[2]

The relationships between sentences:

Sentences can also be semantically related to one-another in a few different ways.
Semantic relationship
Paraphrase

Definition
Example
One relationship that two sentences 'The boys like the girls' and 'the
can have with each other is being

girls are liked by the boys',

paraphrases of each other. This is a 'John gave the book to Chris' and
good example of how we all

'John gave Chris the book'.

understand semantics already on

some level because people can
easily tell when a sentence is a
paraphrase, because when two
sentences are
paraphrases of each other, even
though the form is different you will
understand the same meaning from
them. Paraphrases have the same
truth conditions; if one is true, the
other must also be true.
Entailment

Entailment is a little more tricky than

paraphrase in that the two sentences
don't mean exactly the same thing,
instead, when one sentence entails
another, for the second sentence to
be true, the first one must be true.
There are two different types of
entailment.

Mutual enatilment

When each sentence entails the

other, i.e. each sentence must be
true for the other to be true.

Asymmetrical entailmentWith asymmetrical entailment, only

'John is married to Rachel' and

'Rachel is
John's wife',
'Chris is a man' and 'Chris is human'.

'Rachel is John's wife' entails 'John

one of the sentences must be true

is married' (but John is married

for the other to be true, but that

does not entail Rachel being his

sentence may be true without the

wife), 'Rachel has two brothers'

other sentence necessarily having

entails 'Rachel is not an only child'

to be true.

(but Rachel not being an only child

does not entail Rachel having two
brothers).

Contradiction

Sentences can also be semantically 'Rachel is an only child' and

related when they contradict each

'Rachel's brother is called Phil',

other. Sentences contradict each

'Alex is alive' and

other when for one to be true the

'Alex died last week'.

other must not be.

[2]

Ambiguity:
One of the aspects of how meaning works in language which is studied most in semantics is

ambiguity. A sentence is ambiguous when it has two or more possible meanings, but how does
ambiguity arise in language? A sentence can be ambiguous for either (or both!) of the following
reasons:
Lexical Ambiguity: A sentence is lexically ambiguous when it can have two or more possible meanings
due to polysemous (words that have two or more related meanings) or homophonous (a single word
which has two or more different meanings) words.

Example of lexically ambiguous sentence: 'Prostitutes appeal to the Pope'. This sentence is
ambiguous because the word 'appeal' is polysemous and can mean 'ask for help' or 'are attractive to'.
Structural Ambiguity: A sentence is structurally ambiguous if it can have two or more possible
meanings due to the words it contains being able to be combined in different ways which create
different meanings.
Example of structurally ambiguous sentence: 'Enraged cow injures farmer with axe'. In this
sentence the ambiguity arises from the fact that the 'with axe' can either refer to the farmer, or to the act
of injuring being carried out (by the cow)
'with axe'.[2]

Semantics in the field of Linguistics

Semantics looks at these relationships in language and looks at how these meanings are created,
which is an important part of understanding how language works as a whole. Understanding how
meaning occurs in language can inform other sub disciplines such as Language acquisition, to help
us to understand how speakers acquire a sense of meaning,
and Sociolinguistics, as the achievement of meaning in language is important in language in a social
situation. Semantics is also informed by other sub disciplines of linguistics, such as Morphology, as
understanding the words themselves is integral to the study of their meaning, and Syntax, which
researchers in semantics use extensively to reveal how meaning is created in language, as how
language is structured is central to meaning.
To find out about some of the key researchers in semantics please follow this link.

References
[1] http://www.universalteacher.org.uk/lang/semantics.htm [Accessed 3.05.2012]
[2] Wood, G.C., (2011). Lecture on Introduction to Semantics at the University of Sheffield.

University of Sheffield 2012

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