SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

An Integrated Approach to Saturation Height Analysis

Christopher Skelt, Scott Pickford Group
Bob Harrison, Enterprise Oil
Abstract

Introduction

One of the principal

contributions
made by petrophysicists to an understanding
of hydrocarbon
distribution
within
the reservoir is the saturation
height function.
Unfortunately,
the shortage of
specifically designed commercial
software forces
many petrophysicists
to transform
the input data
into a domain where it is quasi-linear,
so that least
squares linear regression techniques can be used
to derive coefficients in the equations.
This can
impose artificial
weighting
and undesirable
constraints on the fitting process.

Traditionally,
methods for predicting
water saturation as a function of rock properties
and height
above contact have fallen into two groups, those
based on capillary
pressure curve averaging,
and
log-based methods2.
The relative merits of each
approach are well known.
For example, capillary
pressure based approaches allow the petrophysicist
to relate saturation
to observed pore throat distribution,
for example by defining pore network
parameters3,
but require an accurate estimate of
the ratio of the contact angle and interfacial
tensions at laboratory
and reservoir
conditions.
A
number of log baaed formulE have appeared over
the years, and many of these demonstrate
considerable ingenuity in transforming
the observed saturation, height and rock property data such that a
curve fit can be achieved using least squares regression capabilities
of popular spreadsheet
packages.
An unfortunate
consequence of this is that coefficients in these equations cannot easily be related
to petrophysical
properties,
and varying them can
have unpredictable
effects on computed saturation.

We present a simple, robust, non-linear

formulation and optimization
method,
designed so that
each term in the function can be related directly
to a physical parameter
such as irreducible
water
saturation,
ratio of contact angle and surface tension between laboratory
and reservoir conditions,
threshold capillary entry pressure, and height difference between free water level and oil water contact. The transformatioe
applied to the function by
altering each term is predictable,
comprehensible,
and independent
of the other terms. This property
allows petrophysicists
to make optimal
use of the
log, capillary pressure and other special core data
at their disposal, capitalising
on the relative merits
of each type of data.

While development
of the saturation
height function is the responsibility
of the petrophysicist,
its
application
in determination
of hydrocarbons
in
place is often the preserve of the computer
mapping specialist.
The petrophyisicist
therefore may
be unaware of two important
factors, the extent of
the reservoir above the highest point sampled by
well data or capillary pressure data, and the variation in field area with height above free water level.
Taking these considerations
in turn:-

When deriving
a saturation
height relationship
petrophysicists
need to be be aware of the variaThe
tion of field area with height above contact.
weighting option of the optimization
process recognises this requirement,
and fits the data best where
each foot of vertical height represents the largest
area1 extent of the field.
Finally, the implications
of saturation-related
phenomena connected with variations in rock properties observed in the wells on field-wide
hydrocarbon distribution
are discussed.
The optimization
method, backed by resistivity profile modelling, is
used to distinguish
artifacts arising from resolution incompatibilities
from real rock property
variations.
-l-

If the highest data point sampled in a well

is below the top of the structure it is important that above the range of observed data
the saturation
height function behaves appropriately.

Especially in low relief structures a disproportionately

large percentage of reserves may lie
in the lower part of the reservoir.
An accurate evaluation
therefore requires a particu-

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SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

larly
are
ing
t,he

good fit where the bulk of hydrocarbons

present. This can be achieved by weightthe fit according to the field area, which
mapping specialist can easily supply.

Anecdota.1 evidence from the North Sea suggests

t,ha.t oil companies spend roughly a.s much on coring and core analysis as they do on logging and log
analysis.
Assuming that this represents a considered view on their part, it makes sense to attach
importance
to both core and log derived saturation
data.
This calls for a method of integrating
the
two data types, preferably in a way that allows the
petrophysicist
to make the most constructive
use
of their relative merits. Briefly we summarise these
as:l

Data
Limitations
A full discussion of t,he
limitations
of log and capillary pressure measurements
is beyond the scope of this paBriefly
however,
petrophysicists
are
per.
aware that commercial constraints sometimes
prevent full pressure equilibrium
from being reached in low permeablity
plugs, and
recognise that a core measurement
charact,erizes only a tiny piece of rock, removed
from the reservoir.
The uncertainties
in log
based water saturation
are related inter alia
t.0 t,ool measurement
accuracy, resolution limit.ations, and the validity of the chosen saturation equia.tion.
Height/Pressure
Origin
Although
hydrocarbon water cont,acts can be identified
on
open hole logs, the more fundamental
free wat,er level cannot, other than by reference to
formation
pressures. This can be an important issue in fields with widely varying rock
properties.
It is not a problem with capillary
pressure data where the origin is zero pressure, which is analogous to free wai,er level.
Height/Pressure.
Scaling
Log based true
vertical depth measurements
provide an obvious reference for height input into the saturation height equation.
Capillary
pressures
are converted using an estimate of the ratio
of interfacial tension and contact angle at laboratory and reservoir conditions.
This tends
to be obtained from charts generated using
typical
fluids and cannot easily be verified
for a particular
field.
Data
Quantity
Typically
several orders of
magnitude
more data points are available
from the log data set, although
frequently

the transition
zone is not well sampled if nonnett beds are present immediately
above the
contact.
In contrast, the petrophysicist
has
fewer capillary pressure measurements
at his
disosal, although these have the advantage of
yielding an essentially
continuous
profile for
a particular
rock type, and provide resolution
t)hrough the transition
zone.
Consequently,
a method for integrating
the two
data types should make use of the consistent origin and continuous profile of the capillary pressure
measurement,
taking advantage of the height axis
and possibly the larger data quantity
of the wireline log domain, while recognising
the limitations
in accuracy of both.

Functional

Requirements

The function presented in this paper has been designed according to the following requirements,
in
the context of the considerations
already outlined.
The function looks like a plausible saturation
height profile and is well behaved over and
beyond the height range of observed data.
It should be possible to weight the curve fit
such that observed data is particularly
well
honoured where field area is largest, or the
majority
of hydrocarbons,
or recoverable reserves, are present.
Although
it is desirable to use both log and
capillary pressure data, there should be no requirement for both data types to be present,
and it should also be possible to use any other
relevant data, such as Dean-Stark
water saturations.
Changing
terms in the equation has a predictable effect on the shape of the function,
independent
of other terms.
Terms in the
function should relate as closely as possible
to physical phenomena or observations.
It should be possible to toggle between pressure and height domains by the application
of
scaling and displacement
factors to optimize
and confirm the fit.
The general form of the function relating hydrocarbon saturation
sh to height above free-water level
h is:-

SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

For capillary pressure

alent expression is:-

PC measurements

the equive

Sj, = 1 - S, = a exp

,$
(

a, b, c and d, by minimizing
the absolute differences
between observed and calculated data. Various degrees of freedom may be applied to the coefficients
during the minimization
process.

>

Depending
on the context a, b, c and d are constants, or alternatively
they may be simple functions of rock properties such as permeability.
Figure 1 shows the effect on the function of altering
each coefficient.
l

a is the asymptotic

hydrocarbon

. b is a vertical scaling factor for the curve as a

whole, which may be used to transform data
between the laboratory
pressure and height
domains.
c distorts
the vertical
axis to account for
the saturations
not following the simple form
a exp -b/h.
Both b and c are related to pore
throat size distribution.

. d applies a vertical displacement

to the entire
curve, and can be used to locate the free water
level.
Two important
considerations
in the process of fitting data to a generic algorithm
need to be addressed.
l

No limits are set on the computed

the coefficient.

Upper and lower bounds

puted value, constraining

The coefficient
value.

value

of

are set on the comit within limits.

is set to

a predetermined

NNN

saturation,

1 - sw,,,+

What criterion
is used to characterize
the
best fit? Although
least squares error minimization
is popular, it is not necessarily the
best method to use with data that is skewed,
Having
and often peppered
with outliers.
tried least squares minimization,
we have chosen to fit by minimizing
absolute differences
which, although
mathematially
more difficult, is less affected by the non-Gaussian
distribution
of a typical dataset.
What, if any, weighting should be applied to
the data? This depends on the purpose of
the fit. The requirements
for field-wide saturation mapping may be different from those
of localising the hydrocarbon
water contact.
The program allows an individual
weight to
be attached to each data point.

In order to investigate
these requirements
a program has been written
in Visual Numerics
PVWave fourth generation
programming
and visualization environment
to optimize any combination
of

Different criteria may be chosen for each coefficient.

For example, a could be fixed, b and c allowed to
vary over an infinite range, and d constrained withing limits of (say) *lO units.
The method should be considered a totally
general approach which can be tailored according to
the data available to solving a wide range of saturation height related problems.
Rather than lay
down specific rules, we present examples showing
its application
in different contexts.

Examples
Example

1 -

Modelling

Transition

Zone

The example shown in figure 2 is a discovery well,

drilled close to the top of the structure.
In the absence of geological control from other wells, hydrocarbons in place are to be mapped using constant
rock properties throughout
the accumulation.
The hydrocarbon
water contact is clearly visible
in a massive sand.
Unfortunately,
above about
95Oft, a comparison of core and log data suggests
that computed water saturations
in the rather thin
sands are raised by the contribution
to conductivity by the adjacent shales. An evaluat)ion of hydrocarbons
in place should therefore refer to airshown
brine capillary pressure data measurements,
on figure 3. It has been established that these were
made on rock that is representative
of the field.
Rather than rely on empirical
correlations
to convert capillary
pressure to height above free water
level, the core a.nd log datasets are reconciled by
allowing b and d in the general formula to vary.
First, an averaged a.ir brine capillary pressure curve
is characterised,
setting d to zero, by

-2.35
Sh = 1 -S,

= 0.791exp

7
(

-3-

c >

o.7g2

SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

Figure 3 shows that a close fit is achieved. If tradit,ional practice were to be followed, PC would be
converted to height using the ratios
P c(m) - Pc(lab)

h=

Y cos ~,e,

This resistivity
profile was convolved
with
the induction tool response and the resulting
synthetic
resistivity
profile compared
with
the original log.
Modifications
were made to b and d as necessary, and steps one to three repeated until an
acceptable match, as shown on figure 4, was
obtained.

Y cos slab

P c( ?-es)
dP water - Pod)

R.efereuce to literature5
suggests that interfacial
tension at reservoir conditions is likely to be in the
ra.nge 10 - 20dynes/cm,
which implies a large uncertainty
in transforming
pressure to height, especially immediately
above the contact, where saturat.ions change rapidly.

The final values of the coefficients

tion mapping were

In terms of the general formula, it should be possible to rescale the capillary

pressure axis into a
height axis) and pick the free water level, by carrying out the minimization
process with log saturat,ions and vertical depths, fixing the values of a
atltl c at the values found for the capillary pressure
clat.a., a.ntl allowing the program to find the opti111~m b and d.
In fact, this approach yielded invalid results. Saturat,ion build-up
above t,he contact on figure 2
is a. relatively
straight
line, compared
with the
more curved capillary pressure characteristic.
This
anomaly can be explained
by the lack of resolution of the 6FF40 induction tool. A more rigorous
derivation of the saturation
height function involves
iteratively
modelling (The Fastdip modelling software used in preparing
this paper was supplied
by Dr. R. Hardman
of 6FF40 Inc.)
a resistivity
profile generated from the averaged capillary pressure curve. Each iteration comprised the following
steps:-

used for satura-

This places the free water level at 996.5ft , and implies a capillary
pressure to height conversion factor of 0.733, which reference 6 suggests is within the
large range of plausible conversion factors. Figure 4
shows that the modelled resistivity
profile yields a
synthetic induction
curve that closely matches the
original curve, and that the computed water saturations agree well with core derived water saturations
in the thin sands towards the top of the interval.
Although
the hydrocarbon
water contact is visible
in nett sand in this example, the same technique
can of course be used to locate a down-dip contact,
or one obscured by a shale bed.

Example

2 -

Area

Weighting

Figure 5 shows log data and computed results, indicating a hidden hydrocarbon
water contact in the
massive shale between 950 and 1000 ft. This region
is characterised
by low permeability,
and hydrocarbon builds up slowly with height. Figures 6 and 7
show this in the context of the mapped area of the
accumulation,
with the heavy broken curve showing how the product of hydrocarbon
saturation
and
area is distributed
vertically.
A function that accurately evaluates hydrocarbons
in place needs to
honour the observed data particuarly
closely where
the bulk of the hydrocarbons
are present, achieved
by weighting the data points according to their hydrocarbon saturation
area product.

I. A theoretical
resistivity
profile was created,
startling at 1015ft with a constant value for
R, of 0.6Qm for a distance of d feet, d being
chosen as an estimated
distance to the observed contact. Above d, resistivity
was comput,ed from wat.er air-brine water saturation
using the Archie equation.
Rt = R,IS;
where..

No special core analysis results are available for this

well, although regional information
suggests that
values of about 0.93 and 0.82 are appropriate
for a
and c in the general equation.
Imposing these values, and solving for the best value of b and d, noting that heights are reference to lOOOft, with data

0 792

2. A constant value of 0.9Rm was assigned to

shale beds, identified
using the gamma ray
and core description.
-4-

SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

points weighted according to hydrocarbon

saturation area product, yields the following values.

By comparison,
solving with equal weights
dat,a points yields the expression:

for the

S,, =1-S~=0.93exp(~)og
A comparison
of the two fitted curves on figure 8
is illuminating.
Weighting
the data points yields a
contact nine feet deeper than the unweighted case.
The unweighted fit matches the observed data bett,er over the top ca50ft of the interval,
while the
weighted fit better fits the deepest points.
This
exa.mple demonstrates
the fragility
of methods for
extrapolat)ing
to hydrocarbon
water contacts, particularly as the vertical scaling factors, b in the general formula, differ by only about 2O%, a very small
percentage error in an estimated conversion factor
from pressure to height.
For comparison,
the two computed
hydrocarbon
saturation
area product curves are plotted on figure 9. As expected they differ particularly
towards
the base of the interval, and merge towards the top,
further edorsing the decision to weight the data.
In pratical terms then, the effect of weighting in this
case is to improve the fit to observed hydrocarbon
saturations
towards the base of the interval, resulting in a somewhat deeper estimated
contact, and
5.2% more hydrocarbon
in place.

Discussion
Our method shares some characteristics
with earlier work314 but is distinguished
by some important differences, which we believe render the important reconciliation
between the capillary
pressure
and height domains easier.
In fact, the method
of reference 4 was developed
in an environment
where . capillary
pressure data is usually not
available. . whereas our technique arose from the
problems of reconciling data from the two domains.
We acknowledge
the pioneering
work carried out
by Thomeer
in introducing
a set of pore geometrical factors, relating saturation to capillary pressure.
Using the notation of reference 6:-

sb = sbcs,exp

-Fg
1% pc/pd
-5-

Our function shares the broad form, but differs in

the behaviour of the exponent,
the form of which
has been developed to address difficulties
encountered by the practising petrophysicist.
A discussion
of the physical significance
of each term beyond
the introduction
under Functional
Requirements
is outside the scope of this paper, which aims primarily to introduce practical methods to solve real
problems,
particularly
in the area of making the
most constructive
use of all available log and core
data.
We believe that iterative
methods to solve nonlinear equations are under utilized in the petrophysical community.
Indeed, reference 2 lists a number
of relationships
which demonstrate
great ingenuity
in their use of polynomials
and logarithms
to transform the data into a domain where it appears to be
linear, before applying a linear regression method.
Some advantages of our curve fitting philosophy are
listed.
The effect of changing coefficients of the equation on the computed curve are comprehensible in their natural units of saturation
and
height or pressure than they would be if transformed.
A variety of criteria, such as minimization
of
least squares or absolute differences, can be
compared, and the effect of outliers and nonGaussian distribution
assessed.
Weighting functions can easily be applied, to
bias the fit to, for example, the height range
where most rock, or the majority
of the hydrocarbons are present.
These considerations
have led to a technique that
lends not only to accurately
modelling
saturation
height behaviour,
but perhaps more significantly,
understanding
and controlling
the sources of error.
We have not presented
a multi-well
example,
largely due to the difficulties
of obtaining
data release for an entire field. Nonetheless,
we can confirm that the technique has been used successfuly
on multi-well
datasets, and that in these circumstances the implications
of any weighting
need to
be clearly thought through.
Both examples presented here assume that saturation mapping
is to be carried out with constant
petrophysical
parameters
over the field.
This is
common practice when mapping a reservoir with
little well control. If sufficient well dat,a is present
to model variations
in saturation
behaviour
with

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SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

permeability,
porosity, facies etc., the same general
formula has been used, substituting
simple mathematical expressions for any or all or a, b and c.
Derivation
of these formulae can similarly
be carried out using a combination
of core and log data,
and has been found to yield water saturation
profiles which faithfully
reproduce observed data.

Conclusions
A general function has been introduced
to characterise saturation
as a function of height above
contact,. Several examples of its use are presented,
although they represent only a small sample of the
problems which have addressed by the method.
Although
the terms in the formula may be related
t,o physical characteristics
of the rock and reservoir,
this is not the primary purpose of the paper, which
aims primarily
to introduce
a practical
technique
to the community
of practising
petrophysicists.
The function has be shown to be sufficiently
pliable to achieve a close fit to a dataset of saturation and height or capillary
pressure.
The use
of area1 weighting
allows the user to derive coefficients which model the observed data best over t.he
depth range where the majority
of hydrocarbons
are present.

Glossary

us to the Esthetic
tion.

pleasures

of non-linear

optimiza-

References
1. Heseldin G.M., A Method of Averaging
Capillary Pressure Curves, 1974, SPWLA 15th Annual
Symposium.
2. Cuddy S., Allinson G. and Steele R., A Simple Convincing
Model for Calculating
Water Saturations in Southern North Sea Gas Fields,
1993,
Spwla 34th Annual Symposium,
Paper H.
3. Thomeer J.H., Air Permeability
as a Function
of Three Pore Network
Parameters,
1983, JPT
Vol. 35 No. 4, pp 809-814.
4. Smith D., Predicting
a Downdip Water Level
Using Capillary Pressure Relationships,
1991, The
Log Analyst Vol. 32 No. 5., pp 571-574.
5. Livingston
H.K., Surface and Interfacial
Tension of Oil-Water
Systems in Texas Oil Sands,
1938, AIME Tech Paper 1001.
6. Thomeer J.H., Introduction
of a Pore Geometrical Factor Defined by the Capillary
Pressure
Curve,
1959, 34th Annual Fall Meeting of SPE,
Dallas.

About

the Authors

Christopher
Skelt
has an MA in Engineering
from Emmanuel
College Cambridge,
and an MSc
in Bioengineering
from The University
of StrathClyde, Glasgow.
He entered the oil industry
as a
Field Engineer with Schlumberger
in 1977. Since
1984 he has dedicated himself to petrophysics,
with
Schlumberger,
Shell and, since 1991, with the Scott
Pickford Group.

Area of structure at a given elevation

Acceleration
due to gravity
Height above reference
Archie saturation
exponent
Capillary
Pressure
Wet formation
resistivity
True formation
resistivity
Hydrocarbon
saturation
Water saturation
Surface tension
Contact angle
Density

Bob Harrison
has an MSc in Petroleum
EngiHe enneering from Imperial
College, London.
tered the oil industry in 1979. After a lengthy spell
with British Gas Exploration
and Production,
he
joined Enterprise
Oil as a Staff Petroleum
Engineerin 1993. He was Editor of the 1989 SPWLA
North Sea R, catalogue,
and the 1995 LPS Russian Style Formation
Evaluation
Manual.

Acknowledgements
We t.hank our employers for providing the time and
resources to write this paper, the contents of which
represent our personal views. The oil companies
which released data for the examples presented are
gra.tefully
acknowledged.
Thanks are also due to
Charles Wood, of Scott Pickford,
for introducing
-6-

SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

Effect of Altering a
!
I

1
I

Effect of Altering b
-I

I
I

: plpcreasinga

i !
i !
I
I
I
I *
\
I
I

I
I

i
I

NNN

Hydrocarbon

Saturation

II
ii
ii

Saturation

Effect of Altering d

Effect of Altering c
:I

Hydrocarbon

i
i

i
/
\I I /

+ Increasing d

\\
1,\\
I), \\
\\ A,.
\\\\~ I .A---- ._

----------._.
---.

\. , -\ -._
... --A._. ---_
------Hydrocarbon

Hydrocarbon

Saturation

Saturation

Figure 1 - Effect of Altering Parameters in S,,=a exp -(b/(h+d))

-7-

SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

GR

150

0.2

ILD

20

SW-NE-IT

CORE SW
xxxx-ixx

960

980

. .
. .
.

fig2.ps

27.Mar-95

13:45:22

Figure 2 - Discovery Well Logs Core Data and CPI Results.

XXXX

Cap Pressure Data

Fitted Curve
960

980

i
/

0.0

0.2

0.4
0.6
0.8
Water Saturation

1.0
fi&ps

Figure 3 - Fit to Air/Brine Capillary Pressure Curve

27-Mar-95

12:21:25

Figure 4 - Resistivity and Saturation Profiles

-8-

SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

NNN

8.50

900

950

000

fig5.p~ 27-Mar-95

12:40:09

Figure 5 - Logs and CPI Results.

-f&

SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29,1995

2
s
5
0
2
.o
5
>

800

800

850

850

c?

7
2
5
>

Satn Area Product

Structure Area

G
E.

900

900
c

\
950

950

1000
0.0

l-w

0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
Hydrocarbon Saturation

Figure 6 - Saturation vs. Height

Log Data

Weighted Fit

- -.

4
Structure Area

Figure 7 - Area and Hydrocarbon Area vs. Height

8001

u-l

200 /-

IOOOI

1.O

Log Data

Weighted Fit

Unweighted Fit

z
6M I
z

0.8

0.6
Hydrocarbon

0.4
0.2
Saturation

Figure 8 - Results of Curve Fit

0.0

0.0

0.5

I.0
Hydrocarbon

1.5

2.0

Area

Figure 9 - Hydrocarbon Area vs. Elevation