
above, with
B to calculate
in
1.
Eq.
(1),
from which a = 22,700
lb.
per sq.
(3),
K
From Eq.
<r
C =
75
12
/50;000\ y2
17.8
\22, 700/
(4),
22,700 tanh (17.8
22,700
0.72
0.051)
16,200
lb.
per sq.
in.
ANGLES IN COMPRESSION
For angles, the following table gives the value
L/p
of a for different values of
L/p
in.
76
Limitations of the equations

1. Valid only for panels subjected to pure shear load.
2. If /s exceeds the shear yield point of the material, shear yield point should be
taken as the critical stress. For 24 ST,' the shear yield point is 24,000 lb. per sq. in.
approximately.
3. The equation does not give dependable results for sheets less than about
0.032
I
in. thick.
njrr
-;
8
1
--,^^
4
3
2

Therefore, since the appUed unit shearing stress of 10,900
the critical buckling stress of 11,250 lb. per sq. in., the
web
77
lb.
per sq.
in. is less
will carry
than
the 4,000-lb.
shear load without buckling.
VERTICAL STIFFENERS FOR SHEAR-RESISTING WEBS

An
approximate formula
for
computing the required moment
of inertia of the
stiffener is
2.29d
E =
For 24 ST aluminum,
Lt
where d
t
=
=
distance between
10,500,000, this equation
becomes
2.29d (
Yh
t
\3i6,
\3i6,500,000.
stiff eners
distance between centroids of upper and lower chords
thickness of stiffener
is to make the stiffener
by the above equation.
Note: Best practice
moment
(VhY
of inertia
thickness equal to that of the
web and then compute the required
DIAGONAL TENSION WEBS

To determine when
a web should be designed as a shear resisting web and when

it is to be designed to carry the shear load in diagonal tension, calculate 'SJV/h,
where V is the applied shear, in pounds, and h is the depth of the beam, in inches.
Usually,
if
member.
this ratio
ratio is 7, or nearly so,
which
than 7, the web should be designed as a diagonal tension

more than 7, a shear resisting web should be used. If the
both types of web members should be investigated to determine
is less
If this ratio is
the more economical.
is
The diagonal
tension stress St in a tension field
where h distance between centroids
For a = 45
of
ht sin
web
is
2a
upper and lower chords
deg.,
2V
Ot
ht
Theoretical
material.
mended
An
maximum
allowable St
is
equal to ultimate tensile strength of the
allowable St equal to about 0.7 ultimate tensile strength
for calculations.
Vertical Stiffeners
Compression load P' in the
stiffeners
can be determined from
P'= -(:^^)tana
is
recom-
78
For a
4,5
deg.,
tan a
1,
P'
Because the web
w
0.9
0,8
07
0.6
0.5
0.4
= - Vb
h
in diagonal tension tends to hold the stiff eners straight, prevent
bowing as a column, the stiff eners need not be

designed for the full column length, but only
to the equivalent column length as given by
the curve in Fig.
7.
The
design of a vertical
same as for any pin-ended

compression member.
Stiffeners must not be spaced farther
apart than one-half the depth of the beam.
stiffener is the
Chord Load
o
.iÔ.3
At any point distant
A^
from the applied
load (Fig. 8), the total chord load

Ql
is

For 24 ST, allowable
To
would be 0.7
stress
62,000
79
43,000
per sq.
lb.
in.
calculate lower chord:
where
M
/i
=
=
10,000
Area
35
V =
20
Maximum
A/r
,M_
10,000
-=
Hence compressive
= 31,300
^'
35
;^^:r
of compression chord is 0.719 sq. in.
-r
lO'OOO
^
1.
compression in lower chord
10,000
lb.
per sq.
22,500
stress
,,
lb.
developed
is
in.
Maximum allowable stress, as calculated for compression member

= 45,000, yield point of material, used in order to calculate crippling
=
K 10.8 (assumed)
= 0.125 in.
p =
0-
stress
-r
A
<r
=
=
tanh Kt
45,000 tanh (10.8

39,300 lb. per sq.
Hence, as this
is
0.125)
in.
greater than the 31,300
lb.
per sq.
in., stress
developed, the chord
is
safe.
To
calculate
upper chord:
, .
Maximum
Tension chord area
tension
d= -r
17,500
0.237 sq.
P ^
A
V =
5,000
35
10,000
-^
12,500
lb.
in.
12,500
237
Assuming 15 per cent reduction
10,000
-^
^^^r.^,^
52,700 lb. per sq. m.
in area
on account
of rivets,
tensile strength of 62,000 lb. per sq. in., the allowable stress will
0.85
62,000
52,700
lb.
per sq.
is
chord
is safe.
Stiffeners
Compression load by equation given above
a = 45
is
tan a
for
an ultimate
be
in.
not less than (and happens to be equal to) the actual
which
and
stress.
Hence tension
80
Stiffener load P' is therefore
P'
10,000
2,5001b.
20
= 0.173 sq. in.

P ^
~ -2,500 = 14,450
Stiffener area
lb.
per sq.
in.
0.173
0.25
From
the curve for equivalent column length (Fig. 7) for d/h
length will be 0.39 X 20 = 7.8 in.

Radius of gyration of stiffener
7.8
0.443
(7
K
t
=
=
=
p =
-T
A
=
=
=
0.25, equivalent
0.443
17.6
45,000
10 (assumed)
0.051
(T
in.
tanh Kt
45,000 tanh (10
0.051)
45,000 X 0.45
21,200 (approx.)
DESIGN OF HOLLOW GIRDERS

Symmetrical Pure Monocoque Sections
Guy
The derivations of the equations for unsymmetrical sections for semimonocoque structures were developed by
The Glenn L. Martin Company.
L. Bryan, Jr., of
In a monocoque structure, such as shown in Fig. 10, consisting of corrugated sheet

sections for upper and lower chord sections and thin
sheets for the web side skin, the maximum bending
moment stresses can be approximated closely by the
Transverse
frame
formula
Neutral
Jb
_My
f
X
(7)
-*
where
tnrizontal
^ reference
Fig.
10.
Symmetrical
monocoque structure
semi-
consisting of
corrugated-sheet chord sections, thin

web side skin, and transverse
frames.
M
y
7x
= applied bending moment

= distance from neutral axis to fibers in question
= moment of inertia of the cross section about
the
neutral axis.
In calculations for this type of section, the thin side

skin is neglected in all computations because it is
incapable of resisting much compression. The sheet simply dimples. Also, the error
resulting from ignoring the strength contributed by the portion of the side sheet in
tension
is
negligible.

To
determine the location of the neutral
81
proceed in the conventional man-
axis,
ner, as follows
Divide the corrugated sheet chord sections, upper and lower, into convenient
short lengths L as indicated. L must be short enough so that the moment of inertia
of the section of length L, about its own neutral axis, will be small compared with its
moment of inertia about the neutral axis of the whole section of the structure.
2. Determine the areas A of the unit sections of length L, and locate the centroids
1.
or centers of gravity of these sections.
Choose any convenient horizontal reference line.

Determine the distance R from the centroids to the
3.
4.
arbitrarily chosen hori-
zontal reference hne.
Tabulate in adjacent columns the areas

and tabulate the products AR.
5.
with their corresponding R, and
calculate
AR
6.
Add
7.
Divide the summation of
all
the
values.
AR
values
by A, and the
result wdll
be D, which, as
indicated in the figure, locates the neutral axis.
To
calculate 7^, the
moment
of inertia, proceed as follows:
1. Determine and tabulate the y values, i.e., the distances from the centroid of
each short length element to the neutral axis. It is necessary to do this only for the
elements lying to one side of the axis of symmetrj-.
2. Tabulate in the adjacent column the square of each y value.
3. Multiply each elemental area A by the square of its centroid distance y.
4. Add the Ay'^ values.
5. Multiply this summation by two if the elemental areas on only one side of the
axis of symmetry have been tabulated.
6. The result 21,Ay'^ will be the moment of inertia I^ of the section about the
XX axis.
This method
moment
applicable only
is
normal to the neutral
is
when
the section
is
symmetrical and the bending
axis.
Unsymmetrical Pure Monocoque Sections
An
example
The
Fig. 11.
an unsymmetrical box beam is shown in the accompanying

stress at any point on the beam cross section can be expressed bj'
of
fiber
the equation
.
^''
{MyH - MJy)y
+ {MM + M,L)x
7j;îp
...
^^^
.
XX and YY are any convenient set of rectangular axes passing through the centroid of the section,
which
is
located
by using the same method
as described above for
the symmetrical section.

Ix
and
ly are calculated
Ix being the
the
YY
M^
My
moment
by the same method
of inertia
about the
as used for the symmetrical section,
XX axis and ly the moment of inertia about
axis.
is
the component of the bending
is
the component of
moment
moment
perpendicular to the
perpendicular to
FF
axis.
XX axis.
82
and My are obtained by resolving the applied bending moment, which

be at any angle to the XX axis, into its components about the XX axis and YY
M^
may
axis,
respectively.
H is the summation of the product of each elemental area times both of its coordiH = XAxy, the values of x and y being the distances from the centroid of
the elemental areas to the YY axis and XX axis, respectively. Distances above the
XX axis and distances to the right of the YY axis are positive. Distances below the
XX axis and distances to the left of the YY axis are negative. Hence XX and YY
are principal axes, H is equal to zero.
nates,
i.e.,
if
-^--0.05/--A
Corrugofiom\
-.
j
10
Horizon -tal
reference
12
'\I5
14
13
^'-Verfica/ reference
Fig.
11.-
-0. 032 "smoofh sheet

Unsymmetrical box beam.
the preceding equation, the normal stress /^ at any point in the cross secand YY are the principal
When is equal to zero, i.e.,
tion can be calculated.
From
XX
axes,
MyX
M,y
(9)
equal to zero and the section is synometrical about one axis, at

axis,
least, and the applied bending moment makes an angle of 90 deg. with the
and the reference axis is in the plane of the resulting bending moment.
Further,
if
is
XX
My
h =
(10)
As an example of the most general case of an unsymmetrical section such as

shown in the figure and with the apphed bending moment at an angle to the neutral
axis, assume that/b had been calculated from Eq. (8) and had been found to be
/
-1,0862/
For the elemental or elementary area 4

X
y
85x
(11)
in. Fig. 8,
= -54.43 + 38.27 = -16.16

= 31.63 - 6.81 = 24.82
= 25.57 measured to extreme fiber
of corrugation
from which
/,
= -1,086 X 25.57 - 85 X
= -27,770 - 1,370
= 29,140
lb.
per sq.
in.
16.16
compression
83
Allowable Stresses for Chord Sections
For chord sections consisting of corrugated sheets, determine allowable stresses

The column length of the corrugations
as for columns as explained on pages 72-75.
transverse
frames of the semimonocoque conthe
between
distance
taken
as
the
is
The coefficient of end restraint C is taken equal to one in the usual construction.
struction.
If
the corrugations are covered with thin sheet, a value of
Smooth Skin with Reinforcing
C =
1.5 is used.
Stringers
foregoing equations cannot be used for calculating a semimonocoque strucApplication of the equation f^ = My/h would
ture with fore-and-aft stringers.
imply that the sheet and stringers were stressed the same. This is true only to the
The
point of loading where the sheet begins to buckle.
Beyond that
Y-r-
b=8J5
load, the sheet con-
84
(X
45,000
1.368
K =
?-
SsT
1.368
61,500
0.3682
504
41,000
13 (assumed)
41,000 tanh 13.6
20,200
0.040
Ji-
lb.
per sq.
in. stiff ener
allowable

Allowable
j =
85
^^
= 8.35^?0.032 =
^'^^0
P^' ^^-
^^-
^^-
not be realized unless the rivets are spaced closely enough

between rivets. A rivet pitch not greater than forty
times the sheet thickness is suggested as a safe limit.
Neutral axis and moment of inertia of the section are calculated in the usual
manner except that a reduced area is used for the portion of the curved sheet which is
under compression.
This sheet value
will
so that the sheet cannot buclde
r^nc
i^nective area
where
D =
distance from
treme
sheet allowable
= A ..
X -r^
A
stmener allowable
neutral axis to
ex-
fiber of section
r-r
v^
distance from centroid of the portion of

sheet to neutral axis.
or
Use
\ \i
K calculates greater than one.
Because a sheet on the compression side is only partly effective, the neutral axis
below the center of the circular section (Fig. 12)
The error resulting
shifts to shghtly
therefrom
is
negligible.
For a bending moment of 3,300,000

compression in the
is
the preceding example, the
maximum
fibers is
,
jb
This
in. -lb. in
= -3,300,000X45.9
=
^^gQ
equal to the allowable
P/A
on
onn
20,200
ii
lb.
per sq. m.
calculated above hence

;
it is
satisfactory.
BOX SECTIONS SUBJECTED TO TORSION

Closed tubular or box sections are the most
For a single-cell thin- walled box,
efficient
and hence most generally
used.
f-
=
T =
where /s
where
8 =
G =
shearing stress, in
lb.
per sq.
applied torsional moment, in
in.
torsional
modulus
erally taken as
alloy
of elasticity, gen-
OAE
for
A =
in. lb.
deflection in radians per in. of length
aluminum
(12)
2-3i
J =
inclosed cross-sectional area in box, in sq. in.
thickness of skin or covering
torsion constant of the section
_ 1 t'
J ~ iA- J
1
ds
t
86
For the section
in Fig. 14,
ds
Si
Si
So
S2
El
ti
ts
14
(13)
When the sides of the box act
as tension field members, in the preceding equation

used should be five-eighths the actual thickness, which will give a
reasonably accurate value for 6, the angular deflection.
In the preceding equation for stress fs the torsional moment is assumed to be
applied so as to be distributed uniformly around the perimeter, an ideal condition
which is approached by placing bulkheads or ribs
for 6 the value of
at aU points of application of load so as to transfer
external loads directly to the walls of the box.
For a multiceU section such as the wing

section in Fig. 15 wherein sheets of different
thicknesses are used, and
h
Fig.
14.
the trailing edge
S2
Single-cell
thin-walled
box
Fig. 15.
Unsymmetrical box beam wherein
sheets of different thicknesses are used.
section.
portion which resists only a small part of the torque
T = 2{AJn
where
if
hi
shear factor, in
of
lb.
per
in. of
portion
perimeter bounding area
..4i
shear per inch of which
is
shear force, in
front spar
web
of the perimeter S4 is omitted,
i.e.,
given by
/13
hi
hi
Shear per inch of the three sides of thickness
wliere 63
lb.
hi
= ^[h^{Ai
= h{Ai
A.y
st/ti
ii, ^0,
A.^)
62
2K-Abs{Ai +
wherein
7
bi
01
Si
7-
Sj
i
;,
+r
U + T
^.3
AM
A'2bi
and
A\b2
s-^/U
Shear per inch for leading edge covering

ho
per
imeter, bounding area
but
not including front spar web
Note that the portion
(14)
^2/12)
/12
neglected,
is
A,) +Aobi]
is
in. of
yl 2
portion of per-
but not including
the front spar web, the

The shearing stress /
in
any part
of the
box
is
87
shear per inch divided
by
thickness,
or
h
fs
t
When any of the sides buckle to form diagonal tension

assumed to make an angle of 45 deg., the tensUe stress St is
fields,
the wrinkles being
2/1
Torsional deflection in 6 radians per
in. of
length
is
T
GJ
(15)
where J is the torsion constant of the section corresponding to the moment of inertia I
as commonly used in the formulas for beams under flexure.
The equations for 6 and
for the shear loads per inch are strictly true only for shear resisting panels.
buckle to form diagonal tension
If sides
the values of t used in the equations for bi, fe,,

should be multiplied by H. That is, use Ht instead of t. But for the stress
calculations for fs and St, always use for t, the
However, if allowable buckling
actual thickness.
and
fields,
&3
compared with
stress of tension field sides is high
actual stress, the use of an effective thickness

te
= Ht
For reasonable
wiU not be accurate.
accuracy, proceed as follows:
Assume that the

buckling
is
torsional
moment
stresses
in. -lb.
50,000
and
is
torsional
in. -lb.
and the
120,000
deflections
moment
in. -lb.
in.-lb. for
stresses
and
Calculate aU
Then
calcu-
deflections under a load of 70,000
the section as a tension
and the
total applied
under a load of 50,000
as in a shear resisting section.
late stresses
causing
Add
field.
the
Fig.
16.
Front
and
rear
spars
are
designed to resist all the bending, whereas

the box is designed on the assumption that
it resists all the torsion.
deflections.
In a design as in Fig. 16, the front and rear spars are designed to resist all bending
whereas the box is assumed to resist all torsional moments. To accomphsh this, the
proportion of the total bending moment resisted by each spar is proportional to the
ratios of the
moments
of inertia of the respective spars, to the total
moment
of inertia.,
or
MEph
+ ErIr
MEJb
=
Eplp + ErIr
Mpi =
Mi
M = total applied bending moment
where
Mpi and Mri
(17)
Ef and Er = modulus
bending moments in front and

rear spars
(16)
Eplf
of elasticity of material
of the spars
If
and Ir
= moment
of inertia of front
rear spars
and
88
the front and rear spars are of the same material, Er = Ep, and cancel out.
In Fig. 16, E.A. is the center of resistance to bending, and in the figure
If
j^
^F ~r
The
(18)
J^R
and the locus of these points is called

The torsional moment apphed to the wdng is the load times the dis-
point E.A.
the elastic axis.
called the elastic center,
is
tance of the center of gravity of the load to the elastic axis, i.e. Pic a) in Fig. 16.
This will be the torsion that will be assumed resisted entirely by the box.
For two spars acting in bending and interconnected only by pin-ended ribs, the
load
P in Fig.
16 wdll be divided proportionally between the two spars, as foUows:
P..=^^
^2 =
The
(19)
(20)
moments wUl be
root bending
Mf, =
Muo_
P^-rL
(21)
= PrX
(22)
This proportioning of the loads applies also when the spars offer but little resistance
and the ribs are rigidly connected. If the spars have high torsional rigidity
or if a box as in Fig. 13 is formed, the distribution approaches that given by Eqs. (16)
to torsion
and
(17) for
Mr^ and
If all torsion
Af,.i.
about E.A.
interaction between spars.
The amount
resisted by the box in torsional shear, there is complete

no torsion is resisted by the box, the interaction is zero.
obtained from
is
If
of interaction is
C,
where
L =
total length of
= 1^*
uniform cross
(23)
Bo
= GJ when
section of box
Bo
total
of
of
torsional
spars have relatively
little
resistance to torsion
Ao
stiffness
two spars plus box
IfIr/{If
h),
if
is
same
for
both
spars
Generally for a stressed skin box, ratio C, is such that the moment would divide as
The difference
in Eqs. (16) and (17), for all points along the span except the root.
between the moment obtained by the two methods is
= Mp, - Mfi
MeR = Mr, - Mr,
M,.p
For any degree

spar
of interaction
Cr between
spars, the final
(24)
(25)
bending moment in each
is
M, = M,, Mr = Mr, -
Cr{Mf2 - Mf,)
Cr{Mr, - Mr,)
(26)
(27)

Cr approximates 0.70 at wing root
Mf =
M =
for a trapezoidally loaded
0.7Mf,
0.7Mi
+ 0.3^^2
+ 0.3ilffl2
89
box wing,
for which,
(28)
(29)
On
the assumption that Cr increases hnearly from 0.70 at the root to 1.00 at 20
per cent of the half span of the wing, Eqs. (16) and (17) apply from the wing tip to
80 per cent of the

(27)
wiU apply,
way
mth
inboard, and from this point inward to the root, Eqs. (26) and
C^ varying from 1.0 at the 80 per cent distance to 0.7 at the root.
Allowable Stresses
These must be based on the combined shear stress and direct compressive stress.
In the accompanying Fig. 17, /, and/,, are the allowable compressive stress and allow-
1.0
.9
08
2 Q6
0.4
0.2
S -0.Z
4-
-0.4
J
"
-Q6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
Fig. 17.
The combined
and shear loads are obtained through the use of this curve plotted from
the equation 1 (fca/fc) = (fsa/fsV-
stresse.s for axial
able shear stress, each acting alone.
When shear
stress oif.a is acting together with a

compressive or tensUe stress, fâ will be the allowable tensile or compressive stress.
Similarly, fâ will be the allowable shear stress when a compressive stress of fâ is
present.
By means of the curve in Fig. 17, the allowable /,<, andf.a are readily obtained
This applies for curved sheet, flat sheet, or tubes and may be used for
for any ratio.
combined bending and torsion or shear combined with axial tension or compression.

CHART FOR DETERMINING BENDING MOMENTS
90
Various Conditions of Loading
Y"^
>i
^
'^
-12
100,00090,00080,000
70,00060,000
50,000
d^
Y"""'"'"'^'''^
'-
7~l
''"r
30,000
20,000
P^-2 -^
7-
,-rrr7777Z^
C
'
kL-iz
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
3,000
4,000
2,000
-n
2rL-H
with concentrated
load P= 2,000 lb.
Load increasing to one end
atend.L=50in.
C=l
Load increasing to center

Load
at center, supp. and fixed
Example
Cantilever beam
rj
P
2
-30
-40
-50
-60
-80
- 100
ends
Load at center, supported ends

Load increasing to
j^Q
200
fixed end
svrr.metrical and equal loads
300
i,,/iij,,j,iii...ii.^
-20
ends
Uniform load,supported ends
^
6----B=22Z^2&^
40,000-
center, fixed
Uniform load, supp. and fixed ends
III
4.
load. Fixed
Load of
i>>""ii^/i//i,/,,M
'"
ends
Uniform
Uniform
load, one fixed
end
^--
Two symmetrical and cquol
-| Concentroted
loads
load at free en^
Turning scale
400
-500
91
DEFLECTION OF VARIOUSLY LOADED BEAMS

(steel). For other
material, multiply the answer
determined on chart by ratio,
E= 27,000,000
60
0.3-
iConc. load
50
a+ free end
E for steel
E for given material

40
increasinq uniformly fo free end
35
20,000 -|
15,00030
Uniformly dislributed
loc
25
'
|llllllllll
D(max)
Cone, load at end
0.1-
wr
Xl2
20
0.090.08-
Increosing uniformly to fixed
0.07-
end
15
-I
/D
0.06-
3conc. loods equolly spaced

0.05-
Uniformly disfribu+ed load
0.001
0.04^
0002
Concen+rofed Ipod of center
0004 0.006
Increasing uniformly to center

dJ
^^-
^^D
Uniformly distributed lood

D
Increosing uniformly to one end
QOI-
Decreasing uniformly to center

,D
0.009-
0.0081.5
Q007-
Concentrated load at cenif r
0.006-
0005-
Uniformly distributed load

D
I
0.9-
0.004-
Concentrated load at center
0.8
0.7-
0003
00025-
Uniformly distributed load
0.6-
0.5-
92

STRESSES IN CANTILEVER BEAMS
0.07
0.05
93
TENSILE STRENGTH OF ROUND WIRES

0.10-
-200
0.09-
300
-400
500
- 600
700
80.0
900
1,000
-1,100
-150
0.02-
- 1,200
0.01-
The doffed Ifne shows fhafa wire 0.072" diamefer made

of mo ferial having an ulfimafe sfrengfh of 160, 000 lb.
per sq. in. breaks of 7331b.
Nofe fhaf fhe corresponding scales A and k^ or B 0770'
1300
-200
1,400
94

RECTANGULAR MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND SECTION MODULI
CHAPTER
LATCHES, LOCKS,
IV
AND FASTENINGS
Typical methods of temporarily retaining, locking, or fastening one movable

machine part with reference to another, including detents, snap rings, wire locks, and
taper pins.
Designs of indexing mechanisms, machine clamping methods and
23 examples of door and cover fastenings, all taken from actual designs, are included.
A chart for computing bolt stress is given at the end of the chapter.
Page
Locking Devices
Retaining and Locking Detents
Wire Locks and Snap Rings
Taper-Pin Applications
Hinges and Pivots
Page
Clamping Shoes and Plugs

Lock Bolts and Indexing Mechanisms
Machine Clamps
Door and Cover Fastenings
Bolt Diameter, Load, and Stress
96
100
103
104
105
95
109
Ill
115
116
119
96
LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS

I
97
Special faced nuf requires

^ revo/ufion for locking
Tapered nui splif

for locking
Formed
flat
sfock
li^fej
Threaded rod posiHoned

by two opposite nufs
V///J
Fig. 33
Projections
Fig. 34.
Fig. 35
on washers of various
shapes /oc/< in hole
and against bolt
\^'" Lead or soff
~WM
_lii'x'L!il
Ip-.
-'
Fig. 36.
_<
brass washer
forms
lock^
against
leakage
oil
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.
Key machined
from flat stock,

^
Spring
actuated
m rod
Spun-over
hole retains
spring lock
plunger
cup
washer
Loose pin
Fig. 39.
Fig. 40.
Fig. 41.
Fig. 42.
Internal V groove
Lower
I
I
with
face of nut milled
six
grooves
Two-piece ring fitting
against s ha fr shoulder
is retained in external
Pins with
beveled <.
ends
Six
In
locking positions'
one revolution
'Hump on washer
(washer spring-loaded)
recess
Cone-pointed screw actuafes

pins
Fig. 43.
Fig. 44.
\\
Fig. 45.
Retainer for
anchor pin
Extension
spring
Threaded collar has milled

is retained by cotter pin^
Flat spring.
Plunger^
slots;
:h
Fig. 46.
Fig. 47.
Fig. 48.
-i
98
Sliding rod^
Fla-i spring
Hex.nui
JZkL
Flaf spring'
with formed
iiump
Locaiing
--'
plunger,
spring- loaded
"'
^Drilled hole in
<-V
{_
Fig. 51.
Fig. 50.
Fig. 49.
V^
tSnap ring
nuf
-Counfer-
bored
or half-round
hole
Formed
Headless screw refainer^
wire wifh pin
end
Fig. 53.
Fig. 52.
Fig. 54.
Flaf spring wifh rounded
head refains pin
Wedge,
'
---
Clamped
Clomped projecfion-p
Toper pin
'Hollow head fillisfer screw

engages groove in wedge
Fig. 56.
Fig. 55.
Fig. 59.
Figs. 59-62.
Fig. 60.
Round bars
Fig. 61.
Fig. 57.
Fig. 62.
Fig. 58.
Fig. 63.
Soft
flexible
wire that
be held singh' or in multiple with one- or

two-piece formed plugs and clamped either with screw or nut and washer.
Clamping plugs may be reamed in place for accurate contact with round
withstands twisting
offers
cient retention of
or drilled screws.
either
pieces.
method used extensively
raajf
This
mobile rear-axle design.
an
effi-
slotted
shows a
in
auto-
99
^^ leodeg.
furn opens
va/ve
Tooihed
wedges
Si-eel
Board
wedge
-'
/Special wedge- headed

/ screw cfamps shafts
Spring-backed
y plug
Screw
Serraled head
on screw
'Shaff locked agains'f'
endwise mol'/on
Fig. 67.
in
hammer
Fig. 66.
Fig. 65.
Fig. 64.
drop
Fig. 68.
100
RETAINING AND LOCKING DETENTS

Knurled
Fig.
75. In
this design, the
plunger is retained by staking or spinning

over the hole
riving
Fig. 69.
plunger, shown in engagement at A, is pulled
out and given a 90-deg.
slipping into
turn, pin
the shallow groove as
shown at B, both members
fngoped
posiljon
Fig. 72.
The plunger is pinned to the knurled
handle, which is pulled out and twisted, the screw
A dropping into the locked position at
in the
at A.
bayonet
slot.
being thus disengaged.
fWVWHTJ^
ss[
70.The
pin in the
attached to the
plunger rides on the end
of the handle when in the
disengaged position and
drops into the hole Y to
allow engagement.
Fig.
collar
Fig. 73.
In this design, the
pin A engaging in the slot prevents
This
the plunger from turning.
detent is used as a temporary
gear lock which is engaged for
loosening a drawback rod through
the gear.
hand
Fig.
Fig. 71.
A long and a
slotted pin driven
into the casting give two
S'hort
plunger positions.
An adjustable gear-case
Fig. 74.
If the door is pushed
cover lock.
shut, it is automatically latched,
whereas pulling out the knurled knob
A disengages the latch.
76.The end
of the
plunger B bearing against
the hand lever A is concaved
and prevented from turning
by the dog-point setscrew
engaging the splined slot.
Friction is the only thing
that holds the adjustable
Fig.
ball
lever
77.
in position.
spring-backed steel
makes an inexpensive but
effi-
cient detent, the grooves in the rod

having a long, easy riding angle.
For economy, rejected or undersized balls can be purchased from

manufacturers.
101
Another form, in
Fig. 78.
which the grooves are cut all
around the rod, which is then
free to turn to any position.
Fig. 82.
ball,
Instead
of
a hollow plunger
is
accommodates the spring.

The
used
which
end
hemispherical.
is
84.
Fig.
The plunger is
turned down slightly smaller
than the inside diameter of the
Fig. 79.
Fig. 80.
Figs. 79 and 80.
A double-locking
device for gear-shift j'oke rods is
shown in Fig. 79. At A, the neutral
position is shown with ball
free in
the hole. At B, the lower rod is
shifted; ball
is forced upward, the
upper rod being retained in a neutral
At A is shown the usual 120-deg.

Fig. 83.
conical spot made with a drill.
At B is shown a
90-deg. spot which gives a more positive seat,
one which will not permit the plunger to disengage as readily and which is preferable when
considerable vibration is encountered.
Fig. 85.
Instead of a hole,
a slot is milled across the rod.
Since the plunger is conical, it
is obvious that only line contact is obtained.
spring which gets its other bearing against the threaded plug,
the hole in the plug guiding the
stem of the plunger.
The lower rod must also

be in neutral position before the upper
rod can be moved. A similar design
is shown in Fig. 80, wherein a rod with
hemispherical ends is used in place of
position.
ball
X.
Fig. 81.
Without using a spring of any
kind, three gear-shifting rods are locked by a
large steel ball.
At A, the neutral position
At B, the lower rod has been

shifted, forcing the ball upward, thereby
locking the other two rods.
The dashed
circle shows the position of the ball when
is
shown.
the right-hand rod has been shifted.
Fig. 86.
The spring tension may be increased
or decreased as desired by the long hollow threaded
plug, which is then locked in position b^- means of
In this design, the rod is flattened
the check nut.
and the locating holes, which are truncated cones
in shape, are machined into the flat surface.
102
Fig. 87.
The round plunger is flat milled to a
90-deg. included angle and prevented from turning
by pin A engaging milled slots in the threaded plug.
In the end view shown at B, it can be seen that, if
the spring tension is to be adjusted, at least a half
turn must be given so that the flattened point will
coincide with the slot in the rod.
Sometimes the plunger can

Fig. 90.
be milled with a flat which bears against
a pin, as shown in the end view to the
right thus the plunger is prevented from
turning in the hole. This design is par;
Fig.
88. When the
plunger diameter and the
wall thickness are sufficiently large,
Fig. 91.
plunger
keyway
can be milled into the

plunger for engaging a
pin, which prevents it
from rotating.
Here
with
shown a square-headed
body turned round to
is
its
accommodate the spring
in an eccentric hole,
thereby giving a support to the pin A, which
acts as a key.
ticular!}' suitable for solid-type plungers.
The plunger is milled

Fig. 89.
square with round corners and
the hole is partly broached; this
does awaj' with the necessity of
a key. The point is flat milled.
F I G. 92. Probably
one of the simplest yet
most
highly efficient
forms
of
detent
is
merely a flat spring
bent to a 90-deg. included angle and seating in V's milled in the
rod.
With a long spring and a fairlj'

Fig. 93.
short phmger, a common flat-head wire nail
can be used to support the spring against buckling.
The spring also fits closely into the
plunger hole to gain support, and the plunger
is flanged at its upper end to prevent its slipping
through the hole.
Fig. 94.
This design is similar to Fig. 88. When confined to a
small diameter, a smaller spring is placed within the larger. By
using a ,?i6 in. outside diameter outer spring, 25 per cent spring
tension can be gained by the addition of the inner spring. The
larger one has a sliding fit in the plunger and screw plug holes.
Two guide pins, the heads fittings closely into the larger spring, keep
the inner spring central and free from buckling.
103
WIRE LOCKS AND SNAP RINGS

Re mo val^
fool
_
'
Wi're lock
"Close
--Kifi
wound spring,
successive coils cut

off fo suif
(exaggera led)
J^~~Lap should have

în. for each jg in.
wire lock diameler
smaller Ihon
is
diameler
D, Fig
96
-Spring lock
of -In. wire
on^-in. diarn.
pin
Fig. 100.
, L
ubricafor
~Wire lock holds

fell and also
wire screen in
place
Fig. 102.
Fig. 101.
Wire lock,
Close-wound spring
from which infernal
lock n'ngs can be cuf
Wire lock
Shouldbe
^ In. larger
ihon diarn.
D,Fig. 96
^~2 in. for each dif'
ference befween
wire lock diom.
and diarn. D,
Fig. 96
Fig. 105.
Fig. 104.
Fig. 103.
Recfangular^
snap ring
'Machined
'Recfangular
snap rings
--Wire lock
holds sheef-
made from
mefal sfamp''ng
Fig. 106.
recfangular
in place
spring sfock
Fig. 107.
Groove moch_
Inedin ouler
race
104
TAPER-PIN APPLICATIONS
Fig. 109.
Fig. 109.
Fig. 110.
The conventional way of applying a taper
Fig. 111.
pin,
Fig. 112.
which depends upon
friction to hold the pin in place.
In gear boxes and other sealed mechanisms where it would be injurious for a pin to work loose, positive locking means
must be provided.
Fig. 110.
The large end of the pin comes just below the surface of the external member it is holding and is
staked as shown in the plan view. These little swellings, or burrs, straighten out or shear off it it is necessary to remove
the pin, but usually will score the surface of the pin.
It should be noted that cast iron does not stake readily as it

not flow.
Fig. 111.
A small cotter pin retains but does not prevent loosening of the taper pin.
Fig. 112.
With this design, the taper pin is pulled tight with the hex nut which bears against a flat on the
external member, although this flat is not necessary.
Some engineers prefer to use a lock washer under the nut, in
which case both the nut and the external member should not be Hardened. Thus the lock washer can get a grip.
is
brittle
and
will
P^lp^
y/////////////////A
Fig. 113.
Fig. 114.
Fig. 113.
In this design, the screw stud is expanded and locked by the use of a taper pin. The stud
as shown in the end view.
The taper pin rests in the bottom of the hole, and the stud is screwed in until
turned no farther.
Fig. 114.
This shows a twofold purpose.
the sUdable inner member.
The
Fig. 115.
sa wed-off taper pin acts as a holding device
Fig. 116.
Fig. 117.
is
slitted
it
can be
and as a key guide to
Fig. 118.
Here the pin flattened and used as a wedge. This method

accurate work, but,
the
hole
reamed too large or wears too much, the next larger taper pin maj' be used.
Figs. 116, 117, and
When a taper pin to be used a blind
one of the three methods shown here can
Fig. 115.
is
calls for
off
if
is
118.
is
in
hole,
be used. To facilitate loosening the pin, a square may be milled at the large end as in Fig. 116. It is well to cj'anide
this squared end.
Figure 117 shows a special form with a square head, the flat of which is equal to the large diameter.
This type should be hardened all over and ground on the body. In Fig. 118, the pin is threaded and jacked out by a
hex nut against a washer. The top end should be cyanided so it will not be pounded over during assembly. A fine
thread should be used so as not to weaken the pin by too small a root diameter. For appearances, the washer and
nut are left on, but this does not render it foolproof. This form is used as a dowel pin where the held member must
be located accurately.
105
HINGES AND PIVOTS FOR COVERS AND FLEXIBLE JOINTS

"^^^
Fig.
119. Com-
Fig. 120. With

the end peened,
the pin can be
mon
cover hinge
with pin tiglit in
the cover and loose
in the hinge lugs.
made a
loose
fit
in
all lugs.
121. a
Fig.
plain pin with two
Fig.
double
122. a
tapered
cotters can be used

in
place
of
a
hole in cover lugs
peened
tightly
with
rivet.
pin
in
fiitting
outer
lugs.
123.
Sheet-metal cover
bent around the hinge pin.
Fig.
t;,
Fig.
A tapered pin makes

hinge adjustable.
124.
'
\\\
HI
''I
f1
Combination straight
and taper-pin hinge.
Fig. 125.
106
Fig.
149.
Common
hinge applied to a
machine-tool cover.
steel
Fig.
Cover lugs cast

and pivot pins fas-
150.
integrally,
Fig. 151.
Wlien swinging member A is to be
removable, the bearing is
cut as in the left view.
tened in loose piece for greater

span.
Swinging rod reFig. 152.

Both
tained by pinned collar A.
lugs are integral with the casting.
10/
153.
Fig.
Pivot bearing as
gle or
used on an adjust-
Angle A should be
30 to 45 deg. to
Fig.
able vise .iaw.
154. Togpawl
retain the
joint.
member.
Fig. 155.
Radial and axial play are taken
up by the hardened and ground bushings
Fig. 156.
Needle-bearing pivot for either rotation or oscillation, with
three hardened and ground
washers for separating the
tapered to an included angle of 22^0 deg.,

sufficient to prevent sticking.
roUei-s.
Fig. 157.
Three liall joints used in a gear-shift
mechanism. Hole A is in shifting rod; B is the pivoting
center, which is retained by the inserted locating plug
at C.
158.
Socket joint
hemispherical
rod
ends held in place by screw
bushings.
Fig.
witli
Fig.
justing
159. Self-adsocket
joint.
The sheet -metal

spring cover is held
in place by two screws.
108
160. Sheet-
Fig.
metal ball-socket
sphere
housing with cover

fastened by spot
stud.
Felt seals
retain the grease.
Fig.
is
161. The flattened

held by the center
are used to
Avelding.
Fig.
164,
Rocker-arm
as used
bearing
on an airplane.
Fig,
165.
Fig. 162.
pivot
Combina-
Fig.
and
joint,
end-thrust bearing, the

ball being retained by
the washer spun over
the fixed screw.
being
tion
Arm
joint
of
joint
pantograph machine, with center stud clamped without end

play, stud head and bushing
end forming the ball race.
snap
Fig. 166.
ring.
Arm
for accuracy.
163.
Universal
the smaller pin
retained by wire
joint designed
Upper
ball bear-
ing takes all thrust caused by

weight, and the spindle is pinned
to the stationary member.
The
bearing has a light press fit.
109
CLAMPING SHOES AND PLUGS
Plug may mar the

Fig. 167.
shaft to the extent that disassembling might be impossible.
The smooth surfaces of the hole are
scored.
Fig. 168. The 60-deg. point

does not always line up with the
bottom of the thread.
Fig.
169. a
Fig. 170.
Fig. 171.
further im-
inside
diameter
of
the
A variation
of the preceding construc-
tion
is
obtained by
making the plug a
threaded hole.
fit
or milled
into the flat, and, once a ring is

made into the flat, it is hard to get
clear of it when the held member
must be moved
provement is a brass plug

making a loose fit with the
fiat filed
on the shaft is an improvement.

But the cup point of the screw bites
in the screw.
press
Here
to either side.
side in contact with the

shaft makes a full fit,
achieved by inserting a
Fig. 173.
This is simito the construction
shown in Fig. 172, a tap
being used instead of a
reamer into the hub bore
reamer.
Fig.
172.
the
lar
and
constantly feeding
the clamping screw while
the reamer is turning.
174.
When a
Fig.
longer clamping surface is
desired, a slot similar to a
key way is cut into .the
retaining member.
This construction facilitates

Fig. 175.
the removal of the plug but can be used
only when the diameter of the clamping
screw is large enough. Freedom of the
internal fillister head screw permits the
plug to assume its natural position against
the shaft.
Fig. 176.
This shows
another method of removing
a plug, by first removing the
clamping screw and then
inserting a small screw to fit
the tapped hole.
Fig. 179.
Fig. 178.
Fig. 177.
Figs. 177-179.
In these modifications of the clamping plug, the shoe is assembled after the clamping screw is
screwed through the hole. In Figs. 177 and 179, the shoe is retained by spinning or riveting, whereas in Fig. 178 a
In each case, the
pin through the hub of the shoe engages the circular half-round groove near the end of the screw.
shoe bears against the shoulder of the screw.
no
111
LOCK BOLTS AND INDEXING MECHANISMS
,' Conica/ lock

l-op
bol-f
and boifom of
conical end m!l/ed off

I'o a//ow for wear
r:^':'~V\
:
^' Rofaiing
member
ZA ^Machined
hole
-keyed
lo prevenf rofafion
of bolf
Fig. 186.
Fig. 187.
Operaiing spring pushes ogoinsl pin

Screw- backed
brass shoe
j
clamps bolf
Sides ofsloh
ground, boflom
relieved^ open
end chamfered
ing
Brackel acts as
guide for cone-
(-4-
ended bolf and as

refainer for opera fing spring
Fig. 188.
Conical- ended
lock bolf,
Fig. 189.
-\'%rSlof
\j
/
Pin
^w
Pin keeps bolf oaf of
'Slol
engagemenf by dropping
info slof
when bolf is fumed
ES
Pivoi-'{
^^
Fig. 191.
Disengaging pin-.
siof
o f engagemenf
-Lock bolf
90deg.
Fig. 190.
Locking piece,
Bayonel
~M / keeps bolf oaf
^.
Lock boli
- - Flaf ground piece acfs as a

\ lock boll by engaging slof
Pivol
|:|ri1
/g
clearance allows spring

push bolf firmly inio
fo
lock- bolf plafe slof
Spring keeps bolf
engaged
Cam
Fig. 192.
acl'uafes
Fig. 193.
gear segmeni
112
/ Flo'f
reioining plaie
/!
^^^>
^'Lock boll wilh

rack machined
S^-.iT"
Recianqulor lock
boli milled ouf
cenlrally looccom-
modafe acluaflng
spring
In this design the rectangular lock bolt is

Fig. 194.
milled out centrally to accommodate actuating spring.
A pin is provided tor hand actuation when desired.
'Pinion manually
aclua led by
wrench or
handle
A rack is machined in the lock bolt.
Fig. 195.
Pinion meshing with rack is manxiaUy actuated with
wrench or handle.
Fig. 197.
More accurate form of
lock bolt, which is claimed by many
to be the correct method for this
type of design. The inclined surface gets the wear as it seats the
the bolt, whereas the straight or
radial side positions the bolt accuPositions A, B, C, and
rately.
correspond to those in Fig. 196, and
indicate that the corners
and Y
When indexing starts, the lock

Fig. 196.
bolt is released and rides on the periphery
At point A, it starts to sUde
of the plate.
down the inclined slot. At B is shown the
shearing or wearing action that takes place.
In case the plate has overrun or indexed past its
position as at C, the spring behind the lock bolt
is required to turn the plate, together with
the whole rotating mass attached to it, backward, resulting in wear on the side opposite
should be rounded. At
is shown
how the groove is ground. Other
notations are the same as given in
shown at B. At Z>, complete engagement is shown. Rounded corners as at X

and Y should be provided. There should be
to that
Fig. 196.
plenty of clearance as at E to allow for wear

is
because of the small angle of the slot. At
shown an improved form of gear. It assures
clearance and provides for grinding of the,
angular surfaces if necessary. If the lock-bolt
spring is not strong enough to seat the bolt by
rotating the plate, vibration will usually complete the seating, causing chatter at the cutting
tool or spindle and wear on the bolt and slot.
In this type of bolt, the angular sides are alike,
hence the direction may be opposite from that
Milled
Pin pre venis
ro la I ion
Fig. 198.
shown.
,-DîJ.
'Tapered gibs perrnii accurole

in bolh side
n selfinq of boll
Fig. 199.
113
Spn'nq-bocked bolf
A^
Hand-opera ied
.'
^^
^Locking ring
^^^â<
Locking ring
(a)
(b)
^B
/ re/ease cam
Each locking ring

has series of five
projeciions or bolls
which engage one

anolher Each boll
and space machined accurately

lo occupy J6 deg.
of circle
Êngaging lug held

Y/xro'
'^y
V//V///,
in correal relation
^ cam by sehcrew
which engages keyway in boll
Fig. 201.
Fig. 200.
Taper pin
Side wa//s
of grooves LJ ~V/ Taper pin

hardened,
Section X~X
in lock- boll plales are
q- ^ Hardened
and
ground cylindrical lock boll
'Lever fhaf ocfuafes lock boll
Fig. 202.
Roller'^
Boll
114
Hand- operated
,
cam
/
/
Projecfion Jnfegral
niin cam engages ^
sloi- in
Boli
bolf
Bolf
disengaged
Bolt
engaged
Bolt
Bolt
engaged
disengaged
Tension spring
keeps bo/rin
^qo
Pivof center
locafion
engagement
Fig. 205.
Swinging
loci;
boll
jê lease
Lug
Cam
"t^-" Lock boll
ZA^Handoperoled
lever
Xy- Lock-boll'
Cenlering lugs-'
plole
Plan
Fig. 207.
By using a lock-bolt plate larger than the work, the indexing error is diminished. The swinging lock
bolt is released automatically by the spring plunger, which has a predetermined movement, when the hand-operated
lever is moved to the left, as shown by the arrow marked Release, and the cam contacts the rounded top surface of the
lock bolt.
The ratchet is keyed with the lock-bolt plate to the spindle. As the lock bolt is released and the lever is
The lever is then pulled
rotated 30 deg. counterclockwise, the pawl engages the ne.xt tooth in the ratchet wheel at X.
in the direction of the arrow marked Index, the cam moving the lock bolt downward into the next opening in the
lock-bolt plate.
The plan view of the bolt shows the two centering lugs between which the lock bolt is additionally
supported.
L ock-
boll plale
keyed lo spindle
Spring-backed lock
,-- Groove J
boll,
---Xfe/K
'Indexing
handle
-Pin
Pin
-Prong
Locked
^
Plale
Third prong
Lock- boll plate
Prong
^Groove F
Lock-boll operaling plale freefo
'Lock boll
rolale
Fig. 208.
Fig. 209.
Fig. 208.
The handle is mounted on the plate and is independent of the lock-bolt plate. As the handle is pulled to
the left, the prong pushes against the pin driven into the spring-backed lock bolt, thereby disengaging the bolt.
At
the same time, the second prong contacts the plate at Z.
Both plates then move simultaneously, releasing the lock
bolt, which rides on the periphery of the lock-bolt plate, and the bolt falls into the next slot.
The handle is then pushed
back again, clockwise, contacting the plate at R, upon which a third prong pushes against the pin-seating lock bolt
in a locked position.
Fig. 209.
The plate is indexed through a half revolution in one direction and then back again in the opposite direc-
The lock-bolt plate is keyed to the spindle.
The lock-bolt operating plate is free to rotate on the spindle. When

the indexing handle is pushed counterclockwise, as shown at the right, groove F in the plate forces the lock bolt out of
engagement. The pin driven into the plate engages the slot in the plate, thereby lining up groove / with slot K. Upon
further movement in a counterclockwise direction, the roller on the bolt may slide into groove / and the bolt may enter
slot K.
The dashed line in both views show the positions when indexing in the opposite directions.
tion.
115
MACHINE CLAMPS
Fig.
210.
Clamping with bolt

and bushing.
Fig. 214. Clamping a spindle with a

split bracket.
Fig.
211.
Clamping
by spring
Fig. 212.
Spindle clamping
bolt.
dovetail.
Fig. 213.
Clamping sliding table with plate and
bolt.
Fig.
split
215.
Sleeve
ends
at
for
Fig. 216.
Example
clamping,
of
wedge
Fig.
217.
with a
Clamping
split bracket.
clamping.
Fig. 218.
Clamping with an
eccentric.
Fig. 219.
Clamping a swiveling column.
'
116
DOOR AND COVER FASTENINGS
Finger grooves
Knob
com has o spiral

of aboufîn.jof file
circum ference of Ig in. oufsic/e diamefer of cam. Direction
"Casi-iron
Lever-type
lock.
When placed
rise
in vertical position, the weight

of lever fends fo lock bolt
more securely. Tapered
of spiral shouidiie such fhaf

wifh door hinged on left,
knob is fumed ro leff for opening door, anci when hinged
on fhe right knob is turned
right to open door
brocket furnishes
binding action
Suitable for heavy doors

such OS on motors, chain, or
belt
housings
Fig. 222.
Fig. 220.
,
Knurled
Tapered face ^
'Knob
xl;.jx
Alternate''
handle, a
steel castinq
Adjustable cam, with threaded hole,

the spiral being obtained by tapering
one face. Nut locks the cam in place
Fig. 223
Fig. 221.
Plain knob
Lugs hold 'spring i.

control
%^
Pressed steel flanged cap with

flat lea f spring fastener. A 90-de'i.
twist loosens cover Suitable for
closing inspection or adjustment
openings
Fig. 224.- -Snap-type fastener using a flat formed
spring.
Fig. 225.
Snap-type
fastener using
round wire spring.
Fig. 226.

'
Cover
Aliernaie consfruc-tion requiring /<ey io
guide plunger
Fig. 227.
117
head or rivet or sere w/
Screv/ lype cover fasfening
Spring-backed
plunger type of
automatic door lock, for light duty.
To
"J
Openings larger ihon)
Fig.
228. Spring-backed
Fig. 229.
plunger engaging a cast lug

on case, suitable for light duty.
add wear resislonce,

and screw cyan-
lafch
ided
Cover located by^

'dowel pins
may be
lifted off
when latch
is opened
'A
two
coil spring
may be substituted
tor the shoulder
Fig. 231.
Fig. 230.
Simple cleaning-hole
cover.
Fig.
232.Shouldered stud
fastening.
'
'
Knob must be
unscrewed until
the corners
A-A clear
Stud bent 30deg., with knob for
locking
a chip cleaning hole cover

Fig. 233.
Fig.
Simple
234.
swing
bolt and openend slot.
Fig.
235. Tee-bolt type

fastening.
of
118
^^^^^
Finger
m.
liff
Weic/h-f ofex.-
Exfended finger grip
iending lug A
running full
wic/fh of cover
keeps if in place
Flush iop
^KlU
Fig. 236.
Stove-plate-type cover
held by gravity.
Fig. 237.
A simple cover
held by gravity and requiring
no machine work.
Fig.
38.Pivoted
oil-
hole cover.
[lis;
Weigh f of knob
keeps hook in place
Fig. 241.
Fig. 240.
Vertical cover
Fig. 239.
swung on a screw.
Bevel-
16
^8
0.005"
clearance
Co ver is slipped
over stud and
drops on body
of The sfuds,
being held by
gravify
Fig. 242.
Positive type
of gravity lock.
Plain gravity
latch.
119
BOLT DIAMETER, LOAD, AND STRESS U.S. STANDARD 60-DEG.V THREAD

-I
Tolâl
Tension Load on BoH"
in
Pounds
(L)
CHAPTER V
SPRINGS
Page
Page
Spring Wire Specifications
122
Table of Wire Gages and Diameters, with

Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers 138
Design Stresses
128
Design of Helical Springs
Torsional Moduli
Inspection and Testing of Springs
130
131
132
Formulas for Helical Springs
133
Form
for
Design Calculations
Standard Drawings for Springs
of
Helical
139
Spring
140
Helical Spring Charts for Specified Ratio
Natural Frequenc3r
Permissible Manufacturing Tolerances
Solution
Formulas
Allowable Stresses Based on Endurance

Limits
Graphical
134
136
137
121
of Loads and Lengths

141
Designs of Tension Spring Ends
144
Flat Cantilever Springs, Graphical Design
of
145
Semielliptic Laminated Springs, Graphical
Design of
148
122
Design of Helical Springs

Condensation of
Company
the
standard specifications and design procedure adopted by the Atlas Imperial Diesel Engine
as set forth by
W. M.
product engineer of that company, in
Griffith,
March and April 1937, Product
Engineering.
CLASSES OF SPRING SERVICE

Rapid, continuous deflection over a uniform stress range from zero to a
maximum or from an intermediate stress to maximum as in engine valve springs.
Class
I.
Class
II.
Rapid
may be from zero to

maximumbut with only
deflections over a variable stress range that
intermediate, intermediate to
maximum,
or zero to
as in springs for engine governors.
intermittent operation
Class III.
loaded at maximum stress or infrequent deflections with

from zero to intermediate, intermediate to maximum, or zero to
but with only infrequent operation as springs for relief valves.
Statically
stress range
maximum
PURCHASE SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPRING WIRE

The minimum
physical properties given in these specifications are 95 per cent of
the average values determined by tests. Thus the

specified are well within commercial limits.
minimmn
physical properties here
SWEDISH STEEL SPRING WIRE SPECIFICATIONS

Generally used for Class I extension or compression springs and Class II and
Class III extension springs, in wire diameters from 0.1055 in. up to 0.262 in. This
material can be used for springs of larger or smaller wire diameter, but generally
music wire
is
used for the smaUer wire diameters and carbon steel for the larger wires.
1.
Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be of Swedish manufacture according to approved practice by the

acid open-hearth or electric-furnace process.
2.
0.60-0.70
0.45-0.65
0.15-0.25
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
3.
Physical Properties
Minimum
strength,
Range
0.025 max.
0.025 max.
Phosphorus
Sulphur
lb.
Alinimum
tensile
per sq.
in.
strength,
lb.
torsional
per sq.
in.
of wire diameter, in.
Ultimate
Elastic
Ultimate
limit
limit
0.1055 and under.

0.1205-0.1350...
0.1483-0.1920...
0.2070-0.2625...
0.2812-0.3437...
0.3625-0.4375...
0.4615-0.5625 ..
.
Reduction of area, 48 per cent minimum.
212,000
202,000
187,000
175,000
164,000
155,000
146,000
Elongation in 10
in.,
154,000
146,000
136,000
126,000
119,000
112,000
106,000
5 per cent
Elastic
184,000
175,000
163,000
151,000
142,000
135,000
127,000
minimum.
112,000
106,000
99,000
92,000
86,000
82,000
77,000
SPRINGS
123
Twist Test Samples taken from any part of the bundle of wire must withstand
twisting seven revolutions forward and seven reverse, at a twisting speed not to exceed
:
25 r.p.m., for the number of times as given in the following table, and the ultimate
break must be clean and square.
Length of wire between

Diameter
of wire, in
Minimum
0.1055
0.1205
0.1250
0.1350
0.1483
0.1563
0.1620
0.1770
23
20
20
18
17
16
15
14
twisting
cycles
Length
Diameter
of wire
of wire, in
Minimum
between
0.1875
0.1920
0.2070
0.2188
0.2253
0.2437
0.2500
0.2625
20
19
18
17
16
15
15
14
0.2813
0.2830
0.3065
0.3125
0.3310
0.3438
0.3625
18
17
16
16
15
14
14
Minimum
of wire, in
Diarneter of wire,
in.
20
grips,
twisting cycles
Minimum
grips, 15 in.
twisting
cycles
Diameter
grips, 10 in.
grips,
30
in.
in.
0.3750 0.3938 0.4063 0.4305 0.4375 0.4615 0.4688 0.4900 0.500 0.5313 0.5625
twisting
20
cycles
18
19
4.
17
17
16
16
15
15
14
13
Surface Conditions
Upon etching with a hot solution of hydrochloric acid sufficiently to disclose

surface defects, no hairline cracks, seams, pits, gouges, die marks, or other imperfections shall be revealed.
Decarburization must be held to a minimum.
5.
Limits of Variations in Diameter
Wire diameter 0.162 in. and less plus or minus 0.0015 in.
Wire diameter 0.1770 in. and over plus or minus 0.002 in.
6.
AU
Inspection, Rejections,
and Replacements
springs will be rigidly inspected at the plant as received.
If
more than a
on any one purchase order are made of steel that

to comply with the preceding specifications, or with the specifications on the
total of 10 per cent of the springs

fails
detail drawing, the entire lot will
be rejected. All springs rejected at the plant wHl

be held at the seller's risk for a reasonable length of time, subject to his instructions,
and shall be replaced by the seller without further cost to the purchaser.
124
CARBON-STEEL SPRING WIRE SPECIFICATIONS

Generally used for springs of wire diameter greater than 0.262
square or rectangular wire ranging from M2 X }i2 in. up to
X
by M2
in.,
for sizes larger than
and
1.
This steel is to be
open-hearth process.
HX
/4 in.,
advancing by
practice
0.60-0.70
0.45-0.65
3.
0.025 max.
0.025 max.
Physical Properties
Minimum
tensile
torsional
strength, lb. per sq. in.
strength, lb. per sq. in.

0.1055 and under.

0.1205-0.1350....
0.1483-0.1920....
0.2070-0.2625..,.
0.2813-0.3438....
.
0.4615-0.5625....
Reduction
electric-furnace or
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Minimum
by the
Carbon
Manganese
0.3625-0.4375.
in.
Steel Manufacture
made according to approved
2.
Range
He
and also for

in., advancing
in.
of area
48 per cent minimum.

4.
Ultimate
Elastic limit
Ultimate
Elastic limit
202,000
191,000
178,000
165,000
156,000
147,000
139,000
132,000
125,000
117,000
108,000
102,000
97,000
91,000
165,000
157,000
145,000
136,000
127,000
121,000
114,000
108,000
103,000
95,000
89,000
84,000
79,000
74,000
Elongation in 10
in.,
5 per cent
minimum.
Surface Conditions
Upon
etching with a hot solution of hydrochloric acid sufficiently to disclose surface defects, no seams, hairline or otherwise, pits, gouges, die marks, or other imperDecarburization must be held to a minimum.
fections shall be revealed.
5.
Limits of Variation in Diameter
plus or minus 0.0015

plus or minus 0.002
Wire diameter 0.1762 in. and less

Wire diameter 0.177 in. and over
6.
in.
in.
Inspection, Rejections,
and Replacements
If more than a
All springs will be rigidly inspected at the plants as received.
total of 10 per cent of the springs on any one purchase order are made of steel that
fails to
comply with the above
with the specifications on the detail

All springs rejected at the plants wUl be held
specifications, or
drawing, the entire lot will be rejected.

at the seller's risk for a reasonable length of time, subject to his instructions, and shall
be replaced by the seller without further cost to the purchaser.
SPRINGS
CHROME-VANADIUM-STEEL SPRING WIRE,
125
S.A.E. 6150
SPECIFICATIONS
Generally used for same range of sizes of spring wire as covered by carbon-steel
spring wire, and where the higher physicals of the chrome-vanadium-steel wire make
its
use specially desirable or necessary.

1.
Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be made according to approved practice by the electric-furnace or

open-hearth process.
2.
0.45-0.55
0.50-0.90
0.80-1.10
0.15 min.
Carbon
Manganese
Chromium
Vanadium
3.
Range
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Sihcon
Physical Properties
0.5 max.
0.04 ma.\.
0.15-0.30
126
MUSIC -WIRE SPRING STEEL SPECIFICATIONS

Generally used for Class I compression springs in wire sizes up to and including
wire diameter. Springs made of this wire should not be finished.
0. 105 in.
1.
Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be of Swedish manufacture according to approved practice by

the acid open-hearth or electric-furnace process.
2.
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
0.60-1.00
0.25-0.50
0. 10-0.20
3.
Range
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Physical Properties
0.25 max.
0.25 max.
SPRINGS
127
PHOSPHOR BRONZE SPRING WIRE S.A.E.

Used only
for small springs, especially
81
where resistance to moisture or other
Can be used in Class I, Class II, or Class III service. DiamSquare or rectangular mateeters are specified in Brown and Sharpe gage numbers.
rial may be used from a minimum size of M2 X M2 in. to a maximum of M X Yi in.,
advancing by M2 in.
corrosion
is essential.
1.
Tin
Phosphorus
Zinc,
..
4.00-6.00
0.03-0.40
20
..
max
2.
Iron,
Lead,
max
max
0.10
0. 10
Copper
remainder
Tensile Strength
Minimum
Range of Wire
Diameter,
Up
In.
to 0.0625
0.0625-0.1250
0.1250-0.2500
0.2500-0.3750
3.
Tensile Strength,
Lb. per Sq. In.
130,000
120,000
110,000
100,000
Bend Test
The wire should be capable

on
itself
of being bent through an angle of 180 deg.

without fracture on the outside of the bent portion.
4.
free
shall be uniform in quality and temper, cylindrical

from injurious defects.
5.
back
Appearance
The wire
and
flat
in shape,
and smooth
Dimensional Tolerances
The wire shaU not vary from the specified diameter by more than the
Sizes over 0.050 in., by plus or minus 1 per cent
Sizes 0.050 to 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.0005 in.
Sizes under 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.00025 in.
BRASS SPRING WIRE,
following:
S.A.E. 80
This material may be used for the same types and classes of springs for which
phosphor bronze is suitable. It is available in two grades, as given below, Grade A
for use where the requirements are especially severe and Grade B for use under
ordinary conditions. Grade B will be furnished unless otherwise specified.
128
2.
Physical Properties
This wire shall have a tensile strength of at least 100,000 lb. per sq. in. but should
be capable of being bent through an angle of 180 deg. around a ware of the same
diameter without breaking.
3.
The wire
and
free
shall
Appearance
be uniform in quaUty and temper, cyhndrical in shape, and smooth
from injurious
defects.
4.
Dimensional Tolerances
not vary from the specified diameter by more than the following:
by plus or minus 1 per cent
Sizes 0.050 to 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.0005 in.
Sizes under 0.025 in. by plus or minus 0.00025 in.
The wire
shall
Sizes over 0.050 in.,
DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Class I springs,
i.e.,
springs subjected to rapid continuous deflections over a uni-
from zero to maximum or from an intermediate stress to maximum,

as in engine valve springs, must be designed on the basis of the endurance hmit of
the material. Class II and Class III springs, respectively, springs that operate only
intermittently or springs that are statically loaded are designed on the basis of the
form
stress range
static strength of the material.
with decreased
wire diameter, as shown in Figs. 243 to 247, a larger permissible stress can be used for
the smaller wires. The following table gives the maximum permissible working
Because the
static strength of wire of a given material increases
stresses for springs for Class II
MAXIMUM
and Class
III service.
SPRINGS
250
129
Chemical analysis
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
'^^
Phosphorous
Sulphur
O65-Q70
0.45-0,65
Q 15- 0.25
Q025max.'
Q025n-iax,
^//',
150
100
50
01
Fig.
243.
0.2
Swedish
03
Diam.of Wire
05
0.4
in Inches
Relation
steel wire.
diameter to physical properties.
02
03
niam. of Wire
of
03
02
Diam.of Wire
06
wire
Inches
Chrome-vanadium-steel wire, S.A.E. 6150.

Fig. 245.
Relation of wire diameter to physical properties.
Inches
Relation
Carbon-steel wire, S.A.E. 1065.
of wire diameter to physical properties.
Fig. 244.
0.4
in
04
in
0.1
0.3
0.2
Diom. of Wire
in
Inches
Fig. 246. Music wire, S.A.E.

Relation of wire diameter
1095.
to physical properties.
130
0.2
Fig. 247.
Phosphor bronze
wire, S.A.E. 81.
0.4
0.3
Diam. of Wire
in
Inches
Relation of wire diameter to physical properties.
WAHL CORRECTION FACTOR

As the spring
maximum
index,
i.e.,
the ratio of coU diameter to wire diameter, decreases,
developed becomes increasingly greater than that as calculated

by the conventional formulas. To compensate for this in the design calculations,
the Wahl correction factor must be applied. The accompanying chart (Fig. 248)
the
stress
2.0
1.9
>-
1.8
fel.7
-*-
i 16
IO
1.5
-13
iL2
II
1.0
SPRINGS
10
20
30
40
Lower S/ress
249.
Fig.
Allowable
in
torsional stress
steel wire.
Swedish
no
100
50
t
i 60
50
40
55 30
E
E
.20
"5
10
Fig.
80
90
50
60
70
Thousands of Lb.perSq.ln.
range
for
131
132
In calculating Class I springs, the procedure is similar except that the permissible
working stress must be based on the endurance value of the material. A tentative
allowable stress is assumed, and the wire diameter is calculated by following the same
procedure as outlined above for Class I and Class II springs. The calculated wire
diameter is then checked against the endurance charts as given in Figs. 249 to 253 for
the various materials.
As an example
calculated to be
of the use of the
made
endurance charts, assume a valve spring had been
and the wire calculated

closed and 81,000 lb. per sq. in.
of Swedish steel wire 0.177 in. diameter
to be stressed to 62,000 lb. per sq.
in.
when the valve is
SPRINGS
133
TABLES FOR CALCULATING HELICAL SPRINGS

COMPRESSION SPRING FORMULAS
=
Spring index
Round
-K
AUd
=
- d)Y
MWL
"^
(2.25d)
MWL
^k
Sbt
Fa = FN
FL =Fn +
Pitch
= P/Fn Load
11.16P(D
Fh =
MWL
Fi.
--[<i^+0]
Pitch
SoUd length = ro.48d (
(l.lOdiV)
(2.25d)
^TFL
=F X N
=[ 0.53d
= P/Fn
^^ ^ +
N=
(maximum)
r
a
Gd^
Solid length
MWL
of deflection
ro.48f
= P/Fn
(g-^-g
= [o.sat^ ^^
'^1
l) N~\
Rectangular
-|FL[-
-r-TnJ:
^Wd~^
W=
N
d)Y
FL
F =
AWt
0.4445^3
(D
0A8d
8P{D - dy
F =
l) '^l
Square
AUd
- d)Y
.--['(i^+O]
EXTENSION SPRING FORMULAS

Pitch = EL/N
Load per inch deflection = P/Fn
r-l;'^^
(D
MWL
Load per inch
(^+l)^]
Round
0.3927Sd^
6)2
iV
per inch of deflection
2.25)d
FN
= Fn +
+m
Gbt(b'
w=
6)y
(maximum)
d)'
(iV
Fn
(o^d +
iV
of deflection
VbV
3.185(1)
Gd'
{2.25d)
5.58P(0
Solid length
_t
(maximum)
SP(D
d)3
F =
Gd'
Fv = FN
FL =Fn + MWL
Load per inch
_h-FL-^
-i
_ 0A44Sd'
~ (.D - d)Y
-'^^-
FL -
(minimum)
Rectangular
(maximum)
l.lOd
Pitch
^kd
0.3927Sd'
(D
-r-
Square
-FL-^
-r or
5.58P{D
Gd'
Sbt Vb'-
dy
S.185Y(D
r-
b)
FL
N=
D
-
{^
U.16P{D -
OASt
F =
GbtiV-
by
f)
134

TABLES FOR CALCULATING HELICAL SPRINGS
TORSION SPRING FORMULAS
Pitch = FLIN
Hound
SPRINGS
proportional to the
number
135
In a compression spring, the number of

number of turns less 2K turns, assuming IM dead turns
of active turns.
active turns mil be the total

at each end of the spring.
DEFLECTION
Calculate the deflection per turn and total deflection
by the formulas given
in
on pages 133 and 134. For compression springs, the number of active or
turns
will be the total number of turns less 2M turns.
the tables
effective
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
Compression Springs. Ends must be ground square. Minimum and maximum

inside and outside diameters will be determined by the space restrictions imposed by
the application. Both ends of the compression spring should be guided on either the
outside or inside or both.
All compression springs should be wound right hand
except where they operate inside one another, in which case they should be wound
oppositely.
Minimum working length of the spring under compression should allow a
minimum clearance between effective turns equal to 10 per cent of the wire diameter.
Additional compression beyond this minimum working should not be permitted.
Extension Springs. They may be close wound with or without initial tension,
or they may ]5e open wound.
They should always be wound without initial tension
when load capacity is an important factor. All extension springs should be wound
right hand unless required otherwise.
Maximum working length determines the
position of the spring beyond which additional extension should not be permitted.
FINISHES
Steel springs to resist moisture or atmospheric corrosion should be
For appearance, they
may
be enameled, lacquered, or japanned.

made of nonferrous metals are usually not finished in any manner.
plated.
cadmium
Springs
STANDARD DESIGN PROCEDURE

By
using a form such as given on page 136, the procedure in designing springs
can be standardized. The data relating to the actual dimensions and characteristics
of the spring are obtained from the inspection or test department.
Examples
of
STANDARD DRAWINGS
standard drawings on sheets 83-2 X 11 in. for the three types of heh-
cal springs, compression, tension,
and
torsion, are
shown on page
137.
Drawing need
not be to scale. Wire sizes should be specified in inches, not gage numbers. Use
decimals for specifying wire diameters and fractions of inches for rectangular materials.
Also dimension the thickness of rectangular wire so as to indicate how the wire is to be
wound. Indicate finish, if any. In dimensioning the drawing, indicate the permissible manufacturing tolerances as given in table above, but tolerances as large as per-
missible should always be specified.
minus, the
The
given.
mean
Load tolerances should be indicated as plus
or
value to correspond with the specific rate.
notations and dimensions as given in the drawings show^n here should be
136
FORM FOR SPRING DESIGN CALCULATIONS

SPRING DESIGN
S-2494
Drg.No.
0-550
Pitch
Length of
F.L.
class
_Z_
Rate
^4
mwi
3.325
arm
^0
Max.O.D.
.Am.
MS-/2
Material
//
Min.I.D.
0.24-3 7 d/am.
Size
Max.def.
Length of rod
CALCULATIONS
3.32 S- OSS'
^,
^-
FL-MWL
Max.O.D.+ Mfn.I.D
,^
^"^-^^
,^
q56s
(D-d)
2.925
P=
G X d X Fn
~/1 500,000 x.0. 00352 7x
Pitch =
60
S =
6.25-0.55 -=
0.550
2.
925
= /Tg
8x8.2x/0.35
8x(D-d)^xN
_P__ 175
Ra+e= Fn
2.925
=2.015
2.015x175
0.3927x0.01447
1.18
>.
=73.200
SoUd length = (10.35 '^ 2.25) %.0.2437 = 3.07
W.35
ACTUAL VALUES
F.L.
^32
Set
6#
Average of
/QS"
Load
5(g
10
Def.
_ll
Total turn
Springs
O.D
Solid length
I3_
^3Z
Manufactured by
D.
0.2^
GIBSON
200
3.32
Lengthy Inches
Original by
6RE.
APPROVED BY
Checked by
Date
2-9'3&
AND.
DATE ISSUED
April
17,
1936
Date
2-25-36
SUPERSEDING
Tested by
GAV7.
SUPERSEDED BY
Date
3-25-36
REVISION DATES
SPRINGS
137
STANDARD DRAWINGS FOR SPRINGS
dead coils at
each end.
Grind ends square
I4
wifii
C.L.
Minimum wor Idng iengih

Jj2 max. JJ2 minr"
Rote -390
lb.
Free iengfii
per inch
Toleronce
-5 7o
Materiol
MS-IZ
musf be sfraigiif and compressible

minimum working length without coils
touching or taking a permanent set
Springs
fo
Size -0.250 diom.
Hand -Right
Finish
-Block Japon
ono^
wound withinitial tension
Close
out
Free iength
Maximum working length

-4i
Rate- 1601b per inch
Tolerance -t 57o
Material- MS-13
Size- 0.135 diom.
Hond- Right
Finish- Block
*l
length between ends

Springs must be straight and capable of extension
maximum working length without taking a
permanent set Ends must be neatly made and
without mutilation of wire
to
Japon
{'Maximum deflection 180 degrees
--22 Free length
Rote
Toleronce
Materiol-S.A.E.81
Size- 0.125 diom.
Hand
I
Sp^'hgs musf be straight and capable of

withstanding maximum deflection without
taking a permanen t set Ends must be
neatly made and without mutilation of wire
-Right
Finish-None
Examples of standard spring drawings. At the top is a compression spring; in

is shown an extension spring; at the bottom is a torsion spring.
the middle
138

Wire Gages, Diameters, and Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers
MONEL, BRONZE, AND BRASS WIRE
STEEL WIRE SIZES
(Washburn
No.
& Moen
gage)
(Brown
&
Sharpe gage)
SPRINGS
139
The spring end construction of tension and torsion springs should be given
by showing all necessary views. See page 144 for typical spring ends.
in
detail
INSPECTION
All springs received shall be carefully inspected, tested,
and marked, where
required, for identification.
Inspection shall cover
and on the material
all
specification requirements noted
specification sheets.
on the spring drawings
Particular care should be exercised in
make certain all defects noted on the material specification

In case of doubt, one or two springs from the shipment in question
should be etched in a 30 per cent solution of boUing hydrochloric acid for a sufficient
length of time to reduce the diameter 0.002 to 0.003 in. After etching, aU material
or manufacturing defects are readily discernible.
inspecting the material to
sheets are absent.
A sufficient number of springs from each shipment

the spring rate
any,
is
be tested to determine
within the limits specified on the drawing.
when compressed
to the
All springs failing to
more than 10 per cent

ment shall be rejected.
If
shall
minimum working
The amount
of set,
if
if
length must also be determined.
meet the requirements referred to above shall be rejected.

on any one order are rejected, the entire ship-
of the springs
Springs constructed of music wire,
Monel metal, phosphor bronze,
or brass shall
not be marked in any way for identification. Springs made of steel shaU have one or
two coUs at one end painted a color corresponding to that indicated as follows Swedish steel, blue; carbon steel, orange; chrome vanadium steel, red.
The paint used
shall be quick-drying, oilproof, heat-resisting lacquer.
:
140
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF HELICAL SPRING FORMULAS

F= Inches Deflection per Turn at Stress Indicated
0,21
0.18
I
i__l
0.12
0,15
.
0,06
0.10 0,09
^-^'f
90,000^
75,000
6Q000
60,000
75,000
100
110
120125
'
90' 100
-125,000 '^
110
120
9Q000
130 140 150
Pounds Tension or Compression Load on the Spring at Maximum Unit Stresses Indicated
This chart, developed by Carl P. Nachod, of Nachod & United States Signal Co.,
can be used for the solution of the formulas for round-wire hehcal springs given on the
preceding pages. The chart is based on G being 11,500,000. The Wahl factor is
incorporated in the equation on which this chart is based.
To use the chart: Given a load P of 20.1 lb. and an allowable stress of 60,000 lb.
per sq. in.; go vertically upward from the point representing 20.1 lb. on the lower
60,000 scale to the intersection Avith the load ray, extending upward to the right, corresponding to the spring index (D/d) selected, in this example r = 8. A horizontal line
through the intersection point to the scale for wire diameters gives d = 0.09 in.
Extend this horizontal line to the- right to the "deflection" ray r = 8 of the group of
rays extending upward to the left. From this point, trace vertically upward to the
scale corresponding to the value of
0.079
in.
per turn at 60,000
lb.
per sq.
selected,
in. stress.
and
this gives the deflection
as
SPRINGS
141
HELICAL SPRINGS OF GIVEN LOAD RATIO AND LENGTH RATIO

Graphical computation charts, developed by Frederick Franz, for springs for
specified maximum load and length and specified minimum load and length based on
G =
Step
1.
To determine
Compression Springs.
load
of
Pmax.,
Divide specified
L,in.
line representing load ratio
50,000
spring index.
when compressed,
compressed length
S =
11,500,000
initial
to obtain load ratio.
to initial length Lma^.-
and the horizontal
load Pmm. on spring
by maximum
Similarly, calculate length ratio
The
intersection of the vertical
line representing length ratio gives
value of D/d, the ratio of outside diameter of coil to the diameter of the wire.
Tension Springs. Divide initial tension on spring by final tension, to obtain
load ratio.
The
Divide
initial
length of spring
by maximum
length, to obtain length ratio.
intersection of the vertical line representing load ratio -with the horizontal line
representing length ratio gives D/d, the ratio of outside diameter of coil to the diameter
of the wire.
-S-0,8
0,7
0.6
05
0.4-
0.3
0,2
0.1
142
When
the value of D/d, ratio of outside diameter of spring to diameter of wire,

has been determined, the chart below gives the maximum safe load, wire diameter,
and mean
coil
diameter for values of D/d, the spring index.
MAXIMUM
1.00
0.2
LOAD, WIRE DIAMETER,
MEAN
COIL DIAMETER,
AND SPRING INDEX
SPRINGS
143
For any other fiber stress, divide the selected fiber stress by 50,000, take the
root
of this ratio, and divide the diameter d obtained from the chart by this
square
stress.
factor.
Step
The
modulus
3.
To determine
chart
is
deflection per coil or per turn.
based on 50,000
of elasticity in shear.
lb.
per sq.
in. fiber stress
For other values
of
and 11,500,000 for G, the

stress and modulus of
maximum
CHART TO DETERMINE DEFLECTION PER COIL
144
Dimensions
and
DESIGNS OF TENSION SPRING ENDS

Y should always be specified and are in the
proportions shown.
See page 137 for standard spring drawings.
îiiiir
'rrAVx
X-,
Y
-1
X^
,.Jli
>=p-
X.
^
^=
^p A ^
^='
SPRINGS
CANTILEVER SPRINGS
Maximum
Fiber Stress, Length, Deflection, and Thickness
145
146
CANTILEVER SPRINGS II
Maximum Fiber Stress for Given Loads
36
o o
o OOo in
^
CiciC' O' CJ
d odd d d
''''
lihlilihl
lllllllll
liiiiliiiili
Iniihi
-0.10
Spring Wicl+h(w)in Inches
^0.20
^030
j-0.40
o bo.50
-0.60
-OVO
-0.80
^
C3>
1.0
2.0
E-3.0
h^.O
SO
6.0
7.0
ao
1
mi
iii
[||mm
iii
1
1
|
M|
'
||
ii|iiii|
'
iii |ini|
iiii|
|
SPRINGS
147
CANTILEVER SPRINGS~ni
Load-deflection Ratio for Given Spring Dimensions
(Required thickness for given maximum deflection and fiber stress can be determined
by use of Charts I and II, pages 145 and 146)
0.5
lo
0.6
-5 08
-r
w
2.0
3.0
î
06
^ E; 08
^^
1.0
-z f
2,0
'S'
148

SEMIELLIPTIC LAMINATED SPRINGS
Leaf Thickness
0.50
800
0.45
0.40
1,200
Rate-Lb. Load per
0.35
0.30
1,600
In.
Deflection
025
2,000
Q20
015
2,400
OIO
005
2,800
SPRINGS
149
SEMIELLIPTIC LAMINATED SPRINGS

The chart on the facing page will facilitate the design of a semielliptic spring having
graduated leaves of rectangular cross section. The chart is a graphical solution of
the following formulas
_ 2/ X d2E
KXU
^ -
^^^^
(31)
12
where
R =
rate of deflection, in
E =
modulus
load per
in.
of elasticity, 28,000,000
llr.
lb.
L = full length of spring, in in.

W = width of leaves, in in.
T = thickness of leaves, in in.
I = moment of inertia
deflection
per sq.
in.
constant for semielliptic springs

0.9
The accompanying example shows how
R =
By
to use the chart.
starting with the
up to the
length of spring, L = 55 in. Cross horizontally to the hne representing the number of
leaves, 6 leaves, then vertically to the hne in the upper section of the chart corresponddesired rate of deflection,
ing to the width of the spring,
The
parabohc curve.
1,200
"PF
0.4375
figure,
per
lb.
From
in.
in.,
from eye to eye, has
read straight
this point, trace horizontally to the
directly
nates the thickness of each leaf in the spring.

deflection, is 55 in.
in. deflection,
above
The
this last intersection, desig-
spring has 1,200
six leaves 5 in. wide,
lb.
and each
per
in. rate of
leaf is 0.4375 in.
thick.
To
find the safe load
from the
on the spring
S =
D =
E =
The
total
amount
modulus
i^
1^
in.
T =
thickness of leaves, in
L =
full
lb.
per sq.
in.
length of spring, in
in.
allowable working fiber stress will vary with the material used.
is
180,000
may
lb.
be considered a safe working
per sq.
in.,
can then be solved.
D multiplied by R
two-thirds of the elastic limit,
stress.
Usually
For example,
the safe unit stress will be 60,000
By substituting this latter value for S in the formula,
the
(rate of deflection in
amount
lb.
per
of deflection
pounds per inch)
wifl
In practice, the spring may be stressed to

but only under an occasional emergency load on the
give the fuU load capacity of the spring.

spring.
^ - SL'
or
-Jj-
of elasticity
the elastic hmit
sq. in.
4.DET
of deflection, in in.
unit fiber stress, in
one-third of the elastic Umit

if
have been estabhshed
chart,
^ where
after the other values
CHAPTER
VI
POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS

AND MECHANISMS
Charts and nomograms for determining shaft and bearing sizes, horsepower
flat and V-belts, and tyJDical examples of safety gear design, gear
shifting mechanisms, bearing seals, gibs and guides, and cams.
The final pages
cover typical constructions of mechanical linkages.
transmitted by
P.\GE
Flexible Couplings
Shaft Diameters for Torsion and Bending.

Shaft Diameters for Torsional Deflection.
Shaft Diameters for Lateral Deflection
Shaft Diameters A.S.M.E. code
Two-bearing Shafts of Uniform Strength

Stress in Rotating Disk
Velocity Chart for Gears and Pullej^s
Flat-belt Length and Pulley Diameter
Flat-belt Speed-horsepower Charts
Belt Horsepower Charts
Flat-belt Horsepower Charts
Flat and V-belt Horsepower Charts
V-belt Lengths
Short-center Belt Drives
178
162
Chart for Calculating Needle Bearings

Thrust Bearing Friction Moments
Bronze Bearing Alloys
163
Shaft Seals
182
184
152
161
179
180
164
Roller-bearing Seals
166
Sleeve-bearing Seals
186
167
Safety Gears
188
168
Shifting
169
Gibs and Guides

Cam Designs
Variable-speed Devices
Transport Mechanisms
Automatic Feed Hoppers
Glue-applying Mechanisms
171
172
173
174
175
176
151
Mechanisms
190
195
198
199
201
203
205
152
FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS
,
Shaft
'
Hose clamps
'Rubber hose
Coiled spring
^1* ' Shaft'
-n
Hole
Shaft-
'Shaft
This
Rubber hose
^Washer
Fig. 256.
Positive drive is assured by
bolting hose to shafts. This has the same
advantages as the type in Fig. 255, except
there is no ova load protection other than
the rupture of the hose.
For applications where torque is low and slipFig. 255.

page unimportant. It is easily assembled and disconnected
without disturbing either machine element. It is adaptable to
changes in longitudinal distance between machines. This
coupling absorbs shocks, is not damaged by overloads, does not
set up end thrusts, requires no lubrication, and compensates for
both angular and offset misalignment.
<//o/e
Shaft
excellent shock-absorbing
It will allow
qualities, but torsional vibrations are possible.
end play in shafts, but sets up end thrust in so doing. Other
advantages are the same as for the types shown in Figs. 255 and
256.
This type compensates for misalignment in any direction.
Fig.
257.
has
type
Sefscrews.
She
Coupling
Couplinq
Shaff-
Fig. 258.
Coupling for low torques and unidirectional
This type is easUy
rotation.
Inertia of rotating parts is low.
assembled and disconnected without disturbing either shaft.
The cable can be encased and the length extended to allow for
right-angle bends such as are used on dental drills and speedometer drives.
The ends of the cable are soldered or bound with
wire to prevent unraveling.
Hubs
>
Cover'
Fig. 259.
A type of Falk coupling that operates on the same principle as design shown in Fig. 260, but has a
single fiat spring in place of a series of coiled springs.
A high degree of flexibility is obtained by use of tapered slots in
hubs.
Smooth operation is maintained by enclosing the working parts and packing with grease.
POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS

Coiled^
153
Rubber bushings
springs
Shafi
FiG. 260.
Fig. 261.
Fig. 262.
Fig. 260.
Two flanges and a series of coiled springs give a high degree of flexibility. This type is used only
where the shafts have no free end play. It needs no lubrication, absorbs shocks, and provides protection against
overloads, but will set up torsional vibrations.
Springs can be of round or square wire with varying sizes and pitches
to allow for anj' degree of flexibility.
Fig. 261.
Similar to Fig. 260, except that rubber tubing, reinforced by bolts, is used instead of coiled springs.
Construction is sturdier but more hmited in flexibility. This type has no overload protection other than shearing
of the bolts.
It has good antivibration properties if thick rubber tubing is used.
It can absorb minor shocks.
The
connection can be quickly disassembled.
Fig. 262.
A series of pins engage rubber bushings cemented into flange. This type will allow minor end play
in shafts and provides a positive drive with good flexibility in all directions.
Fig. 263.
A Foote Gear Works flexible coupling which
has shear pins in a separate set of bushings to provide overload
protection.
The principle is similar to that shown in Fig. 264.
Replaceable shear pins are made of softer material than the
shear-pin bushings.
Fig. 264.
A design made by the Ajax Flexible
Coupling Company. Studs are firmly anchored
with nuts and lock washers and bear in selflubricating bronze bushings spaced alternately in
both flanges. Thick rubber bushings cemented in
flanges are forced over bronze bushings.
154
F/ang^
^Shatt
'Spring
refaining
ring
Shafi-'
Flange
^F/ange
Keeper pin
Section Through
'
Cen+er
Fig. 265.
Another Foote Gear Works
coupling.
Flexibility is obtained bysolid conically shaped pins of metal or
fiber.
This coupling provides positive
drive of sturdy construction vfith flexi-
bility in all directions.
Fig. 266.
In this Smith & Serrell coupling, flexibility is
obtained by laminated pins built up of tempered spring steel
leaves.
Spring leaves secured to holder by keeper pin.
Phosphor bronze bearing strips are welded to outer spring
leaves and bear in rectangular holes of hardened-steel bushings fastened in flange.
Pins are free to slide endwise in one
flange but are locked in the other flange by a spring retaining
ring.
Rubber^ leather or fil:ierdisk
Buffer-
slot
Fig. 267.
In this Brown Engineering Companj'
coupling, flexibility is increased by addition of buffer
slots in the laminated leather.
These slots also aid
in the absorption of shock loads and torsional vibra-
Under parallel misalignment or shock loads,

buffer slots will close over their entire width, but under
angular misalignment, buffer slots will close only on
tion.
one
side.
Fig. 268.
Flexibility is provided by resilience of a
rubber, leather, or fiber disk in the W. A. Jones
Foundry & Machine Company coupling. Degree of
flexibility is limited to clearance between pins and
holes in the disk plus the resilience of the disk.
This
type has good shock-absorbing properties, allows for
end play, and needs no lubrication.

\
Flexible disks ^
155
Laminafed mefal disks^
Cenlerdisk-'''
made by
coupling
Aldricb
Pump Company, similar to Fig. 268, except
that bolts are used instead of pins. This
coupling permits only slight endwise movement
of the shaft and allows machines to be temporarily disconnected without disturbing the
Driving and driven members are
flanges.
flanged for protection against projecting bolts.
Fig.
269.
Fig. 270.
^Laminated metal disks are used in
The disks are

Flexible Coupling Company.
bolted to each flange and connected to each other by means of
pins supported by a steel center disk.
The spring action of the
center ring allows torsional flexibility, and the two side rings
compensate for angular and offset misalignment. This type
of coupling provides a positive drive in either direction without
setting up backlash.
No lubrication is required.
r^f^
^' Lea Iher
Secfion A-A
i-;\
design
made by Palmer-Bee Company
for
flange carries two studs, upon which are

mounted square metal blocks. The blocks slide in the slots
of the center metal disk.
Each
,/
Rivet
disk
Section
A-A
principle of the T. B. Wood k

Sons Company coupling is the same as Fig. 272.
but the driving lugs are cast integrally with the
metal flanges. The laminated leather disk is
Fig.
Fig. 271.
heavy torques.
this coupling
made hy Thomas
273.The
to accommodate the metal driving

This coupling has flexilugs of each flange.
bility in all directions and does not require
lubrication.
punched out
members
Cast- iron
~hiub
Leaf her
Leaiher -'
disk
Fig. 272.
In this Charles Bond Company coupling, a
leather disk floats between two identical flanges.
Drive
is through four laminated leather lugs cemented and
riveted to the leather disk.
This type compensates for
all directions, and sets up no end
Driving
flanges are made of cast iron.
lug slots are cored.
misalignment in
thrusts.
The
Fig. 274.
Another design made by Charles Bond
The flanges have square recesses into

which a built-up leather cube fits. Endwise movement is prevented by through bolts used where low
torque loads are to be transmitted.
Company.
156
Flange ^^ A
Leai-her
'cross ^
Band
"
A-A
Section
--|
^3^
Fig. 275.
Similar to Fig. 274, being quiet in
operation and used for low torques. Tliis is also
a design of Charles Bond Company. The floating
member is made of laminated leather and is shaped
like a cross.
The ends of the intermediate member
engage the two cored slots of each flange. The
coupling will withstand a limited amount of end
play.
Fig. 276.
Pins mounted in flanges are connected by
Coupling is used for
canvas, or rubber bands.
temporary connections where large torques are transmitted,
such as the driving of dynamometers by test engines. This
type allows for a large amount of flexibility in all directions,
Machines
absorbs shocks, but requires frequent inspection.
can be quickly disconnected, especially when belt fasteners
The driven member lags behind the
are used on the bands.
driver v/hen under load.
leather,
iLeaiher belf
Cable
Ir'nks
This Bruce-Macbeth Engine Company coupling

Fig. 277.
is similar to that of Fig. 276, except that sL\ endless wire cable
The links engage
links are used, made of plow-steel wire rope.
small metal spools mounted on eccentric bushings. By turning
these bushings, the links are adjusted to the proper tension.
The load is transmitted from one flange to the other by direct
pull on the cable links.
This Webster Manufacturing

coupling uses a single* endless leather
belt instead of a series of bands, as in Fig. 276.
The belt is looped over alternate pins in both
This type has good shock-resisting
flanges.
properties because of belt stretch and the
tendency of the pins to settle back iuto the loops
Fig.
278.
Company
of the belt.
'Endless ropes -
279.
This
-_
made by
''"^
the Weller
Manufacturing Company is similar to the design in
Fig. 278, but instead of a leather belt uses hemp rope,
made endless by splicing. The action under load
is the same as in the endless-belt type.
Fig.
coupling
Leather
link
Fig. 280.
This Bruce- Macbeth design uses leather
links instead of endless wire cables, as shown in Fig. 277.
The load is transmitted from one flange to the other by
direct pull of the links, which at the same time allows for
the proper flexibility.
Floaiing
disk
157
Leafher
sfar
Sec+ion X-X
Fig. 281.
Fig. 282.
Fig. 281.
The Oldham form of couphng made by
W. A. Jones Foundry and Machine Company is of the
two-jaw type with a metal disk. Is used for transmitting heavy loads at low speed.
Fig. 282.
The Charles Bond Company star
coupling is similar to the cross type shown in Fig. 275.
The star-shaped floating member is made of laminated
leather.
It has three jaws in each flange.
Torque
capacity is thus increased over the two-jaw or cross
type. The couphng takes limited end play.
Fig. 284.
Fig. 285.
Fig. 284.
A metal block as a floating center is used in
this American Flexible Coupling Company design.
Quiet operation is secured by facing the block with
removable
fiber
and packing the center with
strips
The coupling sets up no end thrusts, is easy to

assemble, and does not depend on flexible material for the
driving action.
It can be built in small sizes by using
grease.
hardwood block without facings
This
285.
high torques in
needed.
either
'"
member.
direction.
No
lubrication
is
Rubberized
fabric disks'
Flexible disk
Fig. 283.
A combination rubber and canvas disk
bolted to two metal spiders.
Extensively used for
low torques where compensation for only slight
angular misalignment is required. It is quiet in
operation and needs no lubrication or other attention.
Offset misalignment shortens disk life.
is
for the floating
Westinghouse Nuttall Company

coupling is an all-metal type having excellent torsional
flexibility.
The eight compression springs compensate
for angular and offset misalignment.
This type allows
for some free endwise float of the shafts.
It will transmit
Fig.
Fig. 286. Similar to Fig. 283, but wOl withstand offset

misahgnment by addition of the extra disks. The center
spider is free to float.
By use of two rubber-canvas
disks, as shown, the coupling wiU withstand a consider-
able angular misalignment.
158
Siee/ sfr/ps -
Spiders
,-
3-piece sleeve
- -;
Compression sleeve
'-Â
287.
Section k'k
In
Smith
&
coupling, a
cross made of laminated-steel strips floats
between two spiders. The laminated spokes, retained
by four segmental shoes, engage lugs integral with the
This coupling is intended for light loads
flanges.
Fig.
this
Serrell
flexible
only.
^Spring regaining pin
Fig.
Fig. 290.
290.
In this
Fig. 291.
coupling of Falls Clutch &

two hubs with triangular heads
Machinery Company,
and a three-piece sleeve are used.
The
sleeve
is
assembling. Three pieces of

compression lining provide the necessary flexibility.
bolted together
when
Misalignment is compensated for in all directions by

compression of the linings..
Fig. 291.
This Medart Company flexible coupling
uses square keys or pins of fiber, Textolite, or other
Clearance is
flexible material which engage V slots.
provided in the V slots for flexibility. The pins are
Coupling can
held in place by a retaining collar.
float endwise.
Fig. 288.
This coupling, made by Brown Engineering
useful for improvising connections between

apparatus in laboratories and similar temporary installations.
It compensates for misalignment in all directions.
It will absorb varying degrees of torsional shocks by
changing the size of the springs. Springs are retained
by threaded pins engaging the coils. Overload protection is possible by the slippage or breakage of replaceable
Company,
is
springs.
Mm
^s
m
Oil /eveI when^
nol in molion
Laminafed'
1
Fig. 289.
..
Ôil reservoir
spoices
In another design by Brown Engineering
Company, a.series of laminated spokes transmit power

between the two flanges without setting up end
This type allows free end play. Other
thrusts.
advantages are the absorption of torsional shocks, no
exposed moving parts, and good balance at all speeds.
Wearing parts are replaceable and working parts are
protected from dust.
In
holes
the design of the W. H. Nicholson &

Company flexible coupling, a series of floating steel keys
shde in dovetail slots cut into each flange. The degree of
misalignment compensated for depends on the clearance
between the keys and slots. Wear is reduced, and
cushioning is provided by operating keys in oil bath.
Keys act noiselessly, centrifugal force keeping them
Fig. 292.
against the slot surfaces.
159
Hub,
Packing ^
Spring
reiaining
- Projecting
'
iooihon
hub
'Projeciing
ioo+ti in
Keeper
ring
sleeve
Fig. 293.
Fig. 294.
Fig. 293.
In another design made by Falls Clutch &
Machinery Company, a triangular center floating member made of steel is placed inside two flanges. As in
Fig. 290, three pieces of compression lining are used.
Coupling flanges are triangularly recessed.
Fig. 294.
In this Clark Controller Company design, a
splined hub mounted on each shaft is connected by a
sleeve having internal projections.
Power is tran mitted
through strips of pacldng fitted between the projecting
teeth in the hubs and sleeve.
Packing is retained at
each end by keeper ring and snap ring. Compensates
for misalignment in all directions without the use of
flexing materials.
-Roller
chain
(endless]
Fig. 295. In one design of Lovejoy Tool Works

flexible coupling, individual free-floating load cushions
hung between the flange jaws on removable studs.

These replaceable cushions are made of brake-lining
material, leather or rubber-duck fabric, depending on the
are
loads sustained
tion is needed.
and the resUience required.
No
lubrica-
Fig. 296.
&
The
positive drive design of
Diamond
Manufacturing Company consists of two

sprockets connected by a length of roller chain.
Clearance between sprockets and chain side plates
allows freedom to compensate for misahgnment in all
Chain
directions.
160
Flexible -
member
4Jaws
'^
Composition
packing rings
lenl
,
(endless)
Chain
Oil level wiifi
Oil level
coupling al
rest
running
when
coupling
is
The Poole Engineering & Machine ComFig. 297.

pany uses a two-piece floating sleeve with the internal
gear teeth cut at each end, meshing with gear teeth on
hubs. Toothed hubs are mounted at the end of each
The hub teeth have spherically formed
shaft.
crowns. The teeth are in mesh around their entire
Compensates for misalignment in all
circumference.
directions without the use of flexing materials.
Bearing surfaces are lubricated in a bath of oil.
Dust is
excluded by packing ring at either end.
chain
re laiper
slol
Fig. 298.
Fig. 299.
Fig. 298.
A silent chain is used as the flexible member
in the Morse Chain Company coupling, the load being
A series of retaining
distributed over a number of teeth.
Hnks, running in the center of one sprocket, keep the
chain in place. Flange covers enclose the chain when
necessary.
Convex jaw surfaces that exert a rolling
Fig. 299.
pressure when loaded are used in another Lovejoy Tool
Works coupling design. The convex surfaces are so
proportioned that the compression is uniform over the
The floating spider is
entire area of each spider arm.
made of a resilient material which gives flexibility in all
directions.
Fig. 300. This T. L. Smith Company type of

coupling has a flexible metal ring engaging projections
integral with the outer and inner hubs.
A packing
ring protects the interior from dirt, yet compensates
for angular misalignment.
The coupling can drive in
either direction.
Fig. 301.
In this Meriam Company design, the internal and external hub is connected by a series of spring
steel rollers fitted into semicircular recesses in each hub.
The rollers are made of strip steel, wound spirally and
ground on the periphery. Quiet operation is secured by
packing the interior of the coupling with grease or ground
cork.
161
SHAFT DIAMETERS FOR TORSION AND BENDING

B
500,000
D=J^
-650
M-^ + T^
400,000
15
Example: Given f= 6,000 lb. persq.inBending momen+ M= 100,000 in.-lb.

Torsional mornen+ T = 50,000 in.-lb.
Determine equivalent bending mornen+
16
300,000
600
Join 100 on horizontal A scale +o50on

vertical A 5cale. This length scaled off
on vertical A scale is the equivalent
bending moment= 111,000 in.-lb.
Join
111,000
on B scale to 5,000 on^f

to read 4.6"
and extend line

diam. on left scale
scale
IH -
-550
200,000 -^
150,000
-500
1.5
-450 c
o
lb
0)
-400
c
ty
E
o
.5^16
O
-350
.E
300 i
D
>
E-îe
cr
II
3^-_
15,000
Nofe: For ordinary power -transmission

shafting use 6,000 lb. per sq. in. for
fhe allowable working stress
5,i
-^
E-7
Bending Moment,in Thousands Inch- Pounds
-rr
I
I
500
450
-200
4^--
16
"^
20,000-
4,4^16
6,2
-250
400
ri
350
300
250
200
I
I
150
162
-b c
" w
to
(u-t-
C>
a.
^*-
<u
---
2
c
(i)
o,__
-C-l-
-I-
-^
LCD 4= D
S =
E"-<
D
_=.4_
LLl
U|-LUD_ia 4J.DLI5
2o~oofîDiri^
llllllllllhlllll
fc
llllhllllllhl
CM
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o
o
o
o
o
o
o-
o
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o
o
o
y
o
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o
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q"|_"ui'snbjoj^
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163
o
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164
SHAFT DIAMETERS BASED ON THE

Bending Moment,
to
rj-
A.S.M.E.
in 1,000 In.-Lb.
ir>
f^
to
00
_]
B
0-
2-
3-
M
I
4-
8 4H
o
7-
E
o
"5
8-
10
10
14
12-" 15-
16-
CODE

SHAFT DIAMETERS BASED ON THE
A.S.M.E.
Bending Moment^ in
D
1,000 In.-Lb.
CODE
(Continued)
165
166
TWO -BEARING SHAFTS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

Values of ""
Q,
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8 0.9
1.0
167
STRESS IN A ROTATING DISK

N
50110
Maximum
disk
IS
+angen+ial stress
given by the relation
I'n
a thin rotating
71wN^x lO'^ [C3+m)R^+(l-m)r^]

Rand r are radii in in.
N= angular velocity in 1,000 r.p.m.
m= Poisson's ratio for the moten'al
w= density in lb. per cu.in.
S=
S= maximum tangential
(if
\^
lllll
10
10
100,000
45
lb.
per sq.in.
use light face scales for R^randN)
4
I
20
Q.
10
(L
II
II
II
II II
15
in
40
13
o\
R exceeds
stress
215
I
II
II
ai
--
o
o
45
40
35
50
.c
50
Outside Radius^ R
35 -1-7 g
1^
4-
R=5, r = and m= 0.35,

v\/ith w=0.4, a disk rotating 30,000 r.p.m. will be
subject too maximum tangential stress of
214,000 lb. persq.in.
Dotted
,5"
lines
show that for
Q.
o
o
o
ir
Density
in Lb.
per Cu.
0.15
In.
-<,^
0.2
0.>^
0.4 0.5 0.60?
lLlU
tn
"Copper
-Steel
inside Radius, r
Cast iron
D
01
=6^
168

VELOCITY CHART FOR GEARS AND PULLEYS
169
FLAT -BELT LENGTHS AND PULLEY DLA.METERS

The chart on the
following page
is
used for the
calculation of belt lengths for open belt drives,
The
length of a belt can be calculated with
accuracy for
from the formula
L=
C =
engineering problems
all
+ ^ rf(n +
L = 2C
where
Calculation of Step
drives.
sufficient
rf2(n
1)
(32)
4C
distance
L =
= smaU pulley diameter

= speed ratio
D = large pulley diameter
D = nd
and they cannot be shown

the Eq. (32) is divided by
take the form as follows
If
For further
d/C
l)+g(n-
simplification, let
The equation
y.
+-y{n
will
C =
is
140.375
is
and 5.
4, and
50
and the
in.,
The value
in.
of
belt length
L/C =
is
2.81 will
For the speed ratio n = 2, read vertically from

2.81 to where this line intersects the ray
of the speed ratio 2.
Follow horizontally to
d/C, and read 0.17. When d/C = 0.17, then
C,
L/C =
x and
=
=
d
Z)
(34)
50
in.
=
=
8.5 in.
=
17
8.5 in.
in.
For the speed ratio n

3, d/C = 0.126 is
obtained from the chart in a similar manner.
Therefore
then become
ly
0.17
D=
it
(33)
in a
1)2
+ y\n -
1)
3, 4,
2,
L/C =
it
^ = 2+^^(n +
four-step cone pulley drive
be the same in each instance.
Any type of graphical solution of the equation

not simple in this form, because there are four
simple chart.
that the diameter of the small pulley d = Bin. is

the same as in the preceding example.
Center
distance between pulley centers
will
Example.
Cone Pulley Drives
required with speed ratios n of
belt length
variables in
enough for
Assume that one speed ratio, namely, n

1)2
is
(32), the chart values are close
ordinary belt length calculations.
all
and pulley
step cone pulley sizes for open belts,
diameters on V-belt
by Eq.
0.126
3
50
6.3 in.
=
=
6.3 in.
18.9 in.
n = 4, as in the preceding
= 0.10 and d = 5 in. Then
D = 4 X 5 in. = 20 in.
= 5, d/C = 0.083 on
speed ratio
For the speed
ratio
example, d/C
Equation (34) contains only three variables, of

which n, the speed ratio, is usually known. The
equation can be plotted on ordinary coordinate
paper as in the accompanying chart. The following examples show how to use it.
Belt Length for

Example.
Assume the small pulley diameter

=
0.10.
4,
C =
From d/C =
and the
50
in.
dis-
Then
2.81.
Therefore
in.
52(4
1)2
^^^^
=
Although there
length
is 'î in.
as obtained
= 4.15 in.
= 20.75 in.
In this instance, the steps of the driven pulley

be 4.15, 5, 6.3, and 8.5 in. diameter, mating
with steps on the driving pulley of 20.75, 20,

18.9,
and 17
in.
diameter, respectively.
Pulley Diameters for V-belt Drive

Example.
is
120
If
of
the speed ratio n
the pitch length
in.,
140.375
in.
difference in the belt
from the chart
C = 40
an endless
and the
4,
in.,
find the
pitch diameters of the pullej^s.
in the Eq. (32), the solution will be
100-1-^5(4+1)+
50
4.15in.
distance between centers

140.5
Substituting the numerical values given in this
example
\vill
V-belt
L = C X 2.81
L = 50 X 2.81 =
0.083
0.10 on the
trace horizontally to the speed ratio

4 and follow vertically downward to read
L/C =
chart,
?i
D=
Open Drive
d = 5 in., the speed ratio n

tance between pulley centers
d/C = îo
For the
the chart so that
figures
and
then d/C = 0.1216 is read at the

intersection of the lines L/C and speed ratio
M = 4. Therefore
If
L/C =
3,
D =
X 40 = 4.864 in.
X 4 = 19.456 in.
0.1216
4.864
A V-belt manufacturer's catalogue is then consulted to ascertain pulley outside diameters.
170

CHART FOR FLAT-BELT LENGTHS AND PULLEY DIAMETERS

FLAT-BELT SPEED -HORSEPOWER CHARTS
The fransmission copac/iy of a be/f or chain drive
from ihe
is
ca/cula'iecl
fi
per min
relaiionship
Nei i-urning force in

'V,
Ft Id. per
Horsepower
speed in
mm perhp.
,,
lb.
_(T|-T2)V_(T|-T2)TrclN
33,000
33,000
^ys
The iension on Ihe lighl side minus Ihe lension

" ^'he loose side of a chain or bell. If is Ihe
effeclive pull.
V= The bell or chain velocily in ff per min. and is
( T| - T2I =
^^J
'
,^
"-^
equal lo Ihe producf ofrr limes D, Ihe diameler

of Ihe pulley in feel, limes N^ lis r p.m.
for a given flaf belf Ihe values of(^^-Tq\
c^^ per inch of widlh is usually known. For
-^
V lype
belfs
il is
given per bell
In
chain
fransmission, T^ is usually zero, hence

^
"5
CTj-T^) is Ihe a/lowable working load

chain as in roller chains or per
nominal widlh, as m silenf
line indicafes Ihalfor
N= 600
5.
7per
and
in.
TfT2=60,
widlh of belf
171
172
BELT HORSEPOWER CHARTS

Determining Belt Tension Resulting from Centrifugal Force
30
wv
~Q~
fn Lb.
per
In.
40 50 60
80
lOp
Wid+h
horsepower chart on the preceding page enables the designer to

obtain the linear velocity of the belt in a given drive. In the illustrative example
given with that chart, the linear velocity of the belt was shown to be 3,160 ft. per min.
By assuming a belt whose unit weight is 0.15 lb. per ft. per in. width, the additional
belt tension set up by centrifugal force can be obtained from the chart on this page.
The
fiat-belt
point in the vertical scale designating 0.15 in. per ft. per in. width, trace
horizontally to the right to the point representing a velocity of 3,160 ft. per min., as
Then drop down vertically to the horizontal scale,
indicated by the diagonals.
From the
which gives the value
of
WV^/G
as 13
lb.
per
in.
width of
belt.
1,000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
250
200
10
173
174
FLAT-
AND V-BELT HORSEPOWER CHARTS
the half angle of the V groove for V-type belt.

the angle is equal to 90 deg. and sin /3 is
Sin
is
For a
flat belt,
equal to
1.
of Ti can be determined from the

breaking strength of the material and the factor of safety
The working value
of e^'" ^ can be obtained from the

the coefficient of friction, and
The relathe angle 8 of the arc of contacts are known.
tion between Ti, the tight side tension, and Ts, the slack
side tension, can be found from the accompanying chart.
Example. A flat belt operating on a 20-in. diameter
puUev is making 600 r.p.m., the arc of contact is 165 deg.
Assume Ti equal to 120 lb. per in. of width, the belt
to
The value
be used.
accompanying chart
if
v,
weighs 0.150
lb.
per
ft.
per
width and has a coeffiFind the horsepower the
in. of
cient of friction equal to 0.25.

belt can transmit.
the speed-horsepower chart on page 171, it is

v, the velocity of the belt, equals 3,160 ft.per
min. The quantity ww-Zff may be calculated or determined
from a chart on page 172.
To find e''*, enter this chart at the horizontal line which
represents the value of angle of arc of contact equal to
Trace right to the diagonal representing a
165 deg.
value of V equal to 0.25, and then upward to the diagonal
labeled 90 deg., which represents a flat belt, then right
to the curve and then down to the scale where we read
From
found that
ef^ equal to 2.1.
1098
6 5
By substituting this value of e sin /3 or, as in this

example, e*** in the preceding equation, the value of
Ti T- may be calculated. With this quantity known,
and the use of the chart on page 171, the horsepower per
inch of width of belt may readily be obtained.
yue

CHART FOR FINDING V-BELT LENGTHS
Diameter of Small Sheave
Size of
ropes,
in.
Min.diams.
recommended
4
32^16
Permissible
175
176
SHORT-CENTER BELT DRIVES

Calculations for the Arc of Contact and Length of Belts
When an
idler pulley
is
used to increase the
on the driving pulley,
arc of belt contact
it
becomes necessary to calculate that increase to

obtain the belt length. In the figure below,
center lines are drawn connecting pulley centers.
Solving for the belt wrap
on pulley
d,
d-\-D^
2 sin
{4>
A)
d
2 sin
{4>
2 sin (0
.sin
(0
A)
{d
=
2
<l>
A =
sin~
will
by
+ A)
D2)
V^^ +
52
+ D2) sm~^
2 y/A^ + 52
{d
=
=
=
180 deg.
180 deg.
The
D^
V^' +
180 deg.
180 deg.
D-d
angles
2C
4>
{<f>
+ A) - A
+ 33 deg. -
(-4.5 deg.)
14.5 deg.
A
sin~'
Equation
B^
sm"
B'
a
01
+
+
(<#.
VA^ + W
wnere
or
A)
of belt
is
+ e +F +G + H + J
for the length
L = E
57.3
d (180 deg.
<t>)
57.3
+ A
2
<t>
which the angle of approach a

sin
a+
203 deg.
=
=
interpolating.
For the example shown on the chart on the

next page, the arc of belt contact on pulley d
will be
then be
d
in
A)
angle of belt contact on the driving pulley
The
above the center line, angle A will be

if 4 is below the center Une, angle A
The scale A in the chart can be
will be plus.
used for either plus or minus values but the sign
preceding the angle A must be kept in mind.
When values of A are less than 1, values of angle
A must be interpolated. For e.xample, when A
is between + 0.5 in., angle A is less than +2 deg.
and is read on the scales "A" and "angle A in
is
minus, and,
deg."
\/A''
<i>
When A
Having an Idler Pulley
is
= sm"
D-d
2C
and A can be found on the
57.3
G = C cos a
H = Dta.n (90 deg. J = dtun (90 deg. -
chart,
V4>
+ X)
+ y)
In the foregoing equations, values for the

various symbols are calculated as follows:
.
_i
B--
D+d
Va + (c - By
D-d
sin
2C
2
+ D,
VA- + B^
2)2/2 cos
\(C
- B)-
4>
sin"
tan'^
y = sm
lA
tan^^
-5
- A
\
^/
D2/2
sin
/ D2/2 cos < - i4 \

\B - >2/2sin <^/
177
SHORT -CENTER BELT DRIVES

A
III
Inches
in
X
20
O'l
20'
10
Procedure:-
Connec+ on A-scale with 12 on B-scale

follow the ray on C-scale to Y-scale and connect
A on X"Sccile giving A = 4.5deq.
Connect point on Y-scale with (CI+D2)
on Z-scale giving (^+A) = 33deg.
0.15
to value of
y
IIIIIIII
NII
|
30
^T\y\
20
10
I
I
Angle AyAxx Degrees
Example:-d = 5in., D2= 8 in.^

A = (-lln.')or less than tin.,
B= 12 in., C= 50 in., and
D=30in.
0.4
10
20
Va^+b^
40
30
\
\
Angle f^+.4)
\^
|illlllTtl|IIIIIMII|lllll
in
II
Degrees
I
1:
loi
04
B
iiiii
30N,
40
50
20
20
I
10
30
I
ni
04
i__i
Inches
in
55
\r
^
(d + D2)in Inches
60
^1
40
50
III
20
30
I
II
178
CHART FOR CALCULATING NEEDLE BEARINGS

4,000 -
(T)
3,500 -
n^
irt
o
o
o
o o
o
o
o o
'^
o
o
o\ o o
o \o o
o
o
in
Revolutions per Minu+e
\
3,000 -
Safe load from needle bearings

6,000
W=
',
W=
load on bearing
number
effecfive roller lengfh in
= roller
in lb.
of rollers
diameter
in.
in in.
p.m.
r.
Nld
2,500 -
ao5
2,200 -
0.1
_L
2,000 -
1,500
I.I
02
-V
i\
16
32
d,
1,700
<
Diam.of
0.25
\32
03
32 4
16
Roller, vinches
\
\
\
\
\
1,300
\
\
1,200
Pivof Scale
1,000
si
900
V,
^^.
c?
700-
ID
600-
90
80
show a needle bearing with 25 rollers

af 2,240 r.p.m. will safely carry a load of
Index lines
_j
800
100
/
/
g'*-i
897
70
lb.
Load figures are based on contacting surfaces

hardened to Rockwell C-51 and accurate alignment
60
50
_l
5f
500
y^..
.^"
40
400 -
^-w--
350 -
30^
300 -
^)25.
25020
200 eo
58
59
170 -
54
53
52
57
56
55
Rockwell C Hardness Number
51
50
The curve shows that the bearing load Wof

8971b. ata bearing hardness of C-51, may be
Increased to 1.500 lb. at hardness of C-60
150 -
130 -
l-Length of
Cyli/ider
8/
7
_1
c^
2
1
I'n
In.
Dimension 1 shown
is the effective
length of the cylindrical portion
excluding rounded or projecting ends
17
- 15
12
10
179
THRUST BEARING FRICTION MOMENT DETERMINATIONS

750
-]-
1500
Chorf for obfoining friction
momenf Mf
for solid sfiaff

face Square wiih Hie
axis and fa/<ing a ifirusf load
p as given by me equafion
wifh
'00
1400
end
2Pf R
650
600
-|-
1300
f= CoefficlenloffricHon
R = Radius of shaft
R
P-
1200
550
500
--
450 --
400
350
c
01
300
250 --500
200
ISO --
100
50
For the rapid calculation of frictional resisting moments, a chart such as shown
by the illustration on this page for a solid shaft with end face square with the axis
may be constructed. In using this chart, it is merely necessary to connect the given
values of P and / as found on their respective scales by a straight Line. Where this
line, shown dotted in the chart, crosses the diagonal, join this point with the given
value of R as found on the scale, and extend to the left-hand scale where will be found
the desired friction moment.
known, the power
If
the friction
moment and
lost in friction can be calculated.
the speed of the shaft are
180

BEARING BRONZES GROUPED ACCORDING TO FIELDS OF USE
15
10
0)
181
182
SHAFT SEALS
grease lubrica-
groove
is
Fig. 305.
This design makes it
easy to replace the cork or felt
ring.
In some instances, the depth
of the counterbore is doubled and
two
Sometimes this type

used without sealing rings.
Fig. 303.
used
frequently, the effecti-veness of the
seal increasing with the number of
grooves, of which there should be
at least two.
tion, the half-round
is
and
Fig. 308.
309.
Labyrinth
only
felt ring is
depended upon
The tapered
to perfect the seal.

walls tend to press the
sealing ring against the shaft.
One method of applying

Fig. 306.
a simple leather seal.
rings are used.
Figs. 308
Usually
groove with a cork or
Fig. 309.
and groove
seals can
effectiveness.
be combined
Fig. 307.
A simple design of
labyrinth seal.
Centrifugal force
prevents the entrance of foreign
particles while grease or oil lubricant on the shaft is thrown outward, thus filling the labyrinth
opening.
for greater
Addition of a slinger
Fig. 310.
helps materially to prevent liquids
finding their way through the seal.
183
m
Standard lop endpiston rings. Bore]
\same as for standard piston bores
ând grooves 0.003"to0.006"wider
than rings
For slow speeds, two

mounted as shown can
be used. The set collar is sometimes counterbored and two small
Fig. 311.
Fig. 312.
The common labyrinth
Fig. 313.
Company
shaft seal.
cork rings
Left,
seal.
Chicago Rawhide
Right, Gits Brothers
Manufacturing Company seal. They

can be used for sealing in either direction, the spring maintaining pressure
between the leather and the shaft.
springs placed in the counterbore

with a covering washer that bears
against the sealing ring.
Fig. 314.
Cooke-type seal that embodies the patented principle of maintaining contact between the stationary
and moving
Fig. 316.
Fig. 315.
Anotlier application of the
Cooke seal. Metal bellows permit

tive movement.
rela-
surfaces.
An
effective
bearing
ball or
seal.
roller-
Fig. 317.
Illustrates the principle of the
water
seal.
184
ROLLER-BEARING SEALS
'Slinger
holes ensure
safuralion of
\t^Slinger closure
^ Oil
for excluding
wofer
fell
Oil grooves
Me /o/- seal ring
Fig. 319.
Fig. 318.
n ^^>/y//A
-
iSoff felf
I
seal
Fell musf make
Wire snap ring

holds seal in
place
good confacf
wifh shaff
Permanenf mefal
seal bears againsf
inner ring of roller
bearing
Fig. 321.
Fig. 320.
^-Slingers--^
Slinger
.f
Oil holes drilled
for safuralion
of
Feli
'
fell
Sfofionary mefal
ring seals
Mefal seals
felf
Fig. 323.
Fig. 322.
Labyrinffi siingers^
(
drilled fo
ensure safurafion of
musf be
accurafely machined
-.
'Felf
Fell
Annular
oil
grooves
Fig. 324.
Mefal sealing ring

Fig. 325.

'
Me-tal
sealing
185
S linger
ring
/Spring
/
washer
Leaiher
Meial sealing ring

Fig. 326.
Fig. 327.
Fig. 328.
Removable
closure Felf
Fell
Fig. 329.
Fig. 330.
Removable
Fig. 331.
Feli
re+ainer
Fell
-Leaiher
Mei'ol sealing rings
Fig. 332.
Me laI sealing rings
Fig. 333.
""Melal sealing ring
Fig. 334.
186
SLEEVE-BEARING SEALS
Leather
packings
Fig. 340.
Fig. 339.
Fig. 338.
For retaining lubricant, the seal is assembled with the flanged leather projecting toward the bearing.
Fig. 338.
The leather packing is clamped near the outer edge of the flange by the inner of two telescoping metal cups, a tight
Should
jomt at the face being thereby assured. A garter-type spring compresses the leather about the shaft.
misalignment occur, the seal is maintained by virtue of the flexibility of the leather and garter spring. To dram
small hole is drilled in the casting connecting the reservoir.
off the surplus oil passing the end of the bearing, a
Installation of double seal unit for retaining lubricant in bearing recess and for guarding against
Fig. 339.
except that two
entrance of foreign material. The seal is of the same general construction as shown in Fig. 338
flanged leathers are mounted opposed to each other.

Used for the same general purposes as the arrangement shown in Fig. 339. The seal has but one
Fig. 340.
The leather washer for dust exclusion shown at right has a beveled
garter spring for the oil-retention leather flange.
shaft.
the
contacts
lip which
Corker
lealher
iLeaiher
'
packing
Gorier ^l
spring
Feh
paclîng
Oil"'^
return
Oil- Seal
hole
Sometimes
the seal in place of leather shown

Both sealing
in Figs. 339 a,nd 340.
materials are retained by spinning
the outer casing over the leather
Where there is conFig. 342.

siderable difference in the diameters, the face of the shoulder thus
formed can be utilized as the sealsoft ring of cork or
ing surface.
leather is beveled at the outer
clamping cup.
surface
Fig.
Figs. JJ3 lo J4J inci

Courlesy of Lin i verso I
Oil refurn
hole
341.
used on the dust-exclusion
felt
is
side of
flat spiral
as sho%vn.
spring, coiled to a greater diameter
than the hole in the sealing mate-
expands the packing outward

against the beveled ring and wedges
it against the face of the shaft
shoulder.
rial,
Company
Working on the same

Fig. 343.
wedging principle as that shown in
Fig. 342, except that the packing
beveled on the inner surface and

retained by a sheet metal flange.
The cork or leather sealing material is compressed against the two
bearing surfaces by a garter spring
Seals shown here and
as shown.
in Fig. 342 are limited to approxi-
is
is
mately Yii
in.
end play.
Courtesy Gih Bros.
Courtesy Naiiona/
Motor Bearing
Manufacturing
Company^
Co.
Courtesy of the Chicago

fâwhide tânufacturingCo.
Inc.
When grease
is used as a
sometimes desirable to
assemble a single seal to keep dirt
from reaching the bearing rather than
Fig. 344.
Another type of seal
wherein a bronze ring bears against
the shoulder of the shaft. The sealing
material is in the form of a dia-
Fig. 345.
lubricant, it
phragm
of heat-resisting fabric which

retains oil in the bearing and excludes
retain the grease in the bearing.
In the flanged member that is

screwed to the housing is a series of
compression springs which hold the
ring
against the shaft shoulder.
These springs not only take up wear
but provide for end play of the shaft.
To avoid torsional strain on the diaphragm, guide pins are used between
the outer flange and spring bearing
washer.
wherein a right-hand spiral groove is

cut in the bearing bore to lead the
lubricant outward.
Surplus grease is
forced past the seal, thereby keeping
the bearing clean.
dirt.
illustration
is
shows
an
The
installation
Washe.
187
Fig. 346.
Leather flange seal
with garter spring mounted in a
flanged end plate.
Spring tension is such as to give small
area of contact between leather
and shaft, thereby minimizing
friction. A bronze thrust
washer is between the bearing
and the bearing housing.
Bushings
Washer
-Dust
seal
cup
Fig. 347.
The labj^rinth seal shown does not rely on nonmetallic
materials but on the small clearances with the assembly.
A steel washer contacting a bronze thrust washer is clamped against the shaft shoulder after the
formed dust seal cup is pressed into the counterbored hole.
Courtesy of the
Garlocd: tânufactur-
ing
Company
Fig. 348.
When oil seals are to be
installed after a mechanism has been assembled or to preclude the necessity of
disassembling heavy shafts and bearings
when making seal renewals, split seals
can be used in such installations. The
spreader spring and packing ring are
split, whereas the retaining cup is made
in two halves.
The packing is scarf-cut
to form an oiltight joint when assembled.
Fig. 349.
Another mounting of small worm-drive shaft for
domestic washing machine and domestic stoker. The composition
sealing material is held against the shaft by a V-formed spreader spring
having serrated edges which nest into the sealing ring. The angle of
the V in the spring is greater than the groove in the seal so that the
fingers of the spring exert a light pressure on the sealing lip.
An oil
return hole is drilled outside the bearing to relieve built-up pressure
against the seal.
188
SAFETY GEARS
25ieeih ^pHch
for roller chain
H
9 springs
64
outside diame+er
0.
Load=
2 spn'ngs
M"
outside diameter
109
1100
32
"diam. wire
lb.
per
Test = load 35 to 40
in.
lb.
0.040"diam. wire
travel per turn
on 20
in.
radius lever
Fig. 350.
Load = 26
lb.
per
in.
travel per turn^ for noise
Fig. 351.
10
6 springs
g2.
outside diam,
Load=
0.080"diam wire
Load= 259 lb per
in.
lb per
per turn
Test = load 60 to 65
lb. on 20 in. radius
lever
travel per turn
1,100
Test= load 56 lb
on 18 in. radius
ever
in. travel
Fig. 352.
springs
outside diam.
0.109 diam. wire
341-8 P
maker only
Test= load 25to281b.ona 57in. radius lever
Fig. 353.
POWER TRANSMISSION ED'EMENTS AND MECHANISMS
13
'springs
3l
32 outside diameter
springs
diameter
0.109 diam.wire
12
64 outside
0.092"d;am^w(re
Load = 814
Ib.per in. travel per turn

Test=load 50to60 Ib.on 20in. rod lever
Load
Test
1,100 lb.
per
in.
travel per turn
load 65 to 75 b.on 60 in. rod. lever
Fig. 354.
Fig. 355.
20 springs
3,,.
64 outside diameter
0.109" diam.wire
Load
1,1001b.
per
Test= load 65 to 70
in.
lb.
travel per turn
on 60
Fig. 356.
in.
radius lever
189
190
SHIFTING MECHANISMS FOR GEARS AND CLUTCHES

,
^W'
Shiff coflar
wiih -frunnions
Reclongular
bronze shoe
Eccentric-'^
crank /h- fh
fegrol on
shaft
Adjusioble
^Nuifor end play

odjusfmeni'
^3 nuf
for
assembly
Fig. 357.
Fig. 358.
Fig. 359.
Screw aoljusfs clearance

between clutch d/sks
[Shifting lever attached to this shaft
,^
ving
/H
r
.
f-*i I
Gear segment
[Shifting fork,
Driven
disk
Thrust bearing
Positioning nut
I
Over running
clutch drives d/sk
Rack teeth In hub engage

gear segment
Fig. 361.
Fig. 360.
<-Shaft
cutaway for clearance

/Shifting Fork
Gear
Shifting
Turned grooves
^position rods
rod^
Cffl^;>.
Fork
Screw fastens'
fork to shift rod
''Slot position
^Spring plunger
screw
Fig. 362.
'
Fig. 363.

Eccenirically
fumed
^^Bell
^-'Adiusfinq
nJf
shiffing collar
191
crank shifting fork

ShifHng
center
'SfeeUhoeCrecianqular)^'^^^^'
oHached fo fork 'by
inseriSd pins
^^^
'^'"^^^
^Driving
member
Fig. 364.
Fig. 365.
Operafing
f'Upper surface
of shiffing bar
has milled feelh
pinion
Shaff mo vable
longifudinally
Clufch releasing
fork engages
flange
Flange free
fo rofafe on
''
bushing
Sfafionary
shaff
'-Spacing
bushing
Fig. 366.
MounHng'
Fig. 367.
Rack
\r
^,-,
.'Pinion
Shiffing fork
screwed and
doweled fo
sliding rack
Shiffing
bar of
Iflafsfock
Clufch groove
'
Fig. 368.
^Pinion
Fig. 369.
192
Shifting shoe clamped

to shaft/
Sliding bar
^y Cûfcl^ siiifiing lever
fi
inio yofre
/Basiling force fified
/Bushing
seal for lever and

roci< serves as sec
rocl<
provides means for locking
J
Pivoi
Positioning
grooves
^Light-duty
gears
T^
JIT
<1
Fig. 374.
/Locking pawl
Pawldisen-
Spring -backed ball drops info

hemispherical siois io lock clutch
gaging levep
/Screwed
Fig. 370.
I
re fains shifling shoe)

allows slight roiafi'on of
shoe when gears are en-
, - -^Pln
'
gaged
Lever rocks -'
to
main costing
Gear housing
to
entire gear
case
Handle end
locks into
Bell
counterbored hole
''
crank
-Counter-
Pivot
bored
hole
Boll endedpin
engages
bellcrank
Fig. 375.
Slot
Fig. 371.
Clutch
member
Bearing
housing/
Lever which - - actuates locking

plunger
Lru-^^
'
Vh/ft
fork
Shift fork'
i bearing
A
-Locks
to clutch member
'/
j-
'
Trunnion
'Holds bearing housing

Fig. 372.
Locking plunger^
Solid yoke
Flange holds-,
yoke in place
Accomo
Shift,
1
rod
dates yoke
trunnions
^Shiff lever keyed

^Shifting shaft
Fig. 373.
to
rod
Fig. 376.
free
turn in bearings
193
Cluster
Clusfer^
Shlfi- handle
Fig. 378.
Fig. 377.
Posi-f-ioning phie
cr
~_r
Screw en-
y Hand /ever-.
Cam,
f'
f-j.
^^
wifh counier-
sunk spo-fs which engage spriYwbacked locking plunger
gages cam
Fo/rk
GecrshafI
Sere
Spring- backed
Section
Fork^
Drive
shafi
'
kn
^/
/
j.û
Dogc/ufch
x-x
KH
^t3
"s
locking plunger
Pins iimii amounf
of iravel of gears
Floaiing bevel gears
Fig. 380.
Fig. 379.
Fork swive led fo lever
\D pinned lo shafit
Spring-backed
[localing plunger
^ Levers shaped lo
keep Ihis distance
a minimum
Clusier
Lever F'
pinned +o
shafi E
Fig. 381.
194

,
Locking plunger
Handle
Pinion mounfed
rocker arm
and driven by D
^ on
engages clionge
gears
Rocker arm
Splined shaft
drives gears
Dandt
^^''Locking plunger
engages Ihese
nolches
-Locking plunger
I
engages Ihese
notches when
driving ofher
idler gears
Fig. 382.
Sec+ionX-X
Cam keyed
to shall B
Sec+ion Y-Y
Lever
same
mounied on
shall B as cam
'Dwell
'
Rolalion of cam moves

yokes to engage clusier gears
Fig. 383.
Circular rack enq
_,
fastened lo hollow's ha fI fo
which is allached shifling bar
Section
". "-^
Y-Y
Change gears separaled

by hardened ana ground
washers ^
T^
'Pivoi
33 - Hardened and
ground sliding
key
Section X"X
Fig. 384.

GIBS
AND GUIDES
Can be
shimmed
Zone- poinfed
i-
Screw ac/Jusfmeni'
\for gib
here
r screw adjusf\
merit
\
V/.
LT"
For light loads
Fig. 385.
'
S-tud fixed'
in gib
Fig. 393
^^
Fig. 386.
only
Fig. 387.
Fig. 388.
196
196
\
Dovei-oif gui'cfe in foble
Shims
Fig. 400.
Fig. 399.
[*- Table widih---^

\Guide
Angular -iapered
gib lakes up wear
Fig. 403.
Fig. 402.
Fig. 401.
Fig. 405.
Fig. 404.
Fig. 406.
ÂdjusHng screw
^s
-*!
/'
^^,^;;^ looseness of gib

prevents backing our loo far^
Section A-A
Fig. 407.
rAdJusling screw
Section B-B
Fig. 410.
Fig. 409.
Fig. 408.
Shims for
odjusfrneni'
Fig. 412.
Fig. 411.
B-'
Fig. 413.
Miiii^
^5g^
Section A-A
^Ôpposii-e fape red gibs ao/jusi gib
A'
Fig. 414.
Lr
,:T|Tn!*l^_4 -
197
198
CAM DESIGNS
Typical
Forms Used
in
Machine Design
Radial
Cam
with Roller
Follower
Yoke
Cam
Face
Cam
Radial
Cam
Heor+
Com
Sliding Contact
Toe and Wiper
with
Mushroom Follower
Conical Ca
Cam with Swinging

Follower
Cylindrical
Sptierical
End Cam
/*"?
:
Barrel
Cam
Plate
Cam
Dog Cam
Cam.
199
VARIABLE-SPEED DEVICES
Driven cone^
Device
^-Driving cone
power between fixed parallel

shafts.
Convex disks mounted freely on a rocker arm and pressing
firmly against the flanges of the shaft wlieels by a coiled spring
form the intermediate sheave. Speed ratio changed bj^ moving
Fig. 415.
for transmitting
rocker lever.
No reverse possible, but driven shaft may rotate
above or below driver speed. Convex disk must be mounted on
self-aligning bearings to ensure good contact at all positions.
Fig. 416.
at
These speed cones are moimted
any convenient distance apart and conbj' a belt, whose outside edges consist
nected
of an envelope of tough, flexible, wearresisting rubberized fabric built to withstand
the wear caused by the belt edge traveling

at a slightly different velocity from the part
of the cone in actual contact.
Speed ratio
changed by sliding the belt longitudinally.
Shaft
-Drivinq
belt
Driven cone
^Squeezed
belt
Fig. 417.
Two cones mounted close
together and making actual contact through
a squeezed belt.
Speed ratio is changed by
shifting the belt longitudinally.
Taper on
cones must be moderate in order to avoid

excessive wear on the sides of the belt.
Fig. 418.
Another device to avoid belt
"creep" and wear in speed-cone transmissions.
The inner bands are tapered on the
mside and present a flat or crowned surface
to the belts in all positions.
Speed ratio is
changed bj' moving the inner bands rather
than the main belts.
200
Universal Joinf^
Devices for avoiding belt wear when using speed cones. At left, creeping acting of belt is not entirely
Fig. 419.
eliminated, and universal joints present a problem of cost and maintenance. At right, a roller is substituted for the
belt, giving more compactness.
Oufpuf
shaft,
Rollers
/Driving
pulley
Driven^
f-
cone
"Rocker shaft
Fig. 420.
is
The
main component
a hollow cone driven by a conical
of this drive
roller.
Speed
changed by sliding driving unit in V guides.

Note that when the roller is brought to the center
of the hollow cone, the two run at identical speed
ratio
with the same characteristics as a cone clutch.

This feature makes the system attractive where
heavy torque at motor speed is required in combination with lower speeds for light preliminary
operations.
Fig. 421
In
this transmission, the cones are mounted
Une and supported by the same shaft. One cone is

keyed to the main shaft and the other is mounted on a
in
Power is transmitted by a series of rocking

and rollers. Pivoting rooking shafts and allowing
them to slide change the speed ratio.
sleeve.
shafts
201
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
X
iTranspoH
A^
Top
of
rail
Pafh of
tronsporf
X-ArHcles
moved
Counterweights ^v
Cenier of
cran/i
arm
Pafh of
Shaff
D--
franspori
'-Paih
'Shoff
In this design, a rotary action is used. The shafts Z) rotate in unison and also support the main
Fig. 422.
moving member. The shafts are carried in the frame of the machine and may be connected by either a link motion, a
chain and sprocket, or by an intermediate idler gear between two equal gears keyed on the shafts. The rail AA is
A pressure or friction plate may be used to hold the material against the top of the rail
fixed rigidly on the machine.
and prevent any movement during the period of rest.
/Tronsporf
Conneciing
linl<
Bearing
Swivel arm
Palh
X=
^~ Driven
of iransporf
Arficles
arm
'Palh of Iransporf
moved
Fig. 423.
Here is shown a simple form of link motion which imparts a somewhat egg-shaped motion to the
transport.
The forward stroke is almost a straight line. The transport is carried on the connecting links. As in
are
Bearings
design in Fig. 422, the shafts
are driven in unison and are supported in the frame of the machine.
also supported
by the frame
of the machine,
and the
rail
AA
is fixed.
The
details of operation
can be understood
readily from the figure.
A = Top of roil
Fric lion slide C
Transport'-'
Palhof-'
fronsporf
Lifling lever
Slops
FricHon
roil
Lifting lever
Driving arm-'
X = Articles moved
Fig. 424.
Another type of action. Here the forward and return strokes are accomplished by a suitable mechanism, whereas the raising and lowering is imparted by a friction slide. Thus it can be seen from a study of the figure
that as the transport supporting slide B starts to move to the left, the friction slide C, which rests on the friction
rail, tends to remain at rest.
As a result, the lifting lever starts to turn in a clockwise direction. This motion raises
the transport which remains in its raised position against stops until the return stroke starts at which time the reverse
action begins.
An adjustment should be provided for the amount of friction between the slide and its rail. It can
readily be seen that this motion imparts a long straight path to the transport.
202
Transport
-A=.
Top
Pafhof
of
rail
transport
Eccentric
Imk
Shaft F
Shaft ETie
Fig. 425.
and lowering
Here
rod '
Cam arm
an action such that the forward motion is imparted by an eccentric while the raising
accomplished by means of a cam. The shafts F, E, and D are located by the frame
Special bellcranks support the transport and are interconnected by means of a tie rod.
is
illustrated
of the transport
of the machine.
is
Path of
^y
Transport
Top of rail -^
'
X=Arficles
transport
Fig. 426.
This
X = A rti'c les moved
is
moved
The bearings C are supported
another form of transport mechanism wherein a link motion is used.

by the frame, as is the driving shaft D.
/Transport
Eccentric
Transport
^?fL
arms -/-/-T
-Path of
Cam -
transport
X= Articles
moved
X= Articles moved
Fig. 427.
'" 'êar B
An arrangement
'
'Path of
transport
of interconnected gears
which will impart a transport

motion to a mechanism, the gear and link mechanism
imparting both the forward motion and the raising
and lowering. The gear shafts are supported in the
frame of the machine.
of equal diameters
^-Shaft C-''
Fig. 428.
In this transport mechanism the forward
and return strokes are accomplished by the eccentric
arms, while the vertical motion is performed by the
cams.
203
AUTOMATIC FEED HOPPERS

Roiafing
arms
^^ Refaining
finger
Roiafing
arms
Kicker
heel\
Chufe
slide
surface
^Hopper
Fig. 429.
The rotating arms of the nut hopper
push the nut blanks up the inohne into the chute.
The retaining finger holds several nuts and prevents
them from sliding back into the hopper.
Same type hopper and rotating arms as in

but a different chute, designed to feed bolts.
Kicker wheel at the mouth of the chute kicks back into
the hopper the bolts that do not enter the chute properly.
Fig. 430.
Fig. 429,
Tube conveyor
Hopper
Hopper
used for feeding

into a tube conveyer.
A reciprocating plunger picks up the
work at the lower end of the stroke and
deposits it in snap fingers at the end of
Fig.
431.
shell-like pieces
Fig. 432.
The hopper
is
sides ^
adjustable for feeding various lengths
and diameters of plain round stock, the pieces falling into the chute
by gravity. The agitator finger at either end of the work prevents
bridging or wedging of blanks over the chute opening.
the conveyer tube.

.-'In cenfer af iiopper -
Chufe slide surface
Oscillafing orrri-
FiG. 433.
An oscillating arm carries the blade through the center of the bolt hopper and at the top of its stroke
forms a continuation of the bolt chute. Sides of the hopper are inclined toward the center to feed bolts into the blade
at a low position in the hopper.
One blade is used for each diameter of stock handled, tapered spacers in hopper being
adjustable to accommodate varying widths of blade.
204
Guard.
Tilting hopper for small rivets and

Fig. 434.
screws, in which the work falls into a slot at the bottom center of the hopper, which is tilted to the same
angle as the chute.
Rotating hopper set at angle is slotted

Fig. 435.
at the lower face to feed into the chute small cupshaped objects, as shown at A, positioning them with
Should cups enter chute open-end
their open end up.
down, they will drop through selector slot in the chute;
thus only those correctly positioned are allowed to
proceed to the assembly point.
Chufe,
AcJ/'usfing
screws
Adjusting screws
Vertical rotating disk hopper for feeding

Fig. 436.
shouldered pieces to the chute. By adjusting the
hardened dog-point screws, it is possible to feed pieces
with a difference of only 0.010 in. on the diameter.
Hopper
Prongs
Fig. 437.
Another type of vertical rotating disk
hopper for feeding hollow cylindrical pieces having a
blind hole.
Prongs are mQled on the periphery of the
disk; these prevent work from being fed open end up
into the chute.
205
GLUE-APPLYING MECHANISMS
Direct glue dabbers such as this

Fig. 438.
are inexpensive and simple, but can be used
only when it is permissible for the quantity of
glue to be applied to vary and when the applicaThe
tion is to be made in strips or dots.
applicator, of any desired shapes, is held on the
end of a bent rod, all parts that immerse in
the glue being so shaped as to drain freely and
not to splash when entering the glue. A collar
on the rod serves as a stop to enable quick
resetting after its removal for cleaning, whereas
the linkage holding the applicator permits
adjustment over a wide range of positions.

The glue pot can be removed freely and usually
requires no securing device other than means to
prevent it from shifting.
In designing these mechanisms, the device
must allow only a minimum
of variation in the
consistency of the glue at the point of application.
Therefore the glue pot must be amply
large so that evaporation of the solvent will
Even
affect the glue consistency but slightly.
in transferring the glue, it should be exposed as
little as possible to the atmosphere.
In the
device shown here, its directness of application
and the simplicity of the parts in contact with
the glue give it a high rating for continuous
good performance.
Example of an indirect type of

Fig. 439.
gluing mechanism, similar in design to the
direct type except for the addition of the transThis makes it possible to apply
fer member.
glue to top surfaces and also to control in a
certain measure the thickness of the layer of
This mechanism is also of the
glue applied.
type that applies strips or dots rather than
films.
In all these designs, simplicity is of
greatest importance in order that the device
will be easy to keep clean, lubricated, and
adjusted.
With reference to all types of gluing mechanisms, the practice of exposing the glue to the
atmosphere after it has been applied and before
the closing or uniting operation, in order to
partly evaporate the solvent and thus make the
Such a
glue more tacky, must be avoided.
practice usually is a serious source of troubles
as many variable factors such as time, temperature, and atmospheric conditions enter in
and will seriously affect the efficiency of the
machine unless compensation can be made for
the variation in these factors and the time
element can be maintained constant by uninterrupted operation of the machine.
206
\)i)j))///)/iii/i>>>> 1 >>'"''/' />/]
Film applicators are used much more extensively than those applying dabs, because they permit the
Fig. 440.
A direct-acting type of this class of device is shown
application of a uniform film of glue of any selected thickness.
here.
The material receiving the appUcation runs in contact with the wheel that dips in the glue, the application
being made to the under surface. Best results are obtained when the wheel runs at the same surface speed as the
In this class of glue applicators, greatest attention must be given to the design of the trimmer
material passing over it.
blade.
This blade must be adjustable, but it should be so constructed that in making the adjustment the blade will
keep
its
proper relation to the wheel.
In the indirect types of film applicator, a

Fig. 441.
transfer wheel receives glue from the main wheel and transfers
The clearance between the
it to the point of application.
transfer wheel and the main wheel is usually made adjustable.
On machines that must be stopped frequently, the drive to the
glue wheels should be independent of the drive for the main
machine so that the glue wheels can be kept revolving when
the machine is stopped, thus preventing the glue from drying
o\\
the surface of the wheels.
Fig. 442.
In this design of direct applicator,
the film of glue is applied to the upper surface
To keep the exact relation
of the sheet.
between the trimmer blade and wheel, there
must be a complete elimination of lost motion.
If a means for locking the trimmer blade in
position is provided, it should be so designed
that the act of locking will not disturb the setting.
It should also be possible to remove the
parts for cleaning without disturbing the setting.
The drive of the glue wheel should be
A belt
positive to ensure the proper speed.
drive is not to be recommended.
.
A type of gumming mechanism that is much in use in sheet-mounting machines and gumming
This type is easily cleaned and adjusted. When the rollers are long, consideration should be given to the
This deflection will result in
deflection in the center of the rollers due to the pressure exerted in squeezing out glue.
a thicker fiilm of glue in the center of the rollers than at the ends. This is usually compensated for by making the
glue roller larger in diameter in the center than at the ends. The device has no trimmer blade, but thickness of glue
Fig. 443.
machines.
film
is
regulated
by adjusting the gap between the
rollers.
CHAPTER
DRIVES
VII
AND CONTROLS
Page
Page
Significance of
WR^
208
211
Motor Load
of Motor Tjrpe
Analysis of
Selection
Form
214
Motors
218
Winding Connection Diagrams for Multi220
speed Motors
Inquiry
for Electric
'.
Electric Control
Methods
Operated Valves
Automatic Timers
Trigger Switch Mountings
Thermostatic Mechanisms
Automatic Stops
Electrically
207
224
231
234
237
242
248
208
SIGNIFICANCE OF WR^
In Drives for Machinery
Any moving body
has stored in
it
kinetic energy, the
portional to the mass of the body and to the square of

speed of a body is changed, the amount of kinetic energy
magnitude of which
is
pro-
its velocity.
Whenever the
increased,
and the increase
is
must be supplied from a source within the system. If the speed is decreased,
the kinetic energy of the body is decreased, and the energy lost must be absorbed by
some other part of the system.
moving with a hnear velocity V ft. per sec, the kinetic
In a body of mass
in energy
energy
in foot-pounds is
E = ImV' = 1(^j)v'
where
is
the weight of the body, in
lb.,
and
(35)
g is the acceleration of gravity, in
ft.
per sec. per sec.
mass as actually distributed is the same as an equivalent mass concentrated at a point distant from the
axis of rotation equal to the radius of gyration R of the body, the equivalent mass havThe kinetic energy E in foot-pounds then becomes
ing the same speed of rotation N.
In a body rotating at
Note that the term WR^
r.p.m., the kinetic energy of the
a physical term applying to a specific body; the term

of the body and a radius of gyration R which is determined by
involves the weight
the shape and dimensions of the body. The kinetic energy stored in a rotating body,
is
therefore,
is
proportional to
its
WR- and
to the square of
A'',
its
rotational speed.
Since Eq. (36) represents the kinetic energy stored in the body after speed A'' is
attained, this equation also represents the energy that must be suppUed from some
In mechanical-drive problems,
source, to accelerate the body from rest to A^ r.p.m.
however, energy as such is of little interest; the major concern deals with the torque
required to produce the acceleration.
It can be easily demonstrated that the torque
in pound-feet required to accelerate a
sec. is
- -
body from
rest to a
speed of
r.p.m. in
<-)
obvious that the term WR^ is also an important factor in

determining the torque required to produce a given acceleration.
By making use of the familiar equation
From Eq.
(37), it is
^P =
and Eq.
(37), it is
torque
/cs
^^^^
5,250
simple to determine the horsepower
required to accelerate uni-
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

formly the body from rest to a speed
"
r.p.m. in
A'^
sec,
209
by using an average speed N/2
TxN/2
(^9^)
5,250
WR'N'
10,500
WR'N'
3,234 X 10' X
308i
In mechanical systems with a number of rotating parts, the energy E^ stored in

is the sum of the energies stored in each part, or
the moving system
^'
W:R\N\ + W,R\N\ + W,RhNh +
+ W,.R\N\
,,.
(^^)
5;873
In power-drive and motor-application problems, it is advantageous to express

the energy Es in the system in terms of an " equivalent WR"^," which will be designated
here as W^R^s, at the drive or motor shaft having a speed of Nd, such that
E. =
By combining
WM\
= W^R\
Eqs. (40) and (41),
(^y +
W R^ N-^
1!^'
(41)
be seen that
it will
W,RS (^^y + W^R\ {^^y +
Wr^RJ (^)'
(42)
The torque
speed in
T^ necessary to accelerate uniformly a system at rest to a required

can be obtained by substituting WsR'\ for WR^, and Nd for A^" in Eq. (37),
sec.
which then becomes
WsR'sNd
(43)
dOSt
The horsepower H^
required to accelerate the system from the drive shaft at rest
to a speed of
Nd r.p.m.
in Eq. (39),
which then becomes
in
sec.
can be determined by substituting WsR^sN^d for
W R^ AT^
^
from Eq. (39a) by substituting
(43) which then becomes
or
jj
3,234
A''^
for
10^
N, and
iVd
Nd
VV
5-tVd y
_ WsR'sNd
s-t^
308t
WR'N^
5,250
for
^
^
2
T the
value of T, as given by Eq.
*y
WM'N'd
d
3,234 X 10^ X
s-tl-
-tV
Sometimes complex systems are encountered involving both

motion. The equivalent WR- of the linearly moving parts can
/j^rN
^
linear
also
and rotating
be reduced to
the motor-shaft speed by the equation
"Equivalent
WR'" =
Tf
(p^^Y
\ZTrI\
(46)
d'
where
'N d
=
=
Y =
weight of the body

r.p.m. of the drive or
motor shaft
velocity, in feet per
min
210
This equation can be used only where the linear speed bears a continuous fixed
A more complex equation
relation to the rotating speed, as a rack driven by a gear.
is necessary for systems involving reciprocating hnear motion obtained by a crank
arm.
method, it is possible to reduce the WR^ of the individual parts of a comThese values of
plex system to an equivalent WR- at the drive or motor shaft speed.
equivalent WR^ may be added directly, and the total equivalent WR^ plus the WR^ of
the driving unit or the motor represents the WR^ of the complete system which the
motor must accelerate or decelerate. All further calculations may be made as though
the system were a simple one of one element of WR' equal to the total equivalent WR-.
To simplify the calculation of the radius of gyration of various mechanical structures, see the tables on pages 17 and 19 to 25.
By
this
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

ANALYSIS OF
211
MOTOR LOAD FOR TORQUE REQUIREMENTS
Starting Torque
Rg
rs
and Time Required
to Start the
Machine
Condition at stoirHng
= Scarfing
A^'S of
torque of
motor
"^^r
.
shaft
^*^r^-m-
P
in.ff:
>:
P
in lbs.
Pp =(/-/o/d/ng torque ofsfatic/oad

on driven macf>.)^ (holding fricfional
To start
torque of machine parts)

mach. Rsrs must be greater than
Pp
fhe excess being available for accelerating

the machine
To
motor torque must overcome all frictional resistances of

bearings, sliding parts, and transmission elements, and also the resistance of any connected load. Where the load is not imposed until the machine has come up to working
However, machines such as compressors, piston
speed, the load resistance is zero.
pumps, and hoists without unloading devices may be required to start under full load.
With machines of these types, the resistance should be determined for the point of
maximum starting torque in the machine cycle.
The motor torque delivered in excess of that required to overcome running friction at start plus starting load on the machine is used in bringing the machine up
start a machine, the
to speed.
Accelerating Torque and
Time Required
to
Bring Machine
Condition when
accelerating
Up
to
Speed
-Linear
acceler-
ation per
sec.
Torque to overcome
frictional forces
Pad. ofaeration
ofmacn. parts
Equivalent mass of ro-
Axis of4.
tating driven mach. parts
motor'
shaft
'
.---Torque to accel-
1^
load on
machine
> erate
Rg r^ = Accelerating torque delivered by motor

To accelerate mach. Rq fc must be greater than
algebraic sum of combined torques resisting
acceleration in machine
The amount
needed to accelerate the machine and the rate at which it

should be dehvered by the motor mil depend upon the moments of inertia of the
masses contained in the moving parts and their radii of gyration about or -Rath reference to the motor axis. Flywheel members added to make the load on the motor
uniform increase the WW- of the machine and, consequently, increase the accelerating
torque which must be dehvered by the motor.
(For a discussion of these factors, see
page 208.) Other factors that determine the torque needed are loads on machine
that must be accelerated before full speed is attained. The time allowed for acceleration is an important factor in determining the heat developed in the motor windings.
of torque
212
Running Torque over Time Interval Required by Local Cycles on Machine

Condition
when running
Axis of mofor shaft
Running
forque fo
\ldo work
\\
a flood
t.
Running forque
fomatce
up for fricfional and in

herenfmacfi. losses
Rp
ff =
Running torque of motor

R,- r,. must be greater
To keep mach. running
than algebraic sum of combined resisting

running torques in mach. Limiting value of
Rf r^ h motor pull-out torque
When
operating at rated speed, the torque supplied by the motor
do useful work and to make up
is
that required
machine losses.
In calculating the running torque required to keep the machine operating, it is
desirable to add something on the safe side to take care of unexpected loads and circuit
It is poor practice to plan to use the excess torque that a motor can deliver
variations.
over its nominal rating, because such overloads cause a rise in winding temperature
with consequent depreciation in insulation properties and shortening of motor hfe.
to
Work Load
Clufch /ever -
Mofor
-n
for frictional
and
inlierent
Applied After Motor Is Running
Counfershaff
drive for
machine ^
Time
With a disengaged
clutch or unloading device between motor
conditions at starting favor the motor since
speed against
it is
then free to start
and machine, the

and to come up to
little resistance.
engaged, the machine load imposed on the running motor may be

if the clutch is of the jaw or the magnetic types, or
the load may be apphed to the running motor gradually over a short time range if the
clutch is of the frictional or the spring-separated plate type that permits shpping.
When
clutch
is
applied almost instantaneously
However, the abOity of the running motor to start and accelerate the driven
machine when the clutch is engaged is limited by the torque- value at which the motor
will stall, usually called the break-down or pull-out torque.
If applying the machine load slows the motor, an accelerating torque will be
required of the motor to bring the machine up to the desired speed. Thereafter, the
machine load will determine the running torque required of motor.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Work Load
Fan
Moior^
Applied as Motor Speed Increases
*\
213
214
SELECTION OF
MOTOR TYPE
Following the analysis of torque requirements and duty cycle of the driven
machine, the next step in the selection of the motor is a matcliing of the torque characteristics of the load with torques that the various types of motors can be expected to
when starting, accelerating, and running.

The torques that mbtors can dehver are dependent upon the type
deliver
of windings
and
the scheme of connections employed in the particular motor; the nature, uniformity,
and magnitude of the voltage at the motor terminals; the capacity of the feed hues;
and the physical conditions surrounding the motor.

Motors are designed primarily to dehver torque at
voltages.
Electrical current
is
specified speeds at definite
supplied commercially as either a direct,
an alternating potential
i.e.,
unidirec-
which the voltage alternates in

Wlien the electrical service is
alternating, a motor must be selected not only to suit the magnitude of the voltage
as with direct current, but also to suit the frequency and the number of phases of
tional potential, or as
in
direction at definite frequencies or cycles per second.
current.
Although the frequency of alternating current as furnished by power companies

is so nearly constant that variations in frequencies can be considered neghgible the
same is not true of voltage. Voltages do vary considerably especially at the end of a
transmission
line.
Variations in voltage are very important considerations in motor performance

because the effective torque output of any motor will vary as the square of the change
Therefore, hne voltages at the motor terminals should be known,
in applied voltage.
and if a variation from rated motor voltage does exist the rated torque should be
interpolated accordingly.
Feed-line capacity should be large enough to take care of the high inrush of cur-
mthout reducing the voltage and thus lowering the effective starting
The motor even though starting under subnormal voltage may be able to
break the static load but have difficultj^ in accelerating the load up to speed; thus
rent at starting
torque.
attendant high current, which tends to

cook the windings and in some types of motors to blow the condenser or burn the
the accelerating time
is
lengthened,
^îth
commutator.
Effect of Physical Conditions.
Extreme heat surrounding the motor,
i.e.,
high
and
copper in the motor and thus limits the power output of the motor. Insulation wUl
be affected and the life of the motor reduced'if the temperature of the motor windings
rises beyond safe hmits.
Extreme cold around the motor and driven machine may cause the lubricating
mediums to stiffen or harden. Stiff oU in the bearings, pistons, and packings of a
machine will cause hard starting.
Extreme dampness, moisture, or corrosive acid fumes reduces the effectiveness of
ambient temperatures, increases the operating temperature of the active iron
the insulation resulting in current leakage or actual puncture of the insulation.

Special insulations are available for
abnormal conditions.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Dirt, either falling or suspended in the atmosphere,
not get into the motor
if
215
and dripping water should
these elements are present, an inclosed type of motor should
be used.
DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS
nju(>
Series wound
D.C motor
(Wi l
Sr^ /
Shunt wound^
D.C. motor
216
Repulsion-start induction-run motors develop a continuous rotating effect on
the rotor because of induced currents in the rotor made continuously effective bycommutation to produce torque during the starting period.
Repulsion-start induction-run motors have high starting and accelerating torques
motor with squirrel-cage rotor, or

These motors at starting are repulsion motors,
its equivalent, are very efficient.
but on reaching a predetermined speed expanding governor weights push a device
under the commutator which short circuits the commutator bars through a common
ring; the same movement releases tension on the brushes with the result that the
armature is short-circuited and is the equivalent of a squirrel-cage rotor in a poly-
and when running
Self starting,
single-phase moTor,
with phase coil cutout
as a single-phase induction
Repulsion start
and
run, single-phase motor
Phase
Capacitor start,
induction run,
single- phase motor
o
o
O
Repulsion start,
induction run,
single-phase motor
j-,
o"o"OTroirv-i
-^
~:^
Capacitor start,
capacitor run,
single-phase
3
Oq
-Ô
motorg
Phase dsdz
,^s^-3x
/
V>
|V::
"Jj
-/
O
Fig. 445.
Wiring diagrams
of
winding schemes and starting devices used

horsepower motors.
in typical alternating-current fractional
phase induction motor. When the motor stops, the governor and mechanism return
automatically to their original starting positions.
Repulsion-start induction-run type motors are suited for loads requiring high
Repulsion-start induction-run type motors are
starting and accelerating torques.
furnished only for single speed apphcations.
The spht-phase
motor develops
magnetic rotating effect b}'

spUtting the magnetic field of the stator mnding into two separate windings displaced
One winding is a starting or
in space and having different electrical characteristics.
phase winding, and the other is the main or running winding. When the motor starts,
both windings are on the line. After accelerating up to a predetermined speed, a
governor attached to the rotor acts to open a smtch and cuts out the starting winding.
The motor then continues to operate on the running winding as a single-phase inducstart induction
its
tion motor.
Split-phase motors can be designed with high starting torque but only
by using
They are purposely designed with low starting

relatively high starting current.
torque so that the current and consequently the heating in the starting winding will
be limited.
Equipment driven with spht-phase motors should be easy to start. The inertia
of the load should be small so that the motor can accelerate rapidly to avoid "cooking" the starting winding. Feed mres should have capacity great enough to carry
the high starting current without reducing the voltage at the motor terminals with
consequent reduction of the motor torque.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
217
Capacitor motors are basically split-phase motors using split magnetic fields in
Improved starting characteristics are obtained by using a capacitor or
condenser in connection with the starting winding. The electrical effect of the condenser increases the angle of the magnetic action to about 90 deg. between the two
windings, approaching a true two-phase effect.
Capacitor-start and induction-run motors employ a centrifugal governor switch
which cuts out both the starting winding and the condenser at a predetermined speed
starting.
after
which the motor operates as a straight single-phase squirrel-cage induction-
type motor.
Capacitor-start induction-run motors wiU dehver starting torques that
are
approximately three and one-half to four and one-half times their full load torque
with locked rotor currents approximately one and three-fourth times repulsion-start
induction-run motor currents. Their operating characteristics when running are
very similar to those of the repulsion start induction run type of motors.
Capacitor-start capacitor-run motors use a capacitor and also a transformer.
The transformer acts to impress a high voltage on the capacitor for starting. Starting torque
is
ing current
three and one-half to four and one-half times full load torque, and start-
is
same
of the
relative order as the capacitor-start induction-run type of
motor.
Capacitor motors can be obtained for both single- and multispeed applications.
Fractional horsepower squirrel-cage induction polyphase motors have a field
made up of polyphase windings and a squirrel-cage rotor made up of conductor bars.
The
starting torque
is
about two and one-half to three times the
full
load torque.
Squirrel-cage induction motors hke direct-current motors wUl usually pull
any load they can
start, i.e.,
the
up
maximum pull-up torque is about equal to the starting
torque, and the rating of the motor should be selected to suit the greater torque as
required
by the
load.
218
FORM FOR ELECTRIC MOTORS
INQUIRY
1.
Name
2.
Field of use
3.
Estimated quantity,
first year
4.
of
machine to be driveninitial
order
(e)
Power supply:
(/)
(a)
Direct current
(6)
Alternating
_volts.
Will power supply vary?
Motor speed and
8.
_volts
Allowable variation
clockwise
9.
(b)
Give
(c)
(d)
Adjustable speed motor, speed range

10.
Running load requirements and

Load determined by test
tained from present practice
conditions.
(6)
Continuous load
or
(6)
length of time at
(2)
min.
idle running
lb
min., time at
gases
torque
grit
oil
vapor
salt
air
corrosive
explosive
other con-
tamination
in.
(5)
Maximum
temperature of cooling
air
deg. F.
(1)
magnitude
(2)
duration of overloads
frequency of occurrence-
of overloads-
_hp.
12.
_mm.
Bearings and lubrication:

(a) Manufacturer's standard(b)
Motor
to be lubricated at intervals of
Reversing service
min
(2)
time intervals on
min.
(3)
inertia of load
(c)
End
Torque, starting
play restricted
thrust loads
present
i.,off
(d)
Type
(1)
of bearing preferred
Sleeve: lubricated
by
oil
ring
waste
Starting load:
(a)
gas
min.
(1) reversals per,
7.
provisions)
Condition of ventilating air:

of
dust
(a) Presence
steam
moisture
Fluctuating load
(3)
(d)
show ventilation
11.
load
maximum momentary
in-
totally inclosed
rest
(3)
(c)
full
in-
(Give dimensioned sketch of housing and
hp.
(1)
Within machine or housing, partly

closed
hp.
Intermittent load
give following data for each speed)

(a)
below
Foot mounting at end
above
flange mountSpecial (show by sketch)
ingResilient mounting
Is mounting position of the motor
changeable ?
door
(For multispeed motor
estimated
of
Motor housing:
(a) Motor exposure outdoor
ob-
horizontal
length
Motor mounting:
reversible
a multispeed motor required?
maximum
to
oblique
to
6.
Restricted
in.
per cent of
counter clockwise
(e)
of coupling
direct drive-
(a) Vertical
speeds
belt
Type
chain_
I'.p.m.
Direction of rotation, from end opposite

extension,
r.p.m.
gear
Space available for motor

(a) Restricted to a maximum diameter of
(6)
full-load speed
(d) Is
direct
in.
direction of rotation:
Full-load running speed
shaft
Drive:
if
cj^cles
Universal motor_
(c)
the inertia of the load including
wheel ?
Speed of driven element
current
(c)
(b)
is
volts
(d)
(a)
What
couplings, pulleys, gear drives, or fly-
phase,
5.
(d)
-,
accelerating
(2)
lubricated
Ball:
by
oil
or
grease
motor started under load?-
(b)
Is
(c)
without load?
Type of unloading device
or
13.
Shaft extension: single.

_;
.;
if
vertical,
straight
or both ends
up
or tapered
or
down
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

(a)
Diameter
(b)
Pulley fastened by
in.,
length
(b)
in.
setscrew
Key way dimensions standard

:
special,
length
(d)
Can
width
in.
depth
or
in.
16.
in
the design be
made
for standard
shaft dimensions?
14.
Weight limitations
15.
Electrical control:
(a)
Hand
mote_
if
switch used
(c)
Is limit
(d)
Are brakes used
Electrical leads:
(a)
Manufacturer's standard
(b)
Special leads:
(c)
Attachment cord: length.
number
length-
plug
any
17.
Motor protected against overloadunder voltage
key
(c)
219
automatic
re-
Give special requirements such as special

insurance regulations, dynamically balanced,
rotor, quietness of operation, etc.
220
WINDING CONNECTION DIAGRAMS FOR MULTISPEED MOTORS

MULTISPEED MOTORS, CONSTANT HORSEPOWER, KEY DIAGRAMS
Single winding,
N.E.M.A. MG.
Speed
Low.
High.
two speed
6-41, Fig. 8, 1930
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

TWO WINDING, THREE
N.E.M.A.
SPEED, THREE PHASE, CONSTANT
Bui. 110, p, 612, 1926
Speed
HORSEPOWER
A.S.A. C-6 3.725, 1938

Ti
T,;
221
T,,
222
MULTISPEED MOTORS, CONSTANT TORQUE, KEY DIAGRAMS
Single winding, two speed
N.E.M.A.
Speed
MG
6-41, Fig. 7, 1930
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
223
MULTISPEED MOTORS, VARIABLE TORQUE, KEY DIAGRAMS

T4
T4
Single winding,
N.E.M.A.
MG
two speed
Single winding,
6-41, Fig. 4, 1930
Speed
Speed
Low.
Ti, Ti,
High.
Ti, Ti,
Ti open
Tz together
T.
Two
winding, three speed

6-41, Fig. 4, 1930
N.E.M.A.
Speed
Low*.
Second t
High*...
MG
il
two speed
A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938
L;
Low.
Ti, Ts, Tc
High.
Ti, Tn,
open
Tz together
224

ELECTRIC CONTROL METHODS
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Capstan
L| 1-2
225
Lj
Genera for
Capstan
motor
-F/yer motor
Capsfan Speed
A wire-insulating machine requires a constant speed ratio between capstan motor

Fig. 448.
and flyer for starting and running. The capstan motor drives a frequency changer or transmitter
The speed ratio between flyer and
electrically connected to the synchronous motor of the flyer.
capstan is constant at all times.
Cutting
tool
_..
^
Works
--
Platen
y//////////w/y///y/yyyy//y/^wyyy/yyyyy'
'-Limit switches'-'
226
Siop /im/fswi^hi
S-f-arf
Speed-
"'-Reversing limH' swiiches''

Fig. 451.
Siop
When milling work having a gap between
machined surfaces, production is increased by rapid

traverse between machining positions. Jump feed
control is accomplished by means of adjustable limit
switches, multispeed motors, and suitable magnetic
controls.
Final posiHon swiich
Slow- down swifch
T
PosiHon
.5
Reverse limif swiich'
Accurate positioning of reversing and stop

Fig. 452.
limits is necessary on tapping machines especially when
tapping blind holes. Special alternating-current reversing motors for tapping service permit as many as 60
The use of two- or four-speed motors
reversals per min.
reduces the number of gear changes required. Accurate
limit switches, quick-acting contactors, and high torque
motors are used. A plug stop is used for braking at the
"out" position.
T Rapid
traverse
.J
-Slow speed
Fig. 453.
Accurate location of boring tools for indexing
requires extremely slow speed of work table to prevent overdirect-current motor and
travel when stop limit is reached.
control is used; heavy armature series resistance and armature
parallel resistance provide for creep speeds for final positioning.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

E= Voltage
av= Average
RecHfier-^
R.M.5= /?ooj'
51
Load
I
o
o
o
o
AC.
supply
227
mean square
Eav = 0.450 E RMS
CA)
'iRecti'fiers
|4'
-l
Load
-RMJ
/\
fB)
0.450 Ek
/\
\j \J \j \J
Eav=0.9ERMS
Single-phase
{A) Halfrectifier circuits generally used.

used in radio, also in industrial equipment such as
(B)
vibrating machinery or electric razors, requiring reciprocating motion.
(C)
Full-wave rectifier circuit used in radio work and magnetic chucks.
Full-wave rectifier circuit used in industrial applications to obtain directFig. 454.
wave
rectifier circuit
current from alternating-current source.
Load
Load
Fig. 455.
Other
rectifier circuits.
{A) Single-phase voltage-doubler rectifier
to obtain higher than line voltage without transformer.

(B) A three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit, one type of rectifier used to obtain
a large amount of direct-current power for power circuit.
circuit
used
in radio
work
228
^-~ Pushbuffon
PushbuHon ~^
for
1
.1
AX.
Fig. 456.
the use of a
Illustrating the use of rectifiers in conjunction with
rectifier in
magnetic control equipment on relays.
Through
conjunction with direct-current relay, multiple control can be obtained over a single-control
circuit.
^--J
Showing the use of a pulsating direct current on a vibrating machine. In most instances, frequency of
Fig. 457.
pulsations is important and on hammer shown 25-cycle alternating current is used with a single-wave rectifier.
Pump
Time
motor
delay
Wheel
motor
control
relay
control
Start-s+op
pushbuttons
Grinding wheet
driven by motor
Pump
motor
-A^
^'^^{[^Pump
Large grinders use pumps driven by separate motors. Pump motor need not be in operation when
Fig. 458.
grinding wheel is not running, but it is sometimes desirable to allow wheel motor to coast to rest before shutting down
pump motor. This can be done electricallj' by means of time delay relay to permit pump motor to operate for predetermined time after wheel motor is shut down. For the starting sequence, an arrangement similar to that in Fig.
462 may be used.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Reversing
coni roller
Mofor,
229
230
TABLE FOR SEQUENCE

OF OPERATIONS
Press start button
Pump motor starter
Pressure switch closes
closes
Pressure
switch
4 Spindle motor starter closes

Press feed start button
5
6
Feed motor starter closes
Stop button stops
Feed stop stops feed motor
all
motors
Spindle
moior
starter
Sfop
Feed
buri-on
stop
motor
Feed
starter
Feed
start
Feed
motor
Fig. 462.
Electrical interlocking or sequencing of motors for large milling machine ensures that coolant pump
motor is running and pressure obtained before spindle motor starts and that spindle motor is running before feed motor
can be started. A master "stop" button dominates all controls.
Limit switch
No. I -
Limit switct?
No. 2
Fig. 463.
Combination mechanical and electrical torque or load limiting device for control of motor-operated
valves, chucks, and clamps.
When load becomes sufficiently high to stall wormwheel, the worm sliding on a splined
shaft moves axially, similarly to a screw threading through a nut.
This movement compresses a calibrated torque
spring and opens a limit switch, thereby shutting oif the motor.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
231
ELECTRICALLY OPERATED VALVES

-o/ o-
Power
lines
Floal,
Corrfrol swiVch
C
Supply
Fig.
464.
Straight-way
monly connected
swilch
Power
lines
Tank
supply
Ex.hausi
solenoid valve as eoin-
for simple fluid control.
Control
switch energizes solenoid, opening valve, and permitting flow to begin.
Fig. 465.
Tank level''
Straight-way
automatically liquid level.

control device for valve.
valve applied to control

Float switch used as pilot
-Pilol
-circuil-
Supply
ExhausI
Power
lines
li
Delivery
First Condi+ion
Wafer
A-open, B-closed
Two
straight-way valves, A normally

normally closed, provide two-way fluid
control.
Energizing the solenoids cuts off supply
and vents delivery through exhaust.
Fig. 466.
open and
Fig. 467.
Two straight- way valves offer means of
automatically controlling cycle of processing machine,
such as plastic molding press, having heating and
cooling coils.
Pilol
circuil
Compressor
Pump
Mofor lines
Fig. 468.
Single straight-way valve can be connected across one phase of motor winding to start
flow of cooling water to compressor whenever motor
starts.
Oil supply
mA
Furnace
Straight-way valve of trip type interFig. 469.

locked with oil-furnace control system to cut off oil
supply upon loss of current to motor-driven pump or
to atomizing equipment, or upon occurrence of low
water, low stack temperature, or similar conditions.
232
Piloi-
arcu/^
J fxhausi-
Supply
i- Delivery
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
233
Pilof
Piloi
circuii-
Supply
Supply
circuit
Delivery
No.2
Jr-'-De/ivery No.1
Fig. 473.
Three-way
Second Condi+ion
First Condition
valve applied as convenient means of transferring one supply to either of two
Pilot
Piloi
circuit
circuit
Operating
'
deliverie.s.
J-
rod
rt
Operating
rod
Exhausi
Operating
cylinder
Operating
cylinder
Supply
Second Condition
First Condi+ion
Fig. 474
Four-way valve arranged to control double-acting cylinder.
Upon
energization of solenoid, operating rod
of cylinder reverses direction.
Exhaust
Power
Power
lines
lines
Float
switch
Float
switch
~~
First
Fig.
Pressure -operated valve
Second Condition
Condition
475. Four-way valve arrangement, employing

level
'
through
Emergency
supply
in Fig. 474, provides automatic control of

'
pressure-operated valve.
principle
shown
tank
"
Delivery
Normal
supply
Normal Condition
Fig.
transferring either of
utilizing inversion of principle shown in Fig. 473, offers means of
Useful in appUcations where an emergency supply is provided.
supplies to a common delivery.
476. Three-way valve,
two
234
AUTOMATIC TIMERS
^^1
^Magnef
^D
-
Make and break
Weighl-
confacfs
i^
Pivoi
Adjusfable
'Trip
venf
V^')
y//////////Av///////////.
Weighl
^^ Spring
or
solenoid
2)
Fixed
Clearance
end
gap
>i
IK
Adjustable
veni
yTo con lad

I h rough
spring or
solenoid
Make and
break
conlacis
,'Fluid
Simplest form consists of a

Fig. 477.- -Dashpot principle.
Adjustable
piston or plunger operating in oil, mercury, or air.
small orifices or bleeders provide time adjustment. A by-pass
may be provided near the end of the piston travel for snap
Widely used because of its
action closing of the contact.
When air is used, changing clearances
simplicity and low cost.
caused by dust, gumming of lubricant, and leakage affect the
timing.
If oil is used, the temperature will change oil viscosity
and affect the timing. Also subject to error because of clear-
Inertia
mechanism.
by virtue of the inertia
of two weights mounted on a pivoted
arm and the length of arc to be travFig.
478.
Time delay
is
before mechanical contact is

Tilted by gravity, this device
gives a relatively short interval and
becomes clumsy for long time intervals
ersed
made.
ance changes from wear.
^Moin air line fr
^Valve
Fig. 479.
Contactor works on back pressure from the main cylinder on the welder, pressure being assured
between the welding points before the welding contactor closes. When the back pressure has built up to a predetermined value, the plunger moves upward at a definite rate of speed and the hardened cam closes the mam contacts.
After a predetermined time, the cam moves by the roller that it engages and the main contacts open. One adjustment
the
sets the back pressure at which the contactor plunger starts to move and therefore determines the lag in applymg
current after pressure has been applied.
A second adjustment changes the needle valve opening to the contactor air
This determines the welding time. A third adjustment varies the time of the
cylinder and thus times the upstroke.
downstroke and is of importance only when used with a repeater.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

,
Copper block
I
Bimei-allic slrip
li^gtegiJ
^,'
Make and
break
coniach
Copper Jackel or ring or

shorl circuiled furns
^^-/Heal barriers
conlacis
'
iir^
m \smm^
U"'; Bimelalllc
Î^jf ^^'''P^
Make and break
Thermal
Moke and break
ff
Copper block
conlacis
Inexpensive time delay

around a bimetallic
strip.
Least accurate device. Has a slow make and break
action.
For longer time intervals, a copper block may be
mounted to absorb some of the heat; the larger the block of
Time intervals
copper, the longer the time interval.
ranging fromi J^ sec. to 5 to 10 min. are possible with this
Fig. 480.
235
relays.
utilizing the effect of a heating coil
de\ace.
Fig. 481.
Magnetic time delay, used on direct
current only.
Relatively inexpensive,
effects
time delays up to 10 sec. by means of residual
Magnet may be copper jacketed,

copper rings, or may have short-circuited turns around the magnet.
Variation in
the amount of copper or in the resistance of shortcircuited turns will affect the time delay.
magnetism.
may have
Moke and break

con tads
\y Solenoid
Eleclro
Fig.
482.
magnel'
Magnetic-drag
time
delay.
small electromagnet is used, and the

motion of the relay plunger is made to
revolve a metal disk in the field of the magnet.
The rotation of the disk is retarded by
magnetic induction. Reliable device, trouble free, but relatively expensive.
236
Relay
>
WWt
Relay
l_.
1
- +
Fig. 483.
Vacuum tube. Condenser charged or discharged through a resistor closes a relay after definite time,
using direct current. When switch is open, the condenser discharges slowly through shunt resistor. This lowers the
negative potential on the grid, and at the critical value the plate current will rise enough to operate the relay. Full
line voltage may be applied to the condenser to obtain longer time delay.
Fig. 484.
In this circuit, operation is maintained for a predetermined time after the starting impulse has stopped.
the button has been pressed, the filament gets current in series with relay winding 1, and the relay pulls up,
locking in the circuit.
The second contact charges the condenser negative, and no plate current flows. When button
is released, the relay stays closed until condenser discharges.
Then the plate current flows through the second relay
winding in opposition to the first, releasing the armature. Applicable to direct current or rectified alternating current
When
only.
Reciifier
Relay
Re sis lor,
y^
Condenser
PolenHomef'er
^
Transformer
Swiich
Fig. 485.
In the Wes'tinghouse electronic relay, there is no temperature error, reset is instantaneous, adjustment
When the switch is closed, the tube passes current. As the current increases, the increasis easy, and first cost is low.
The IR drop across the resistor
ing IR drop from the potentiometer causes a charging current through condenser.
because of this current applies the negative bias to the grid. Plate current cannot build up very rapidly, because the
After a time period, adjustable through potentiometer, the
faster it increases, the more negative the grid becomes.
plate current will operate relay.
The time delay is proportional to the product of resistance and capacitance. Long
Maximum time delay with this device
delays require large resistors, and short delays correspondingly small resistors.
is about 3 min.
About 0.05 see. is the minimum.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
237
TRIGGER SWITCH MOUNTINGS
Switch- Posi+ion
ndicafor
Top View with

Cover
Removed
Trigger-operated
ratchet-type single-pole switch, a design no longer in general use. An arrow

stamped on the end of the shaft shows through a hole in the cover plate to indicate the position of the switch. Spring
blades pressing on the faces of the square contact block give a snap action and hold the block in position.
Fig. 486.
Snap lever
spring^
Snap lever fo give

quick break action/
,Slalionary
/ confach
Ralchel operoled
Pawl
Pawl ptvoled on
'
drum
trigger
spring
Fig. 487.
"on"
is
Ratchet-type switch with double pole
for three phase.
Can
stamped on diametrically opposite points on the ratchet wheel.
shows through a hole
in the cover plate.
the switch, a definite
movement
also
A spring lever snaps into the star wheel,
of the trigger
is
required.
be used for single phase.
With switch
in
"on"
The word
word
To open
position, the
giving quick snap action.
238
- -
Snap
lever
Compress/on spring
i
On position of trigger
Fig. 488.
A design of switch similar to that shown
opening when the trigger is released.

eompression spring opens the switch.
It is
shown here
in Fig.
in the
486 except that
"on"
position.
it is
a two-pole design and
As soon as the
trigger
is
is self-
released, the
Toggle type releasing switch handle. Used on

old style d.c. reamers, toggle device tor ^
quick
make and break
Fig. 489.
A toggle-type self-opening switch used on old-style direct-current reamers. The tripper is pushed
forward until the line of pull of the spring passes the dead center of the link to which it is attached. The spring then
pulls the switch closed.
Upon releasing the trigger, the mechanism returns to the position shown, the switch snapping
open when the toggle spring passes dead center.
Fig. 490.
A conventional-type switch of old design that is self-opening when the trigger is released but can be
held in the closed position by means of a looking pin.
Common to all the switches shown in this group of designs, it is
not dustproof.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
239
le achbn
maies quick
make and
break
Round confaci- causes

rapid increase in arcing
disi-once
and quick
break of arc
A special design of built-up switch of the self-opening type and provided with a locking pin, similar to
Fig. 491.
Common to all the designs shown here, the switch is now obsolete in favor of fully enclosed
that shown in Fig. 489.
and easily replaceable switch units.
Fig. 492.
Fig. 493.
Fig. 492.
A modern-type commercial switch mounted in a side handle. Such switches are readily replaced as a
The switch opens as soon as the trigger is released unless
unit, inexpensive, and sealed against the entrance of dirt.
the locking pin is set, in which case a slight pull on the trigger releases the locking pin and opens the switch.
Another example of a modern commercial switch mounted as a unit in a grip-type end handle.
Fig. 493.
240
Fig. 494.
Fic_ 495
494. a rocker-type switch such as used on polishers and portable sanders.

now being replaced by plunger-operated dusttight switches such as shown in Fig. 498.
Fig.
It is
not self-releasing and
Fig. 495.
Another style of mounting a commercial-type switch in a side handle. The switch
unit and is self-opening, as soon as the trigger is released; the return spring being shown dotted.
is
is
replaceable as a
Fig. 496.
In this switch mounting, the trigger actuates the switch by means of a lift rod attached to the back
of the trigger.
A tension spring attached to the upper end of the lift rod and anchored to the lower end of the switch
plate pulls the switch open as soon as the trigger is released.
If the locking pin is depressed when the trigger is pulled
back,
is
it passes through the hole in the trigger which then cannot return to the open position.
pressed, the locking pin is released, snaps back, and releases the trigger.
As soon
as the trigger
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
Fig. 497.
The slider
slider-operated switch.
forth as indicated in the drawing.
not provided with any release arrange-
moves back and
This switch is
ment. It is used only on light model tools where no
damage would be done if the tool were laid down
with the power still on.
241
Fig. 498.
Latest type switch handle for polishers,
Sanders, and portable grinders.
The switch is in a dusttight chamber and is operated by a plunger instead of a
trigger which eliminates the necessity of an opening such
The
as is required when triggers or rockers are used.
plunger makes a close fit. Switch is not self-releasing, it

being necessary to push the plunger for both on and off
positions.
is
Latest design of switch arrangement
The toggle-operated switch

for small die grinders and sanders.
compartment and a dust seal is provided where the toggle comes through the case.
switch does not have a release arrangement that opens it automatically.
Fig. 499.
unit
mounted
This type of
in a dusttight
This switch is of the same type as shown in Fig. 495. It is mounted in a longer handle, being actuated
trigger arrangement.
It is provided with an additional return spring for quick action and also has a
locking pin for holding the switch in the closed position when the trigger is released. A slight pull on the trigger
releases the locking pin and opens the switch.
Fig. 500.
by a remote
242
THERMOSTATIC MECHANISMS
Sensitivity or change in deflection for a given temperature change depends
upon
the combination of metals selected as well as the dimensions of the bimetal element.
Sensitivity increases with the square of the length and inversely with the thickness.
The
force developed for a given temperature change also depends
on the type
of
bimetal, whereas the allowable working load for the thermostatic strip increases with
the width and the square of the thickness. Thus, the design of bimetal elements
depends upon the relative importance

Bi'mefa/ helix
I
of sensitivity
and working
load.
Pen arm
Bimetal
In the Taylor recording thermometer, a pen is moved vertically

Fig. 501.
To obtain sensiacross a revolving chart by a brass-invar bimetal element.
tivity, the long movement of the pen requires a long strip of bimetal, which is
For accuracy, a relatively large cross section
coiled into a helix to save space.
gives stiffness, although the large thickness requires increased length to obtain
the desired sensitivity.
Heating
Coniacf
r of a led
by bi-
metal
coil ^
'
Heal
barrier
spring
In
Westinghouse overload relay for large motors, a portion

passed through a heating coil within the relay. Heat
from the coil raises the temperature of a bimetal spiral which rotates a shaft
To withstand the operating temperature, a
carrying an electrical contact.
heat-resistant bimetal is used, coiled into the spiral form for compactness.
Because of the large deflection needed, the spiral is long and thin, whereas the
width is made large to provide the required contact pressure.
By the use of heat barriers between the bimetal spiral and the heating coil,
temperature rise of the bimetal can be made to follow closely the increase in
temperature within the motor. Thus, momentary overloads do not cause
sufficient heating to close the contacts, whereas a continued overload will in
time cause the bimetal to rotate the contact arm around to the adjustable
Fig. 503.
of the
this
motor current
is
stationary contact, causing a relay to shut
down
Room temperaFig. 502.

tures in summer as well as
winter are controlled over a
wide range by a single largediameter coil of brass-invar in
the motor.
thermometer. To
the Friez
prevent chattering, a small
permanent magnet
on each side
is
mounted
of the steel contact
The magnetic attracblade.

tion on the blade, increasing
inversely with the square of the
distance from the magnet, gives
a snap action to the contacts.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
243
Insulaled healer
winding
/Intake manifold
/load
Conlacis close when bimelal is healed

Fig. 505
Aclive bimelal sirip
healed by eieclric curreni,
iHeol barriers/
.1^.
^.^
"lemperolure compensalingV^
&3i
strip
(
-|
EC-d
r'
c-r-3
Fig. 506.
Fig. 504.
On the Dodge carburetor, when the engine
"hot spot " is held

open by a bimetal spring against the force of a small counterweight. When the thermostatic spiral is heated by the outSince
side air or by the warm air stream from the radiator, the spring coils up and allows the weight to close the vane.
high accuracy is not needed, a thin, flexible cross section is used with a long length to give the desired sensitivity.
Fig. 505.
In the Friez relay, a constant current through an electrical heating coil around a straight bimetal strip
Since the temperature range is relatively large, high sensitivity is not necessary, hence a
gives a time-delay action.
Because of the relatively heavy thickness used, the strip is sufficiently stiff
short straight strip of bimetal is suitable.
to close the contact firmly without chattering.
Fig. 506.
A similar type of bimetal element is used in the Ward Leonard time-delay relay for mercury-vapor
This relay closes the potential circuit to the mercury tube only after the filament has had time to reach its
rectifiers.
normal operating temperature. To eliminate the effect of changes in room temperature on the length of the contact
gap, and therefore the time interval, the stationary contact is carried by a second bimetal strip similar to the heated
element.
Barriers of laminated plastic on both sides of the active bimetal strip shield the compensating strip and
prevent air currents from affecting the heating rate. The relatively high temperature range allows the use of a
straight thick strip, whereas the addition of the compensating strip makes accurate timing possible with a short travel.
Fig. 504.
is
cold, a
vane
in the e.xhaust passage to the
diaphragm
Grounded conlaci
pioved by diaphragm
'Oil pressure
Bimelal
Receiver on
^^^^^
dash
Sender
Fig. 507.
Fig. 508.
Oil pressure, engine temperature, or gasoline level are indicated electrically on automobile dashboard
instruments built by King-Seeley in which a bimetal element is used in both the sender and receiver.
grounded con-
Fig. 507.
tact at the sender completes an electric circuit through heaters around two similar bimetal strips.
Since the same current flows around the two bimetal elements, their deflections are the same.
But the sender element when heated will
bend away from the grounded contact until the circuit is broken. Upon cooling, the bimetal again makes contact and
the cycle continues, allowing the bimetal to follow the movement of the grounded contact. For the oil-pressure gage,
the grounded contact is attached to a diaphragm; for the temperature indicator, the contact is carried by another
thermostatic bimetal strip; in the gasoline-level device, the contact is shifted by a cam on a shaft rotated by a float.
Deflections of the receiving bimetal are amplified through a linkage that operates a pointer over the scale of the
receiving instrument.
Since only small deflections are needed, the bimetal element is in the form of a short stiff strip.
Fig. 508.
Oil dashpots used in heavy-capacity Toledo scales have a thermostatic control to compensate for changes
in oil viscosity with temperature.
A rectangular orifice in the plunger is covered by a swaged projection on the bimetal
element.
With a decrease in oil temperature, the oil viscosity increases, tending to increase the damping effect but the
bimetal deflects upward, enlarging the orifice enough to keep the damping force constant. A wide bimetal strip is used
for stiffness so that the orifice will not be altered by the force of the flowing oil.
244
Helical
expansion
iube -
/Bimelol
compensallng
lever
isss\ssy
Valve closed
of l40deg.F
Full open of
ISOdeg.F
Fig. 509.
In mercury-filled indicating thermometers,
expansion of the mercury in a bulb at the end of a
capillary line causes the spiral tube in the gage to uncoil,
the dial pointer being moved by means of a linkage.
However, changes va the temperature of the mercury
in the capillary and spiral also affect the movement of the
In the
linkage introducing an error in the reading.
Taylor indicating thermometer, compensation for changes
in gage temperature is obtained by a flat bimetal strip
that forms a part of the pointer linkage. The strip is
designed so that its deflections are equal but opposite
to the effect caused by changes in gage temperature.
Since little load is imposed on the thermostatic strip, the
compensating action can be obtained with high accuracy.
Fig. 510.
In cooling-water thermostats for automobile engines, the water flow imposes a load on the
bimetal spiral, and in addition the overtravel caused
by continued cooling after the valve is closed sets up
stresses that increase as the temperature decreases.
Sufficient strength and cross section to safely withstand these stresses without permanent deformation
requires a long flexible element.
High accuracy is
not obtainable, but in this application a relatively
large variation in operating temperature is permissible.
In the Chase thermostat, the bimetal element
is in the form of a tapered spiral spring v.'hich is connected to a rotating valve by a simple linkage. To
stabilize the bimetal element, it is subjected to a
series of hot and cold treatments at temperatures
beyond the normal temperature range.
Fig. 511.
When the bimetal element in a gas pilot-light control is placed near the pilot flame, the bimetal is
subjected to a temperature near its maximum operating range, and in service over long periods of time the valve may
become corroded and fail to function when an emergency arises. In the pilot control made by the Patrol Valve
Company, operating temperature of the bimetal is reduced and distortion from overheating is prevented by a dual
pilot construction.
The constant-burning pilot ignites a second pilot which heats the bimetal strip when the thermostatic control calls for heat.
The bimetal strip upon heating opens the toggle-operated main burner valve, which, hy
means of a double-seat construction, reduces the supply of gas to the second pilot, just enough flame being left to keep
the bimetal from closing the valve. Since relatively wide limits for temperature of operation are permissible, the
bimetal element is designed to develop sufficient force to operate the toggle spring without the use of high working
stresses.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
245
Double-ihrow confac^ b/ads/

" - Nickel silver
Confac-/-,
spring
vacuum
check
'
-Nickel silver
valve pin
~
Valve closed
by floaf or
expansion
of bellows
Concave
bi'mei-al disk.
lead
washer
Terminak
Temperolure
adjuslmenl
Bimefal
Coniacfs
strip
VenI regulaling screw

Fig. 514.
Fig. 513.
Fig. 512.
Toggle
obtained in the Spencer disk thermostat. The disk is a

saucer-shaped piece of bimetal sheet which snaps itself from a concave to a convex shape at a predetermined temperature.
Both the amount of movement and the temperature diiferential between opening and closing temperature
depend on the design of the disk. For greater sensitivity, smaller differential and a larger movement than can be
obtained with the plain disk, the bimetal disk is corrugated. Since the disk is small and stores but little heat, it warms
Fig. 612.
action, without separate springs,
is
or cools rapidly.
When used as an electrical control device, insulated silver contacts are mounted on the bimetal disk. In the cold
When
position shown, each of the contacts bridges a gap in insulated plates connected to the heavy terminals.
heated, the disk snaps to a convex shape, the circuit opening through the êvice at three points.
Fig. 513.
In the Westinghouse thermostat for electric hot-water heaters, a small range of temperature difference
between on and off is needed, and to eliminate the necessity for an intermediate relay, the contacts must break a relaThese conflicting requirements are met by using a double-toggle mechanism. A light toggle
tively heavy current.
spring on the contact blade keeps the contacts firmly seated until the stronger toggle on the bimetal strip comes into
operation.
The bimetal blade is free to move nearly to the dead-center position, thereby storing energy in its toggle spring
Energy released by the toggle spring, when the bimetal blade
before any pressure is applied to the contact blade.
passes dead center, delivers an impact to the contact blade, breaking loose any slight welding that may have occurred
during the previous operation. This thermostat is used as a current-limiting switch, disconnecting one heater as
another is connected. Because of the double-toggle design, the thermostat contacts will safely interrupt 5 kw. at
220 volts alternating current with a temperature differential of 5F. or less.
Fig. 514.
In radiator air valves made by the Anderson Manufacturing Company, air forced into the valve
When steam reaches the valve, the heat increases the vapor
passes around a small bellows partly filled with a liquid.
pressure within the bellows, and the resultant expansion raises the float, thereby closing the air-vent orifice.
Adjusfing screw
W////yyyyy////A
Fig. 515.
Electric irons require a convenient adjustment for the temperature at which the bimetal element opens
the circuit. In the mechanism designed by Proctor & Schwartz, a double lever not only permits adjustment of the
operating temperature, but also relieves the bimetal strip of anj' restriction when it cools to room temperature. Since
the operating temperature range is high, a heat-resisting bimetal material is used in the form of a short stiff strip. Current is conducted to the bimetal contact through a flexible silver ribbon eliminating the effect of heat caused by current
passing through the bimetal strip.
246
Pressure
connection
Pressure
bellows.
/Vapor
Rubber
diaphragm
filled bellpns
-Bellows
spring
Valve
disk
Spring
action
Walerinkf
screw
Fig. 516.
Automobile cooling water temperature
is controlled by a self-contained bellows in the thermostat made by the Bridgeport Brass Company.
As
in the radiator air valve, the bellows itself is subjected
to the temperature to be controlled.
As the temperature of the water increases to about 140F., the
valve starts to open; at approximately 180F., free
flow is permitted.
At intermediate temperatures, the
valve opening is in proportion to the temperature.
-'' _ *^Q]
Fig. 517.
In a throttling type of circulating water
control valve made by C. J. Tagliabue Manufacturing
Company for use in refrigeration plants, the valve
opening varies with the pressure on the bellows. This
valve controls the rate of flow of the cooling water
through the condenser, a greater amount of water
being required when the temperature, and therefore
the pressure, increases. The pressure in the condenser is transmitted through a pipe to the valve
bellows thereby adjusting the flow of cooling water.
The bronze bellows is protected from contact with

the water by a rubber diaphragm.
Liquid outside of
/ Pressure spring
belJows
,'
adjusted by dial
^Capillary tube
Bimetalblade
Bellows
housing
Bimefai '
rocker
Pilot light
va/ve
Throttling '
valve
gas
Fig. 518.
An
^^
automatic gas-range control made
by the Wilcolator Company has a
sealed thermostatic
element consisting of a bulb, capillary tube, and
As food is often placed near the bulb, a
bellows.
nontoxic liquid, chlorinated diphenyl, is used in the
The liquid is also nonliquid expansion system.
inflammable and has no corrosive effect upon the
phosphor bronze bellows. By placing the liquid
outside instead of inside the beUovvs, the working
stresses are
maximum
at normal temperatures
when
At elevated working
the bellows bottoms on the cup.
temperatures, the expansion of the liquid compresses
the bellows against the action of the extended spring
Changes in
which, in turn, is adjusted by the knob.
calibration caused by variations in ambient temperature are compensated by making the rocker arm of
bimetal suitable for high-temperature service.
~Double
break
contacts
Fig. 519.
For electric ranges, the Wilcolator
thermostat has the same bellows unit as is used on the
But, instead of a throttling action,

gas-type control.
the thermostat opens and closes the electrical contacts
with a snap action. To obtain sufficient force for the
snap action, the control requires a temperature
For a
difference between "on" and "off" positions.
control range frora room temperature to 550F., the
differential in this device is plus or minus 10F.; with
a smaller control range, the differential is proportionately less.
The snap-action switch is made of
beryllium copper, giving high strength, better snap
action, and longer life than obtainable with phosphor
bronze, and because of its corrosion resistance the
beryUium-copper blade requires no protective finish.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
247
Permanent
magnef
'S+eel Blade
Âuxr/j'ary
Silver
confacis
Silver
conlacis
Foggle spring^
conlacfs
'Bellows spring
''
0-
Ternperalure
ad/usfmenl-
Dlfferenh'al
'
adjuslmeni
Ternperalure
Ad/usling screw
adjuslmeni
Fig. 521.
Fig. 520.
For
Fig. 622.
heavy-duty room-temperature controls, the Perm thermostat uses a bellows mechanism that
develops a high force with small changes in temperature. The bellows is partly filled with liquid butane, which at
room temperatures is a gas having a large change in vapor pressure for small temperature differentials. Snap action
of the electrical contact is obtained from a small permanent magnet that pulls the steel contact blade into firm contact
when the bellows cools. Because of the firm contact, the device is rated at 20 amp. for noninductive loads. To avoid
chattering or bounce under tlie impact delivered by the rapid magnetic closing action, small auxiliary contacts are
With the large force developed by the bellows, a temperature differential of only 2F.
carried on light spring blades.
Fig. 520.
obtained.
Fig. 521.
Snap action in the Tagliabue refrigerator control is obtained from a bowed flat spring. The silver
contacts carried on an extended end of the spring open or close rapidly when movement of the bellows actuates the
spring.
With this snap action, the contacts can control an alternating-current motor as large as IK hp. without the
use of auxiliary relays. Temperature differential is adjusted by changing the spacing between two collars on the bellows shaft passing through the contact spring. For temperatures used in freezing ice, the bellows system is partly
is
with butane.
In the General Electric refrigerator control, the necessary snap action is obtained from a toggle spring
supported from a long arm moved by the bellows. With this type of toggle action, the contact pressure is a maximum
at the instant the contacts start to open.
Thermostatic action is obtained from a vapor-filled system using sulphur
dioxide for usual refrigerating service or methyl chloride where lower temperatures are required.
To reduce friction,
the bellows makes point contact with the bellows cup. Operating temperature is adjusted by changing the initial
compression in the bellows spring. For resistance to corrosion, levers and blades are stainless steel with bronze pin
filled
Fig. 522.
bearings.
Flexible bellows
seal,
'
Thermosl-a-fTc
bellows spring
Capillary
lube.
Needle
valve
Bellows
spring
adj'usrmen/
Fig. 523.
Two bellows units are used
Fodders thermostatic expansion valve for controlling large refrigeration systems.

A removable power bellows unit is operated bj' vapor pressure in a bulb attached to the evaporator
output line. The second bellows serves as a flexible, gastight seal for the gas valve. A stainless steel spring holds
the valve, closed until opened by pressure transmitted from the thermostatic bellows through a molded push pin.
in the
248
AUTOMATIC STOPS
Thread or
wire
SpooU^
Spool^
'
Tension spring
Idler
-4
Idler carrier
Sh'rrup swivels on
point so ffiaf ii
i'iiis
cannoi reengage
'^
cronl<
Osciiiat/nq
shaft
Angle of con-
Stationary'
tinuous oscillation
To clutch ~,
Feelers"
Thread-'
Fig. 524.
A mechanism used on the Barberspooler.
When the thread breaks, the
feelers are released and the spiral spring causes
the spindle with finger to rotate. The latter
throws the stirrup into the path of the oscillating crank, which on its downward stroke
throws the spool into the position shown dotted,
the stirrup then being thrown out of the path
of the oscillating crank.
Colman
Fig. 525.
Mechanism used with variations on tubular
braiding machines.
When braiding, tension on the wire or
thread lifts the idler carrier which thereby releases the pawl
from the ratchet on spool flange and allows the spool to turn
and unwind. When the machine stops, the tension on wire is
decreased, allowing the idler carrier to fall so that the pawl can
engage the ratchet. If the wire breaks while the machine is
running, the unsupported idler carrier falls to the base of the
standard, and when the standard arrives at the station in the
raceway adjacent to the cam C, the lug h on idler carrier
strikes the cam C, rotating it far enough to disengage a clutch
on the driving shaft, thereby stopping the machine.
Crankshaft
Unsealed
Continuously
rotating
eccen trie
,
>
packages,!
^^/
'Eccentric arm oscillates

con tinuously about the
fixed center
Recip rocafing
bar,
Siop^
WW//////M/////.
~~ Floating center in
guide block that
Fixed
Thread
tension
rides in slot
center
Fig. 526.
When the thread breaks, the stop drops and
intercepts reciprocating bar.
On the next counterclockwise
oscillation of the eccentric arm, the bar B is raised.
A feature
of this design is that it permits the arm B to move up or down
independently for a limited distance.
Ratchet wheel
Arrangement
used on some
package-loading machines to stop the machine
if a package should pass the loading station
without receiving an insert. Pawl finger F has
a rocking motion obtained from crankshaft,
timed so that it enters the unsealed packages
and is stopped against the contents. If the box
is not filled, the finger enters a considerable
distance and the pawl end at the bottom
engages and holds a ratchet wheel on the driving
clutch, which disengages the machine driving
Fig.
shaft.
527.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

>7r-
Bobbin
shuHle
lis
oscilbfes
the/ay
249
wM
s^:^.
P/vofed,
Mach/ne
iob/e^
_I_
Adjusiable dog
'X-slo-l-i
Clutch and brake

operating sfjafi
^-F/xed
528.
Fig.
Schematic
diagram of mechanism to
cause bobbin changer to operate. If the contact arm

does not sHp on the bobbin, the lever A will rotate
to the position shown.
But if contact with the
bobbin center slips, as it will do if the bobbin is emptj',
lever A will not rotate to the position indicated by
the dashed line, thereby causing the bobbin changer
to
come
Simple type of stop mechanism for hmitFig. 529.

ing the stroke of a reciprocating machine member.
Arrows indicate the direction of movement.
into action.
\\%f'Pour/ng spout
,
Reciprocating
Latch
shaft,
Fastened
to frame
-tiarc/ened
steel stops
Catch
control
shaft
lever
Fig. 530.
In this textile machine, any movement
that will rotate the stop lever counterclockwise will
bring it in the path of the continuously reciprocating
shaft.
This will cause the catch lever to be pushed
counterclockwise and the hardened steel stop on the
clutch control shaft will be freed. A spiral spring
then impels the clutch-control shaft to rotate clockwise, which movement throws out the clutch and
applies the brake.
Initial movement of the stop
lever may be caused by the breaking of a thread, a
moving dog, or any other means.
Fig. 531.
When the predetermined weight of
material has been poured on the pan, the movement
of the scale beam pushes the latch out of engagement,
allowing the paddle wheel to rotate and thus dump
the load. The scale beam drops, thereby returning
the latch to the holding position and stopping the
wheel when the next vane hits the latch.
CHAPTER
VIII
DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION
METHODS
Page
Page
Fusion Welding
252
Permanent Mold Casting
Resistance Welding
259
Die-casting
Furnace Brazing
Flame Hardening
264
266
267
Forging
Flame Cutting
Centrifugal Casting
Powdered Metal Pressings
251
267
268
270
275
276
252
WELDED CONSTRUCTIONS
BUILT-UP
The details illustrated, taken from designs for sanitary

and chemical processing equipment, represent utUization
of diversified metal-working equipment bending roUs,
power presses, flangers and such ^to fabricate functionComally correct parts from simple sheet and fittings.
mercial shapes are used where practical; but parts are
flame cut, forged, or roUed when such fabrication is more
~Benf and flame

cuf fo size
'
Pipe section
-Sfeel base plate
economical or design requirements dictate.
'
Shell
Angle
Bent
Angle
"
Half coupling flame

cut fo shape
"Pipe section
^'Steel base plate
'Angle
plate
BUILT-UP SUPPORTS
LIGHT TANK SUPPORTS

Shaft-_
Thrust bearing
'Tank shell end
II
ii
l!5/7e//-Hx
Pipe section
-Flame cut fo
Flangedchan
nel not welded
fit
tank shape " Sheared and

bent fo shape
SUPPORT FOR LIGHT-LOADED

LARGE DIAMETER TANKS
to be
Angle
edgewelded
'^Sheared
ribs
to shell
TANK SUPPORT
SHAFT SUPPORT
/Steel base
Shell
Section
Steely 0^
ring ^',\
crimped
>
SIMPLE SUPPORT FOR CIRCULAR

OR SQUARE TANKS
Formed and
^?
Shell--
Angle ^
Shell-
Heavy gage
y
^
U*-Shell
plate
ED6E REINFORCEMENTS
>.y4>^)^'iL^Gasket
'Top
Shell^:
Reinforcing '^Shell
ring
shape
Cover ^
^5SS
sri eared
and bent to
flanged
at top
Shell-
Steel base plate
'^
Dished
bottom
'Ângle
SIMPLE TANK SUPPORT
DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS
253
Flame -cut
circle
.^Cylindrical
"^
shell
Eiss
Pipe
v^'Flnnnp
|/
lAluminum washer
secifon,
Tank base,
flame -cut
steel circle
'-Pipe section
/^Rubber gasket
,>>,,!!,. ,!>/>'>lV,
Welded
L/
Tank shell
spud
Aluminum
shell
Aluminum coupling
Drop - forged spud

or forged boiler plate
Shells'
Cylindrical
shell
Pipe
Tank siiell
section,
Cladding metal
Steam
Inlet
Flame-cuf sfeel ring j
mid
^^
Pipe
section
'Erosion
plate
^Pipe
flange
V
/Steam
Outer - *{.
shell
Outlet cast of
cladding material
Extends inside tank
two weld
points tor additional
wall allowing
BUILT-UP INLETS AND OUTLETS
strength
Shafts
<^^
Flame-cut
/Reamed
steel rings
BUILT-UP AGITATORSANITARY PROCESSING
II
^ M
iln
Shaft ~-,^
\wk;
Packing
iyPipe
section
"Pocking
y,' Round iron

bar, threaded
ana reamed
^^
Flame-cut
steel ring
Small diameter
shaft
<~<^ STUFFING BOXES
Jacket
254
Dished fop
Flaf iron
ring bolted
to shell
'
Clamping means welded io iron ring

which is bolted to light-gage stiell
Cylindrical shell
PERMANENT
TANK COVER
Cover
J
Rubber.^ plate i
Aluminum
bar
\
gasket (- /'""'
Top i^'"-"
plate
Ola,
Flame -cut circle
Gum-rubber
gasket
/.Rubber
gaskeisf
;i
//
Clamp
VAPOR-TIGHT /
TANK COVER
^^Ligtit-gage
aluminum
^mA
rgi'Ea iTank
solid welded
to flat iron band bolted
to drum
'Sleel clips
Rubber)
gasket
^^d^''
_E
^
SIGHT- GLASS DETAIL
Cylindricai shell
AQ.Z'c^Z
DOOR
Tank-
Tee bolt
shell
end^
"Jv
"
door
frame
.^ Steel
Tee bolt-
SteeI slee
Asbestos
Gasket
gasket
Defail
STEAM-TIGHT DOOR
S^Szzzs
Section A-A
Cover clamps
equally spaced
FOUR-SEGMENT DEMOUNTABLE
TANK COVER
JL.
Steel ring ^
Tack welded
to cover
Inner
I
shell
Outer
shell
Dished
Inner
"-^
shell
"7*
T!r
Outer base .lArKFT'?

'J'^^Ktli,
jacketing
Low-pressure
Jacket
HINGED
COVERS
Tack welded.
Round-iron
Forged
ring-s.
steel ring
Outer
shell -.
Steel
gusset
/Inner
^shell
Inner
',
shell
Pressure
High Pressure
Tank cover
Flame -cuf
shell
Outer^
Moderate
^
^
^;
7.
arm
Heavy forged
steel
steel
Cylindrical^
Steel plafe
welded to tank
shell
andpipe
"Steel
washers
Tack
welded

Flanged and
Flanged and
'
sloffed cover
255
slotted cover
iTin retainer
/Slotted steel
reinforcing
ring
)J
a^ ^
r' Gasket
Gasket
Cylindrical
stie II
~~
;L
'Steel ring
ll
orpin
;^v^
Angle ring,
slotted
''Angle
'gle
shell
i*
ring, slotted
slott
H^
^
^^-' Cylindrical
orpin
'',
"a
^^
Steel
Steel r.
ring
..
shell
Sanitary
-^^
Angle
Gaskef-ing
Cylindrical shell
Construction
Dished top
'^^Szi^^^Dished top
^Z222zs^Dis/7ed top
^^^
A Hoy casting
Forged steel
Forged steel
machined
machined
flanges
{Forged
"^^m
V^mMss.
g^
flanges
ty\
^r^^'
r/hyj
r'
\ \
\\
^ -;
^y.
sT^
^
1^^^^^^
r
yy Clamp ^
Shell
V\
'Gasket
Cylindrical shell
- Cylindrical shell
VARIOUS FORMS OF PRESSURE JOINTS
^
D
^Sfeel
bar
stock
Flanged top
Clamp
'Rein-
Sguare iron ring

shaped and
cut from solid bar
machined to section
forcing
ring
detail,
shown above
Wy
^ Flanged
shell
Flame -cut slots
Clamp'
for hold down

bolts
I
Iron ring, machined
\ Flanged top
Clamp ~.
'
Stainless steel
Rubber gasket
Flame-cut
I
steel ring
Iron ring,
welded to
shell
Pin
Flat
'"-
Cylindrical
shell
Flame:cuf
steel ring
CLAD JOINT
i[on
Cylindrical
shell
HIGH-PRESSURE JOINTS
'^Cylindrical
shell
256
WELDING
By
S.A.E. 4340
STEEL
welding, quenching, and tempering after gas welding, S.A.E. 4340 tubes can
be butt-welded to give a tensile strength of more than 180,000 lb. per sq. in. with a
Rockwell hardness of C 46. It is considered that a minimum tensile strength of
125,000 lb. per sq. in. can be safely specified for parts made by gas welding S.A.E.
4340 steel tubes and normahzing.
As shown in the accompanying table, butt-welded specimens of S.A.E. 4340
tubes can be heat-treated to develop a maximum tensile strength of 217,000 lb. per
sq. in. as compared with a maximum tensUe strength of 252,800 lb. per sq. in. for the
unwelded tube. The gas-welding characteristics

ter than those of S.A.E. 4130 steel tubes.
RESULTS OF TENSION TESTS,
BUTT-WELDED 4340 STEEL TUBES

2H in. O.D. X 0.12.5-in. wall
Specimen
No.
Rockwell
Tensile strength,
lb.
per sq. m.
As Welded
1
2
3
4
5
Average
hardness,
(base metal)
of this material are equal to or bet-
257
ARC WELDING THIN SHEETS

Uniformly good arc welds in sheets less than 0.050 in. (18 gage) thick can be
made with generator-type welders with a minimum setting of 10 to 15 amp. with
Stainless steel and Monel exhaust stacks
stable operation at 20 amp. and higher.
comparatively
for
aircraft,
which
are
of
thin gage, are being fabricated
manifolds
and
by this method. Results of tests on two aircraft materials, S.A.E. 1025 and 4130,
are
shown
in the following tables.
RESULTS OF TESTS ON WELDED THIN TUBES

Specimen
HANDBOOK
258
o3
J^
tt
qj
-;
03
-2
i-O
r\
^1
PL,
S^'-"
S"$ <^^ "
CO
o
a!
CO
t-l
CO
<
O
O
(
H
o3
CO
en
p2
H
O
-J!
O
C5
I
a
w
^
o
j3
C
O
259
METALS THAT CAN BE RESISTANCE WELDED
Good weld
Completely unifed
bu+ briHIe weld
Poor weld
No weld
Blank space- Combination
net- tried
the course of spot v/eldi'na

oafed materials, ftie coatings
frequently dissolve In the other
tals presen t or burn away
Courtesy of
" Telephone Record
260
261
FOUR SURFACE PREPARATIONS FOR SPOT WELDING ALUMINUM

Method
I.
in 50 per cent HNO3 cold for 15 sec*

Rinse in cold water. *
4 per cent NaF at 160F. for 30
Dip parts in 5 per cent NaOH
Dip parts
1.
2.
3.
5.
Rinse in cold water.

Dip parts in 50 per cent
6.
Rinse in cold water, f
7.
Rinse in boiling water. J

Dry parts on steam coils or in sawdust.
4.
8.
Method
HNO3
cold for 15 to 30 sec. to remove black deposit from step
in 50 per cent
Rinse in cold water. *
HNO3
cold for 15 sec*
3.
Dip parts
NaOH
at 160F. for 30 sec.
Dip parts
in 10 per cent
7.
Rinse in cold water.

in 50 per cent
Rinse in cold water, f
Rinse in boiling water. |
8.
Dry
4.
Dip parts
5.
6.
Method
HNO3
cold for 15 to 30 sec. to
remove black deposit from step
III.
Paint area to be welded with gum tragacanth HF acid paste and leave on for 30
Wash paste off with running cold water or with wet rags.
3.
Dry
off
paste
is
prepared from
3
10
Dissolve
sec.
water with dry rags.
Gum tragacanth
gum
3.
parts on steam coil or in sawdust.
2.
1.
3.
II.
2.
1.
sec.
gum tragacanth in
lb.
gum
gal.
tragacanth
hot water
hot water, add one gallon of alcohol to water
if
necessary to dissolve
tragacanth.
Add
10 lb. hydrofluoric acid to above solution.

Material must be stored in parafHn-lined containers.
Operators must wear rubber gloves and goggles to use this material.
In partially assembled
parts precautions should be taken to keep acid out of joint.
Method
IV.
Area to be spot welded

h.
Rub
Rub
c.
Use
a.
*
t
I
may
be cleaned by mechanical means.
with steel wool.
with
fine
emery
cloth.
fine wire brush.
Omit
steps 1 and 2 for material relatively free from oil.

Repeat steps 3 to 6 for material having very heavy heat-treating film not removed in steps 1 to 6.
Final hot water should be thoroughly free of dissolved salts and of organic matter which would tend to stain the
freshly cleaned parts.
262
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR RESISTANCE WELDING
Fig. 532.
Fig. 533.
Fig. 534.
Fig. 535.
Round, embossed projections allow the use of electrodes. Several projection welds can be made
simultaneously.
Fig. 533. Pointed or cone-shaped projections are often used on light-gage materials, such as 22 and 24 gage.
Fig. 534. Protruding punch out may help to locate parts preparatory to welding.
Wliere great strength
not
required, the punch out
sometimes electroforged down.
Fig. 535. Prick punch marks made with round punch (one blow) used in welding thick plates to light-gage sheets
Fig. 532.
flat
is
itself is
to
throw up a crater which
localizes
welding heat and pressure.
Fig. 538.
Fig. 537.
Fig. 536.
Fig. 539.
Design of embossed corners, formed over one another and welded between V-shaped
headed part can be projection welded.
or
Almost any form screw,
Slight radius on the end the rod permits to be welded to another part without throwing a
the round projection, resulting
with the heated metal
cavity
Fig. 539. The crater or
electrodes.
Fig. 536.
Fig. 537.
Fig. 538.
of
rivet,
specially
of
it
fin
or
flash.
ringlike
of
is filled
in close
mechanical contact over the whole surface.
Fig. 540.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
necessity
640.
541.
542.
543.
Fig. 543.
Fig. 542.
in order to localize the welding area.
Fig. 541.
A ring projection can be turned or coined on the shaft

Similar to
except reversed.
Projection swaged on the edges a
a method
Specially headed screws or studs prepared both to
Fig. 539,
of using jigs or fixtures.
of
piece,
of
embossing thick plates or strap stock.

weld and to locate the screws without the
localize
263
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR RESISTANCE WELDING

>
Fig. 544.
<
Fig. 546.
Fig. 545.
Fig. 548.
Fig. 547.
Fig. 549.
Elongated projections that cross each other are for the lightest gages and certain nonferrous combinaFig. 544.
tions and where a good strong weld is imperative.
Elongated projections or a pattern of ribs that cross one another gives many points of small welded
Fig. 545.
Should be used for thin sheet metal.
area.
Elongated projection for welding to a curved surface. This assures ample contact surface in the
Fig. 546.
direction in which movement is likely to occur.
Upsetting a tube to form bulges can be done by heating and upsetting on a butt welder.
Fig. 547.
Fig. 548.
Rods of almost any metal can be upset to provide increased sections or limiting rings.
Fig. 549.
Offsetting helps to locate the lap joint and also contributes to having one side smooth.
Fig. 550.
fn
Fig. 552.
Fig. 550.
Fig. 551.
Fig. 552.
blade.
Welding both
a box form simultaneously, by employing a shunt-block device.
An example "pry-bar" welding. Done by prying against parts backed up by
Coined switch contacts having three conical projections that nest a ring groove stamped
sides of
dies.
of
in
M
^
in the
Wire cable ^
Fig. 555.
Fig. 554.
Fig. 553.
Fig. 553.
When wire cables are "cut" by clamping between the jaws of a welder and burning the cable in two,
a globule of metal, formed on the ends, holds the wires together.
Fig. 554.
Pipe or heavy-walled tubes can be butted together or to other pieces. Chamfering the pipe ends
keeps flash at a minimum.
Fig. 555.
Rods or cables can be economically welded into sleeves or ferrules.
264
HANDBOOK
FURNACE BRAZING

DESIGNS OF JOINTS FOR BRAZING
PARTS HELD TOGETHER BY THEIR
OWN
SCREW
WEIGHT
FASTENING
-<ZZ>i
I
LocaHng ^
Copper
washer
^Hole for
Brazing
locoHng
Brazing
wire
STAKED
i^Z
îCoppen^
/Brazing
Copper
y wire
Nofe square corners io obiain
a consfanf minimum clearance
Brazing
'
wire
^^^
between al/portions of surfaces

to be brazed
METHOD FOR KEEPING

CORNERS CLEAN OF
FLAN6ED JOINTS
KNURLED
BRAZING MATERIAL
^Chamfer
Brazing
wire
Brazing
SWAGED
Riveted or screw fastening
iBrazing
wire
^ wm
W^
tube, spot
welding or
COUNTERSUNK
r
Hold by ex-
panding
-<^
Brazing
wire
m
^
EX PANDED TUBE
zzzz^k
pinning
RIVET
.Brazing
'
wire
mzzzzzA
CRIMPED ASSEMBLY
~ Brazing
wire
265
266
FLAME HARDENING DATA

900
26/
CASTING DATA
Centrifugal Casting
Materials Suitable.
Alumininn, bronze, Monel, beryllium copper,
iron, steels of
steel, copper, and other nonferrous materials.

Shapes. Any combinations of cylindrical shapes such as wheels, gears, screwdown nuts, bushings with tapers, and parts with varying diameters.
Maximum Size. Screw-down nuts, weighing approximately 3,600 lb. each, for a
various grades, stainless
new continuous-type
steel mill,
have been centrifugally
cast.
Finish Allowances.
Inside diameter
Outside diameter
Outside diameter,
in.
allowance,
allowance,
in.
in.
2 or less
2
4K.
4K-6.
6
-10.
Over 10
Ford casting
of
both bevel and cluster gear blanks allows only
.I32
to
He
in.
stock
for machining.
Practical minimum about H

smaU quantities
Cost. More costly
Wall Thickness,
in.
than sand castings in small

However, as quantity increases to 20 or more, the cost is little if any more
quantities.
because of the material required for extra gates and risers in sand castings. CentrifGenerally
ugal mold cost is only about 15 per cent that of a comparable forging die.
justified
as few as
can
by
centrifugal
casting
be
the cost of a permanent metal die for
10 or 12 pieces, although customarily such a die is not made for fewer than 25 or.
Relative
in
30 pieces.
Typical Examples.
The
bushings for Hamilton Standard propellers were forcopper

with scrap running as high as 30 per cent. Permamerly sand cast of beryllium
nent mold castings did not prove feasible. Scrap has been almost eliminated by use
of aluminum bronze centrifugal castings of tapered hollow bushings.
In another case, several hundred bronze rings, about 45 in. outside diameter, and
20 in. inside diameter and 3 in. thick, originally specified as forgings were found to
have satisfactory physical properties when centrifugally cast. Die costs would have
been high for the comparatively few forgings required. Another gain was less time
required to get delivery.
Permanent Mold Casting

Size limitations:
Largest permanent mold casting produced, 20

100
16
Smallest permanent mold casting produced weighed
Minimum
Up to 5
Over
34
weighing more than
in.,
lb.
less
than
oz.
tolerance, all dimensions:
+0.010
in
5 in
Add 0.001
in.
per
in. of
in.
length
268
Undercuts:
Omit wherever possible, but, if unavoidable, they can be produced through use of
collapsible metal core or, if that is impractical, by use of baked sand core.
minimum
minimum diameter
minimum
Section thickness,
Cored
holes,
Draft angle,
085 in.
25 in.
0.5 deg. per side
'
Inserts, steel or cast-iron inserts practical
Cast threads, not practical
Aluminum Die Casting

Size limitations
Maximum
practical over-all dimensions
(Few aluminum
36
12
9 in.
die castings exceed 25 in. in length)
Largest produced:
In size
By
1 in.
lb. (12
19
(14 lb.)
Greyhound buses)
weight
19
(Die-cast cases for Leeds
12
84
(Die-cast dog used as trade-mark on
20
in.)
and Northrup instruments)
Section thickness:
Large castings, minimum

Small castings less than 6 in. length or width
Avoid abrupt changes in wall thickness.
Dimensional tolerances
In any one dimension
(Frequently less by trial and error)
0.085 to 0.10
in.
0.050 to 0.065
in.
0.0015
in.
per
in.
Perpendicular to parting line:
Large castings
0.00 to -HO.OIO in.
Small castings
0.00 to -1-0.003 in.
Between points formed by removable part and die, tolerances are the same as those across parting line.
Cored holes:
Minimum diameter of cored holes
0.090 in. approx.
Length limit for through holes and blind holes:
Diameter
Under
ê
Length
3 diameters
rn.
To Min
6 diameters
Tolerances on through holes
Diameter
limit
Length limit
Over }^ in.
Larger holes.
10 diameters
No
small holes
Closer tolerances on through holes
limit
0.001
must be obtained by reaming, the hole being
in.
cast 0.005 to 0.010 in. undersize.
Cores for internal threads preferable to use threaded insert.

Draft allowances:
Outside walls, recommended
Rectangular core, on each side
Internal cores, in general, as in table below:
0.010
in. /in.
0.008
in. /in.
Approximate Diameter
OF Hole
Amount of Draft
Less than J^ in
3^ to 1 in
on diameter
on diameter
0.010-0.030 in. on diameter
(depending on size and design)
More than
in
0.015-0.020
in.
0.010-0.015
in.
If no draft is permissible, ream or, unless hole is shallow, use insert.

Small holes for tapping usually cast to root diameter of thread plus 15 per cent with standard draft added.
Inserts:
If strained,
Small pins,
should be knurled on surfaces within casting.

subject to pull, should be both knurled and grooved.
if
269
Fillets:
Avoid sharp corners
if
possible.
Finishes
Alumilite finish best on alloy 218.
Colored alumilite best in darker shades.
metals if desired.
Design to aid trimming:
Design part so that flashes will be in or parallel to main parting plane.
Cast threads:
Internal threads
External threads
best to cast threaded

can be cast and need only
insert.
light chasing to finish.
May
be plated with
common
plating
270
THE DESIGN OF DROP FORGINGS

made from bar stock wherein the lines of the fibers run
Best forging results are obtained when the forging pressure is
applied along the axis of the bar, which will compel the metal to flow wdth least distorWhen metal is compelled to flow in a direction perpendicular
tion of the fiber hues.
to the lines of the fiber by means of pressure appUed perpendicular to the flow Unes,
as in raising a boss on a flat plate, the metal will not be as strong, especiaUy in its
An even worse condition is created when the metal is
resistance to impact loads.
compeUed to flow at an angle to the direction across the grain.
Most metal
forgings are
parallel to the axis.
The accompanying
flgures illustrate flow conditions in forging bars or plates.

Forging pressure
Forging pressure
Forging
pressure
''7/777777777777777777777777777777^77/
Raising a boss in this manner

weakens the metal.
Best forging condition.
Worst
condition
when a boss
is
thrown up
on a plane making an
is
angle with the flow lines.
v
/
Vo/ume curve
l^corêc^
design
-^
Volume curve
Correct
design
>
To
mML^J^^yt^
t.
forging
assure best forging conditions, a curve of volumes, such as above, should be
This enables the designer to visualize quickly and accurately the flow conThus to the left is the volume curve
obtained from a poor design as indicated by the abrupt changes in volume. To the
right is shown the same design corrected so that the volume curve changes smoothly.
Smooth changes in volume also indicate a design that is most economical to forge.
Poor flow conditions aaoII cause an excessive amount of flash, thereby necessitating an
excessive number of forging blows, which favors the formation of cold shuts, the metal
not fiUing the die cavity. Cracks and other defects are also hkely to result if the distribution of the metal around the neutral axis is
unsymmetrical
In making upset forgings, the bar stock is rough upset
and is usuaUy so proportioned that the upset ratio on the
plotted.
ditions that \\dU exist in the forging operations.
diameter will be 13^ to 2, the length upset ratio usually 2 to

2I2, with 3 as a maximima.
If it is greater than 3 diameters,
the bariwill usually buckle. However, length upset ratio may
exceed 3 diameters, but the die and operation costs will be
Gripping die
'
greatly increased.
STANDARD TOLERANCES FOR FORGINGS UNDER
100 LB.
271
EACH*
Tolerances shall be either "special" or "regular." Special tolerances are those

which are particularly noted in the specifications and may state any or all tolerances
in any way as occasion may require.
Special tolerances apply only to the particular
dimension or thing noted. In all cases where special tolerances are not specified,
regular tolerances shall apply.
Regular tolerances are divided into two divisions, "commercial standard" and
"close standard."
Commercial standard tolerances are for general forging practice,
but when or where extra close work is desired involving additional expense and care
in the production of forgings, close standard may be specified.
Close standard may be
specified for one or more of the following classes.
When no standard is specified,
commercial standard shall apply.
Classes
Regular tolerances are applicable to the following

1.
Thickness.
2.
Width:
4.
(a) shrinkage and die wear;

Draft angle.
Quantity.
5.
Fillets
3.
and
(b)
mismatching;
(c)
corners.
THICKNESS TOLERANCES
(Inches)
Net weights up
classes:
trimmed
size.
272
Class
1.
Thickness Tolerances
Thickness tolerances shall apply to the over-all thickness of a forging.
When
applied to drop-hammer forgings, they shall apply to the thickness in a direction per-
When applied to
upset forgings, they shall apply to the thickness in a direction parallel to the direction
of travel of the ram, but only to such dimensions as are inclosed by the die.
pendicular to the main or fundamental parting plane of the die.
Class
Width and length
2.
Width and Length Tolerances
tolerances shall be ahke
and shall apply to the width and/or

length of a forging. When applied to drop-hammer forgings, they shall apply to the
width or length in a direction parallel to the main or fundamental parting plane of the
die, but only to such dimensions as are enclosed by and actually formed by the die.
When apphed to upset forgings, they shall apply to the width or length in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of travel of the ram.
Width and length
tolerances shall consist of three subdivisions:
Class 2a.
Shrinkage and die wear tolerance.
Class 26.
Mismatching
Class 2c.
Trimmed
tolerance.
size tolerance.
Class 2a.
Shrinkage and Die
Wear
Shrinkage and die wear tolerances shall apply to that part of the forging formed
single die block only.
They shall not apply to any dimension crossing the parting plane.
They shall be the sum of the shrinkage tolerances and the die wear tolerances as given in the following table. The shrinkage tolerances and die wear
tolerances shall not be applied separately, but shall only be used as the sum of the
two. They shall not be so applied as to include draft or variation thereof.
by a
SHRINKAGE PLUS DIE WEAR

(Inches)
Lengths or
widths up
to
in.

Class 26.
Mismatching
is
273
Mismatching Tolerance
the displacement of a point in that part of a forging formed by
one die block of a pair, from its desired position when located from the part of the
Mismatching does not include any
forging formed in the other die block of the pair.
displacement caused by' variation in thickness of the forging but is only the displacement in a plane parallel to the main or fundamental parting plane of the dies.
Mismatching tolerances are independent of, and in addition to, any other
tolerances.
MISMATCHING TOLERANCE
Net weight up
to
lb.
274
HANDBOOK
Class
4.
Quantity Tolerances
Quantity tolerances shall be the permissible over, or under, run allowed for each
Any shipping quantity within the limits of
release or part shipment of an order.
over, and under, run shall be considered as completing the order.
Commercial and
close tolerances shall be the same amounts.
QUANTITY TOLERANCES

The
275
mil equal the length of the

drafted surface in inches, multiplied by the tangent of the nominal draft angle.
The radii of fillets and corners may be any value not greater than those given in
toward the wide end.
total increase in the radius
the following table.

FILLET
AND CORNER TOLERANCES

(Radii in Inches)
Net weights up
HANDBOOK
276
OF
MECHANICAL DESIGN
POWDERED METAL PRESSINGS

Design Factors
Direct pressure must be applied to the entire cross section of the part when moldThe amount of pressure required to obtain a required density in the compressed compact
depends upon the malleability of the metal powder used.
Powdered metal materials have almost no lateral flow in the mold in response to pressures
Formability.
ing.
applied axially, therefore reentrant angles cannot be molded in the compact.
If
reentrant angles
must be machined to shape by conventional methods.

means
of obtaining solid, pore-free compacts.
With this
a
also die and maintenance costs are higher.
are required at planes normal to the axis, thej^
pressing may be resorted to as

however,
the operation is slow,
method,
Capacity of press available determines the maximum cross-secSize and Shape Limitations.
can
compacted.
Pressures for compacting vary from 30 to 60 tons per sq. in.
area
that
be
tional
working
stroke
of
the
press,
the compression ratio of the powder selected, and the density
The
Compression ratios range between
required all determine the length of part that can be compacted.
2 to 1 and 20 to 1 for various metal powders. Length is limited bj^ minimum density desired because
frictional losses prevent the compacting pressure from being uniformly transmitted throughout the
Hot
depth of the mold.

Shapes are confined to simple contours without undercuts in surface parallel to the axis.
Dimensional Tolerances. Possible to hold ver}^ close tolerances in cross-sectional dimensions.
Tolerances in axial dimensions must be more liberal than those in cross sections, because all
the variables add up in the length of the briquette or the sintered piece.
Tolerances for concentricity depend largely upon the clearance that must be provided between
the force and the mold, since this clearance is likely to be all on one side when the compacting pressure
Eccentricity can be corrected by operatioas subsequent to sintering, such as swaging or
but this means additional cost.
Physical Properties. Tensile strengths depend upon unit pressures employed to briquette the
powders, the length of heat-treatment, and the care exercised in control of powder.
With heat-treating and quenching, it is possible to produce from alloy powders, gears that have
higher strength, wear, and impact resistance than case hardened low carbon steel.
Strength and density may also be improved by re-pressing or cold-working if the sintered piece
is
applied.
rolling,
is
sufficiently malleable.
Design Advantages.
Parts having selected properties can be made.
Two
or
more metal pow-
ders can be used to produce alloys which retain proportionately the individual characteristics of each
Many special properties can be obtained by incorporating nonmetallic ingredients
constituent.
with the metal powder, but this I'educes strength.

Economical for the production of parts which if made by other methods would involve considerable cost for machining operations in comparison with the cost of the material, or where scrap
The more complicated the machining required by a piece made by other
losses would be high.
methods, the smaller the quantity that would have to be produced from metal powders in order to
carry the expense for tools and equipment.
277
PARTS MADE FROM METAL POWDERS

These surfaces must
be smooi-h and free y
from
burrs,
yjSharp corners
all others
approx
0.005 R
0.333
0.35$
0.557
0.562
0.095d/a
0.325^
0345
0.201
0.455 0.208
fZ^'fS chamfer
optional
0.998,
0.1665
-
"0.1695
0.0395
0.0445
0.080
0.090
0.500 R'
0.503
-^
0.459^-X'
0.448
0.458
0.1550
0.1575
0.090 max flat
as
\T'
V\o.26t-^
^'^0.281
J
^
V 0.151
âi6l
0.161
on 0.6850
musf be concentric
0.008 RmoK
O.D.
When measured
\'
0.683 spherical dia

05.55
io within O.OOZ
assemble
dia hole
wlih
I.R.
ball musi
in 0. 999
CLUTCH RELEASE SHAFT BEARING
RADIO TUNING BRAKE
Note: There can be no burr, ridge or seam

oijuncfion of cylindrical and flai
outside surface
O.D.
/
with
Grind
I.D.
O.D. -
0.0015 1.R.- Pitch circle with 10.0.00257.1?:
Burnish tooth profile
0.302
0.322'
0.015x4Schamf.OD
J2x45chamf/.D. both ends., 0.025 boih ends

j2 drilled hole - ^
in tooth space
'
^
^x45chamfer
i. r.45
chamfer''
0.0435
0.0485
I 0.0565
0.0515
^0.145 hole
0.148
0.4815
burnish
0.4825
1.2485 ^
'1.2505"
A 0.615
Ends must be square
0.015x45"
chamfer
with axis within 0.001

Total ind. reading on
SPRING HOUSING
^0.635
*
end of tooth
End grind'
Inspection data
l'45l5
^^''
0250 roll's Qjiofi
^'^''^f'?"
parallel ja^
over two feeth
0.0003 max variation of oj526 dim. on any one

gear. Tooth strength of 1200 lb shear load min.
SPUR PINION
Note: fractional dimensions
1 0.010
Face flat within 0.002 ^0.755

indicofor reading < ^
-^
1.480
-^0.020
32^'^^
t^
0.1552
0.1572
chamt
C-
0010 R
0529
Hat
^0.534.
16x45 chamfer
CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING
^0.840^
DRIVE GEAR FOR

AGITATOR SHAFTON
WASHING MACHINE
15 teeth
10 dia pitch
20 PA
500 pitch dia

Tooth shape within 1 0.00
Pitch line must run concentric with bore within 0.002
1

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HANDBOOK

Editor of Product Engineering

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY,

HANDBOOK OP MECHANICAL DESIGN

McGraw-Hill Book Company,

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

in any form without permission of

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK,

Product Engineering was launched as a pubhcation to serve the design

feature, a two-page spread illustrating standard constructions, possible variations

Griffith of Atlas Imperial

Company; the spring charts by F. Franz; the methods for calculating

Harper, H. M. Richardson, G. A. Ruehmling, T. H. Nelson, E. Touceda,

Charts and Tables for General Arithmetical Calculations

Laminated Molded Materials.

Beams and Structures

Thin Aluminum Sheet

Latches, Locks and Fastenings

Spring Wire Specifications. Design Stresses. Torsional Moduli. Allowable

Designs of Helical Springs.

Loads and Lengths.

Power Transmission Elements and Mechanisms

Shaft Diameters for Torsion and Bending.

Shaft Diameters for Torsional Deflection.

Drwes and Controls

Design Data on Production Methods

Permanent Mold Casting.

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHARTS AND TABLES

in this chapter include only those pertaining to

general arithmetical calculations, as hsted below.

machine elements or structures

chapters devoted to the design of those elements or structures.

of Inertia, Radius of Gyration,

Arc Length vs. Central Angle

Flywheels, Gears, and Armatures

Forces in Toggle Joint

Heat and Temperature

Weight and Volume

Total Resistance of Parallel Circuits

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

a straight hne through the two

at the intersection of this line with the third scale.

and 45-deg. bend, length

of arc is 4.7 in.

CHARTS AND TABLES

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

For any radius of bend greater than 2T, the length

of the sheet, the developed length

For any radius of bend between IT and 2T, the

value of L as given in the table was found by interpolation

For a sharp corner or a radius up to T:

For double bends as shown

X = V2BiR, +Ri- B/2)

total developed length

AND DEVELOPED LENGTHS

CHARTS AND TABLES

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHARTS AND TABLES

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS

Note: The ang/e

0.01745 R^arc cos