UNIT III

Introduction
Light by definition connotes Electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in the range from
about 4,000 (violet) to about 7,700 (red) angstroms and may be perceived by the normal unaided
human eye. In fact in the prehistoric days, all human activities were coordinated with Sunrise
and Sunset. Today, in principle activities are carried out round the clock. All this is made
possible because of Artificial Lighting systems. The lighting systems comprise of a source
employing any physical phenomenon among Incandescence, Electrolumniescence or
Flourescence. Some control scheme and a Luminaire. In fact all this has lead to a class of
professionals called Lighting Engineers or Illumination Engineers. Unlike other group of
professionals they need to be adept at not only at exact sciences of Maths, Physics, Chemistry;
but be wary of Physiology and Psychology of users (like a medical professional); have good
aesthetic sense and economically utilize resources (like an architect video Fig. 1). Efficacy of
these systems is talked in terms of Illuminance per Watt of energy consumed. Efforts are on to
reduce energy conmsumption yet have efficient Illumination to enhance productivity. Need less
to mention that all these sources employ electrical energy. Trend these days is to employ,
modern electronic controls together with energy efficient lamps. These aspects are borne in
mind, right from the planning stage of a building. As electrical energy is being used for the
purpose, it becomes important for Illuminating Engineer to come up with an integrated system
for the complete electrical system of a building.

Medicine

Physiology
Psychology

Illumination
Engineering

Math
Chemistry
Physics

Architecture

Usefulness
to
Humanity

Economics
Art
(Aesthetic point)

Fig. 1 Professions-sciences-usefulness relationship.

1. Necessity of Illumination
Humans depend on Light for all activities. Light is a natural phenomenon, very vital for
existence, which is taken for granted. In fact, Life involves day night cycles beginning with
sunrise and ending with sunset. Pre-historic man had activities limited only to day time. Artificial

light enables extended activity period employing in an planned optimized manner, minimizing
the resources.
Vision is the most important sense accounting for 80% information acquisition for humans.
Information may be acquired through sun/moon light (direct/ reflected) or by using artificial light
(closest to natural light). Before we go any further, it is worth looking at Teichmullers definition
for lighting. We say the lighting is good, when our eyes can clearly and pleasantly perceive the
things around us. Therefore Artificial light should be Functional and pleasant both
Physiologically and Psychologically. This is often achieved employing multiple sources. It must
be borne in mind that the sources should be economic and energy efficient. As all of us are
aware, all sources today employ electrical energy.
Electrical energy is supplied as a.c. (alternating current) or d.c. (direct current). Usually electric
power supply is a.c. in nature, either single phase or three phase. It must be borne that close
circuit is a must for current flow. As it is well known losses exist in all electrical circuits or lines.

By definition Losses = i R, where i = line current in A,

R = line resistance in longer the line higher the resistance and higher level.
Thus for a particular power level current decreases with increase in voltage i.e.
p = v x i (instantaneous power). Hence, losses are minimized by supplying at higher voltages.
Normal sources of electrical energy are either hydro or thermal (coal based or nuclear). Usually
power stations are located very far from load centers. Therefore, power is transmitted at high
voltages.
It may be mentioned that, standard levels of power transmission being 132, 220, 340, 400, 735,
765, 1000 kV ac. HVDC or High Voltage Direct Current transmission is also fast catching up as
an alternative.
Fig.2 shows a single line diagram of a typical Power System with all its components.

~
Generator11/
33 kV

Xmission line
132/220/400 kV

Distribution line
66/33/11kV

400
V

Fig. 2 Typical Power System

We know that load is always unbalanced for a practical 3-phase system. Fig 3 shows the
waveform of a 400 V 50 Hz a.c supply. Here, 400 V, 3 phase, 50 Hz connotes that supply is
three phase a.c. at a frequency of 50 Hz with a line to line voltage of 400 V rms, which translates
to 564 V peak value.
V
564

2
1
ms

ms
t

Fig. 3 Waveform of 400V, 50Hz a.c supply

In view of the fact that artificial Illumination employs electrical energy in a.c form, next, we
address each fundamentals of a.c generation.

Physical Processes Employed in the artificial sources

1. Incandescence
Thermo luminescence is by definition radiation at high temperature. The sources employing
this process are Incandescent Lamp, Gas Lamp, (flames and in oil Lamps and wax candles).
They lead to a continuous spectrum of radiation.

2. Luminescence Luminescence Electro luminescence by definition Chemical or

Electrical Action on gases or vapour radiation. Here color of radiation depends on the material
employed. Usually this process leads to Line or Band Spectrum.

3. Fluorescence
Fluorescence is a process in which radiation is absorbed at one wavelength and radiated at
another wavelength eg: UV impinging on Uranium Fluorescent oils. This re radiation makes
the light radiated visible.

4. Phosphorescence
Phosphorescence is a process when energy is absorbed at some time and radiated later as glow.
Examples of this process are Luminous paints that contain calcium sulfide that lead to
Phosphorescence. They produce light Radiation after exposure to light.
In practice good efficient lighting is obtained by combining Luminescence and Fluorescence.
Fluorescent lamp is Luminescent source of low luminous value activating Fluorescent surfaces
which lead to visible radiation. Here intensity depends on gas or vapor involved and phosphor
material. However, the temperature of the material play a role in radiation. That is taken up
next

Laws of Illumination
The original standard of light was Wax Candle, which is highly unreliable. It was replaced by a
Vaporized Pentane Lamp. This is equal to10 original Candles. In the year 1909, Incandescent
Lamp was taken as standard by comparison with a Pentane Lamp. Thing to be kept in mind is
Primary Standard should be reproducible. It was in1948, Luminous Intensity; based on
Luminance (objective brightness) of a small aperture due to Light from a Radiator maintained at
1773c i.e. Solidification temperature of platinum was adopted as Standard. It consists of:
1. Radiator Fused Thoria Thorium Oxide. 45mm long internal dia of 2.5mm. Packed
with Fused Thoria Powder at the bottom.
2. Supported Vertically Pure Platinum in a Fused thoria crucible with a small aperture of
1.5mm in a large refractory container.
3. Platinum melted by a High Frequency Eddy current.Luminance = 589000 Candles /m2
600 000 units
The standard is shown in Fig.1.

Transparent
Common unit of light intensity is candela. It is Luminous intensity in the Perpendicular direction
of a surface, 1 / 600,000 of a black body at temperature of solidification or Freezing of Platinum
under Standard Atmospheric pressure. It is abbreviated as Cd. It is indicative of Light Radiating
Capacity of a source of Lamp.

Fig. 2 Light flux

Consider a transparent sphere of radius 1m shown in Fig.2. If we place a 1 Cd source at the
2
centre then light flux coming out through an area of 1m over 1 steradian solid angle will be 1
lumen.

Thus Luminous Intensity over 1 Str. by 1, Cd, we call it 1 lumen 1 lm. Basic unit of Light
Flux. Total Flux = 4 lumens, out of the sphere in Fig 2.
If the Solid Angle be d and Luminous Intensity I Cd at the center then Luminous flux in d =
d = I d lm.
I=

d
Cd
d

Yet another important unit is MSLI. It means Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity. Average
value of Luminous Intensity in all directions. Therefore for the case in Fig 2.
= I 4 lumens
Now we define Luminous intensity on a surface. It is known as Illuminance. It is Luminous Flux
2
2
per unit area or lumens per sq m. = lumen / m = lm / m = lux (lx).

Fig. 3 Definition of Illuminance.

Frechners law
Weber in 1830 found that I Stimulus (Intensity) produces dI Least perceptible increment
affecting sense organs. Then the ratio
dI
I

= Constant "

Under fixed 1) Fatigue

2) Attention and
3) Expectation.
Thus we have sensitivity given by the equation
S = C log

""" Io

"(2)

Here I0 is the threshold intensity. This is known as Frechners Law. The same percentage change
in stimulus Calculated from the least amount perceptible. Gives same change in sensation.
Sensation produced by optic nerves have logarithmic dependence or relationship to Light
Radiation producing the sensation.

Inverse Square Law

Intensity of Illumination produced by a point source varies inversely as square of the distance
from the source. It is given by the equation and as shown in Fig. 3

E=

I
D

""""(3)

Where I is

Lamberts Cosine Law of Incidence

E = I cos
"""(4)

D2

This tells us the variation of Illuminance on arbitrary surface inclined at an angle of . As

shown in Fig 4.

Fig. 4 Lamberts Cosine Law of Emission

I = I cos """"(5)

Fig. 5 Typical Lighting Scheme

Fig. 5 shows a lamp placed at A, bm above the floor. For this scheme Fig 6. shows the
variation of Illuminance on the floor. It is well known that Illuminance is maximum under the
lamp at B.

Fig. 6 Variation of Illuminance

Illuminance at B =

LI in direction AB
b2

Illuminance at C =

LI in direction AC
AC

LI in direction AB Cos

(b2 + d 2 )
LI in direction AB b
3
(b2 + d 2 ) 2

Cos =

b
2

b + d2

Illuminance at C = Illuminance at Bx Cos3

=

Illuminance at B
3

[1+ (d b)2 ]

Next is to measure the candle power of the lamp. Typical measurement can be done using a
photometric bench shown in Fig. 7 where IS represents standard lamp. IX represents test lamp.
There is a screen at the centre called photometer head, adjusted for equal brightness on either
side. Applying inverse law one can arrive at the value of IX.
This lesson introduced the primary standard and other terminology related to measurement of
light flux.

Fig. 7 Photometric Bench

Photometry
Primary Standard was defined in an earlier lecture based on the brightness of a body (i.e. black
body) maintained at Freezing Temperature of platinum. Unit of Luminous Intensity abbreviated
as is candela cd(z). Light Flux hence emanating from a point source in all directions is
Illuminance - lumens and is termed msli is the light flux incident on a task surface in lumens
per unit area and is called lux. Comparison with a standard. Normally Primary standards are kept
in standards Laboratories. Usually Incandescent Lamp Compared with a Primary standard is
used as a Laboratory Standard. The test source / lamp is compared With the Laboratory
Standard. However, Incandescent Lamp not suitable beyond 50 100 hours Standardization of
Lamp is by voltage rating Current rating and wattage.
These measurements comprise photometry. They employ a Photometric Bench with a
photometric head which is an opaque screen. These measurements involve compassing the test
lamp with standard lamp
a. by varying the position of comparison lamp (standard Lamp) Is
b. by varying the position of the test lamp IT
c. by varying the position of the screen
Measurement is complete when the bench is balanced. It is balanced when two sides of the
screen are equally bright [in a Dark Room] as shown in Fig. 1.

Photometric Bench

I
S

s
2

I
T

IT = I s
2

T
S

2
2

Fig. 1 Photometric Bench

Measurements may be made on Illumination meter or Lux meter also in this instead of the screen
adjust the meter to get the same reading on photometric bench. Fig 2. shows a method where
distance is varied to get the same reading on the meter.

Fig. 2 Use of Lux meter on Photometric Bench

Alternatively, the distance on the bench may be kept constant and readings on the meter are
noted.

Fig. 3 Photometric Bench with Lux meter at a Constant Distance

Then the intensity of the test Lamp is given by the relation
I = I
s
T

I T = Is

Reading with Test Lamp

(i)

Reading with Standard Lamp

R 2 (ii)
R1

Fig. 4 Integrating Photometer

Fig 4 shows a typical photo meter. It has a standard point source L of Light at the centre of a
opaque sphere. It has an opening W where a photo cell is placed that receives diffused light from
the source. Window W is shielded by diffusing screen C from direct light. Reading on the
micrometer is first taken with a standard Lamp and later with the test Lamp. Then we have
msli of test Lamp
(iii)
= reading with test lamp
msli of standard Lamp

reading with standard lamp

from this, one can obtain light flux output of the test lamp by multiplying msli with 4.
Fig. 5 shows the photocell employed in a photometer. In a photocell sensitive element S is
selenium coated in the form of a thin layer on a steel plate P. This is in turn covered with a thin
layer of Metal M on which is a collection ring R.

Fig. 5 Photovoltaic cell

Sensitive element is a semi-conductor that releases electrons upon exposure to light. Selenium
and Cuprous oxide are most suitable semi-conductor materials. Steel Plate P coated with thin
layer of Selenium at 200c and annealed at 80c Producing crystalline form. It is in turn coated
by a thin transparent film of metal M with a collection ring R of metal.

Fig. 6 Top view of a photo cell

B is the barrier Layer Upon exposure to light light enters through M releases electrons from
metallic Selenium. They cross barrier B to M and are collected through R and P Current
indicated by (A) is proportional to Illuminance. Often (A) is a micro ammeter calibrated in lm.
The next aspect of photometry is to look at the luminance curves of the Lamps. Here comes the
role of Luminaries. Luminaries primarily provide the physical support to the Lamps. They may
be directing, globes, reflecting or refracting. They could be supported on the walls using wall
branects. They may be portable units on pole mounted in case of street Light. In all cares we
need light distribution curves. Light distribution curves are curves giving Variation of Luminous
intensity with angle of emission in a Horizontal plane i.e. Polar angle Azimuth or Vertical plane,
passing though centre.
Fig 7 shows a typical Polar Luminance distribution curve of a point source of Light. From a
Polar Curve in order to arrive at msli of the lamp a Rousseau diagram is constructed. Fig 8 shows
such a construction.

Fig.7 A typical Polar Luminance distribution diagram

Fig. 8 Rousseau Diagram

Consider the Polar curve A for the typical lamp with O as centre of the Lamp Draw a semicircle
of convenient radius OB = OC Insert no. of radii. From the top of there radial segments. From
the tip of the radial segments draw horizontal lines extended to cut the vertical line to scale
depending on length of Radic. Then the average width of the curve DP Q R S F is msli.

Luminaire
They Provide Support and electrical connection to the lamp. They are used to control and direct
the light and distribute as required. They help to keep the operating temperature within
prescribed limits. Using Rousseau diagram, graphical techniques are employed to obtain the
MSLI. They should be easy to install and maintain and have a pleasing appearance. They are
expected to b economically viable. Thus Requirements for good luminaries may be listed as
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

to provide support & electrical connection to the lamp

to control, direct & distribute light as required
to keep operating temp. within prescribed limits
should be easy to install & maintain
should have aesthetically pleasing appearance and
be economically viable

In them Lens & prisms can be used for focusing the light one has to keep in mind Depreciation
which is often used as Maintenance factor varies from 0.85 0.6. This lesson had a look at the
ways of measuring light output of a Lamp. They consisted using photometric bench, either by
comparison or reading on an illumination meter. Luminaries which form integral part of
Illumination system are characterized by polar luminance curves. Way to assess their luminance
has also been discussed.

Incandescent Lamps
Natural Illumination due to sun which is 93 million miles away and 865,000 miles in dia, and has
27
temperature > 6000c, leads to 2.3 10 cd. Luminance. Moon, 240,000 miles away and 2160
27
miles dia, is said to have I 1.0 10 cd. In order to provide artificial Illumination one of the
following Physical Properties is employed:
Incandescence depending on thermo luminescence,
Luminescence depending on electrical discharge in a gas or vapor
Fluorescence depending on radiation of visible light by absorbing ultra violet light and
Phosphorescence involving radiation at a latter point in time.

Incandescent Lamps
Incandescent Lamps were first invented by Edison in 1879. They employed Carbonized Paper as
Filament. It was Fragile. Later it was improved by coating with a Hydrocarbon. In 1893
Cellulose Filament was developed from absorbent cotton dissolved in ZnCl. Normally Filament
is mounted in a glass bulb and maintained in vacuum (type B) gets heated upon Passage of
current and typically radiating 3.3 lm / W. They are called Type B lamps. In 1905, Metallizing
by heating Carbon filament at high temperature in an Electric furnace efficiency improved to 4.0
lm/W. In Europe Osmium a Rare & expensive Fragile filaments were employed with 5 lm/W
radiation. It was soon, replaced by Tantalum a Ductile material (1906 - 1913) by crystallizing by
application of ac leading to 5 lm/W radiation. In 1907 Tungsten Filaments entered with 7 lm / W
radiation. Finely divided Tungsten Powder is mixed with a binder and squirted through a die. In
1911 Coolidge developed Tungsten in ductile form which could result in a Continuous uniform
Filament. It was Rugged and had very high efficiency. Langmuir introduced use of inert gases
and improved the radiation efficiency (1913). They ware called type C.

Fig. 1 Incandescent Lamps

Fig. 1 shows a typical Incandescent Lamp. It has filament made of Tungsten of S. G. 18.81
before drawing, 19.3 20.2 after drawing with a high mp of 3655K. (Osmium with a mp of
2972K & Tantalum with a mp of 3172K). Were other materials Theoretically 52 lm / W
radiation is possible at m.p but Practically, Highest radiation of 35.8 lm / W is achievable. They
are available from 250W Flood Light with a life up 3 hours to 1500 W (at 115 V) of 1000 hr life
radiating 22 lm / W. Smaller lamps being 6 W(at 115 V) with a 1500 hr life radiating 6 lm / W.
Smallest Lamp being used in Surgical Instruments of 0.17 W of Grain of wheat radiation 0.35
lm. Largest Lamp being 50,000 W; 1,600,000 Lumens. Equivalent to 1000 - 100 W Lamps. Inert
Gases are introduced in the Glass envelope to decrease the vaporizations of Tungsten. The gases
Nitrogen and Argon are most suitable. Conduction Losses in a gas are proportional to velocity of
gas molecules. Velocity is inversely proportional to square Root of atomic weight. Argon with
atomic weight of 39.8 and Nitrogen with atomic weight 28.0 are most suitable. Ionization
Potential of Argon is low. Hence a mixture of Argon and Nitrogen in the ratio of 85% Argon
15% Nitrogen are employed. Concentrate the filament over a small region. To adopt tightly
wound helical coil.

Fig. 2 Blackening of Glass Bulb

Fig. 2: shows darkening of Glass bulbs due to vaporization of Tungsten. Hence the lamps are
called either
Type B Vacuum
Type C Gas

< 40 W rating or
> 40 W using Inert gases

During operation Filament evaporates and Tungsten particles deposit on the interior of Bulb in a
Vacuum Lamp. Tungsten Filament cross section of the Filament decides the current Rating and
varies as square of dia. The radiation surface varies as dia. With decrease in operating voltage for
the same wattage filament becomes larger. If a lamp of 40W were to operate at 115 V and has a
cross section C 1 , it becomes C 2 at 220 V then C 1 > C 2 .
S
S
S
S

Fig. 3 Voltage vs Efficiency

Fig. 3 shows variations of voltage with luminous efficiency for 40 W and 100W lamps. As may
be observed for both the lamps variation in luminous efficacy between 200 240V is very little.
It implies that small variations in voltage do not effect the light efficiency. Where as in the 110V
region variation is significant though one gets higher efficacy compared to 220V region.

Fig. 4 Performance Curves

Fig. 5 Characteristics with change in voltage

Figures 4 and 5 show the performance of Incandescent Lamps. As may be seen from Fig. 4 both
luminous efficacy lm/W and light flux lumeses reduce to 20% of Virgin values. Fig 5 shows the
effect of variation of voltage from rated value. From this it may be said that although light output
may reduce marginally when voltage reduces, one can get near 90% performance at about 95%
rated voltage. Fig 6 shows the survival rate. More than 81% survive 80% stated life. Only 30%
survive beyond 100% stated life.

Fig. 6 Survival Rate

Filament characteristics depend on Filament Length, Diameter, Coil Spacing, Lead wires,
No. of Supports, Method of mounting, Properties of Gas, Gas Pressure, Bulb Size and
Shape of the Bulb.

The lamp is said to be most economical for the intended Service, if uniform radiation is there at
stated wattage with guaranteed efficiency and Life Rating. Lamp characteristics may be
quantified interest of
Watts W, Lumens F, Lumens per watt E, Life L, and Volts V
Equations (1) to (4) give the characteristics. They all show dependence on exponents a, b, c, d, e,
f, g and h.
Table I shows the typical values for Gas Lamps and Vacuum Lamp
a
w = v
V (1)
W
( 2) ?
b
c
= W
f = V
v
w
F

( )

( ) ( )

Typical cal values of Exponents

E
=
e
l
L

( Vv ) = ( f F )
d

( 3)

( ) = ( f ) = (e )
V
v

( 4 )

Table I: Typical Constants

a

1.54

3.38

2.19

1.84

0.544

13.1

3.86

7.1

1.58

3.51

2.22

1.93

0.540

13.5

3.85

7.0

G
A
S
V
A
C
U
U
M
This lecture covered the characteristics of Incandescent Lamps. One important specifications of
any light source is power consumed in watts. Any lamp is guaranteed to give radiation at stated
efficiency, if operated around rated voltage.

Discharge Lamps
Incandescence was employed in Tungsten Filament lamps. Halides were employed to reduce
blackening of the bulb. Lumniescence and Fluorescence increase efficiency far beyond
incandescence. Discharge of electricity through a tube containing a conducting medium leading
to electron Flow is employed in Lumniescence. This calls for an abundant supply of electrons.

Electron Emission
Electron emission is a process by which abundant supply of electrons is obtained. Electric Field
Emission is employed in Cold cathode Lamps. Electrons are pulled out by application of High
Potential. Thermionic Emission is employed in Hot cathode Lamps. Electrons are emitted even
at a low voltage by heating. Barium / strontium oxide on a base of iron or Tungsten is used as
Cathode. Photo electric Emission: Striking with Light Radiation of Photons, emission is
achieved. Thus gas / vapor made Luminous by an electric discharge. Color / intensity of light
are dependent on Gas / vapor employed. Intensity is proportional to the current. Commonly
used gases are Neon, Mercury and Sodium. Cold Cathode needs large energy consumption at
the cathode with decreased efficiency. This may lead to disintegration of cathode with high
velocity positive ions due to large Potential drop at the cathode. Blackening of cathode does
occur. They have Long Discharge Tubes with Low voltage Lamps. Mercury Vapor Lamps give
light of Bluish Green, deficient in red rays. In this case color rendering (CRI) improves at high
Pressures. Considerable distortion in colors occurs. Mercury oxide coated Cathodes
(Electrodes) are employed. In a typical discharge lamp coated tungsten wire electrodes with
Strontium Oxide or Barium oxide coating are located at the opposite ends of a glass tube.

Mercury Vapor Lamp

Arc is a Constant Current Phenomenon. The starting electrodes are connected to lower electrode
through a resistance (R). Arc tube contains Mercury at the desired vapor pressure. Pure Argon
initiates arc prior to vaporization as pressure is increased Radiation moves into visible
spectrum. Standard Rating are 100,250, 3000 W with a typical illumination of 35 lm / W.
Arc initiation takes place at 20V at about 5A. Argon arc lasts for 2 min with a bluish Glow. At
about 137 V, 3.2 A Mercury vaporizes and takes over. Run up time or arc initiation time is up
to 30 minutes. Lowest run up time is around 2 minutes. Ballast is a reactor in series that limits
the current. Typical Power factor 0.65 0.7 capacitors added across the Lamp improve power
factor to 0.94.

These lamps are suitable for Factory Lighting, Exterior Lighting / Flood Lighting and Street
Lighting. They need 5 min of cooling before restarting. It is found that Combination Lamps
UV + Visible Light termed SUN Lamps with 3 min of Run up time and 5 min for restarting are
more useful. They give out a band spectrum. Mercury Radiates around 320 400 nm.
Remember 365 nm is in the U.V. region.

Sodium Vapor Lamp

It is similar to High Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp. It is in a hermetically sealed Glass tube with
Sodium vapor. Electrodes are elliptical foil of Molybdenum and Coiled Barium oxide coated
Tungsten. In one half cycle, Tungsten at the top acts as cathode, Molybdenum at the bottom acts
as anode. Other Half cycle electrodes are reversed. Pure metallic sodium does not initiate arc. It
needs a starting gas. Neon acts as a starter. This requires preheating, heaters are provided with in
the Lamp. The Lamp glows with Red Color (Neon vapor), Orange yellow arc (sodium vapor
arc). Leads to a line spectrum of radiation.

Figs. 3 to 7 show the Radiation spectrum for various sources along with curves for human eye
sensitivity. In each curve the hatched region indicates, theoretically possible radiation energy in
the visible region. It may be observed that incandescent lamp has maximum energy in the
visible range and has a continuous spectrum.

Fluorescent Lamp
Employs transformation of UV radiation due to low pressure mercury vapor. Luminescent
Powder in tubular vapor Lamps Enhances brilliancy of light. Radiation from Low Pressure
Mercury Vapor (which is in UV region) is impinged on Luminescent Materials and re radiated
at longer wavelengths of visible spectrum. In a Glass Tube small drop of Mercury and small
amount of Argon gas are placed for initiation of discharge. Pressure, voltage and current are so
adjusted that 253.7 nm line is excited. This re-radiates at longer wavelength. Typically a 40W
lamp requires 2-3g of phosphors. Maximum sensitivity is around 250 260 nm. Various types
of Fluorescent Lamps are:
1. Day Light Fluorescent Lamps
- Average Noon Day Light. 6500k suitable where demands are not exacting
2. Standard white Light - 3500k general Lighting.
3. 4500k white Lamp between std. white Light & Day Light Lamp.
4. Soft white Lamp Pinker Light. 25% lower light output than Std. white Lamp suitable
for Residential lighting and Restaurants.
Dimension and Voltage depend on Luminous Efficacy, Brightness, Lumen Output and Lumen
Maintenance. Reliable Starting is achieved by having preheated cathodes / hot cathode. Half the
open circuit voltage should be used by the Lamp and the other half by the ballast. Lamp Voltage
decides the arc length, bulb diameter and lamp current. Hot Cathode lamps operate at lower

voltage < cold Cathode lamps. Typically cold cathodes have 70-100V drop at the cathode.

Figure1 shows the schematic of a typical Fluorescent lamp. In a normal lamp the ratio of
open circuit voltage to lamp voltage drop is 2 where as in an instant start lamp it is
around 4.
Figure2 shows the radiation sensitivity of various phosphors. As may be
observed, the peak sensitivity at 253.7 nm is for Zinc Beryllium Sulphate. Table 2 lists
various phosphor properties. For each material emitted color after fluorescence, range of
emission, peak emission wavelength and peak sensitivity are listed. It may be observed
that Zinc Beryllium Silicate has peak emission coinciding with peak eye sensitivity.
Hence this is the most commonly employed phosphor.

Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur

Table 2 Characteristics of Fluorescent Chemicals

Phosphors
Calcium
Tungstate
Magnesium
Tungstate
Zinc. SiliCate
Zinc Beryllium
silicate
Cadmium Silicate
Cadmium Borate

Color

Exciting
Rang nm

Sensitivity
Peak nm

Emitted
Range nm

Emitted
Peak nm

Blue

220-300

272

310-700

440

Blue
white
Green

220-320

285

360-720

480

220-296

253.7

460-640

525

Yellow
white
Yellow
Pink
Pink

220-300

253.7

480-750

595

220-300

240

480-740

595

220-360

250

520-750

615

Illumination Systems
It is time we looked at an illumination system as a whole. These systems tend to produce
radiation close to natural radiation. They employ artificial sources. These sources obey Laws
of Illumination. The quantification is done through Photometry. Thus an Illumination system
consists of Lamp which may be Incandescent lamp, Discharge lamp or Fluorescent lamp along
with control gear placed in a suitable luminaire.

Luminaries
Luminaire or Luminaries provide support and electrical connection to Lamp or Lamps within it.
They control, distribute and direct the Light on to the object. They ensure that lamps are operated
in a way such that operating temperature is kept within prescribed limits. They should be easy to
install and maintain, aesthetically pleasant and economically viable. Systems may be commercial
or general. Usually Fluorescent Lamps with one or more at a preferred mounting height less than
5 6 m are used for general lamps. Fluorescent Lamp may be Batten Fully exposed or Multi
lamp type. Ventilated-Reflectors with Mirrors optics are used. Difference lies in control of
Luminous Intensity, Luminous distribution, No. of Lamps. One may recall that for a
Point source of radiation

1 (e.g one can recall that Incandescent Lamp),

2

1 (e.g. Tube Lights), and

Line source of radiation
d
Plane Source of Radiation independent of distance (Ideal situation).
Hered is the distance to the source of light. Designer aims in locating Lamps in this fashion.
Reflectors help in controlling and directing the light. Louvres-opening with slanted Slates are
often employed. Fins / vanes are provided to ventilate. Batten mounted lamps amounts to no
control. Most systems have enameled reflectors. Improved ones have Mirror reflectors.
Additional control obtained through louvre shields and opalescent shades. Reflectors help direct

in a desired solid angle. Louvres may have Square Mesh Box type Luminaries or Diamond
Mesh or Lamellae -Thin Plate Layer type.

Fig 1 shows a typical luminaire with reflector and louver. The luminaries may be recessed in the
ceiling, mounted on the walls (or a surface) or take box shape as shown in Fig 2. They are
suspended at times.

Efficiency of Luminaries is expressed in terms of Light Output Ratio LOR

LOR =

light output with luminaries

individual light output(w/o luminaries)

This includes both downward as well as upward light. Down ward light is important from the
utilization point of view. Hence, DLOR is crucial. Up ward light illuminates indirectly by
reflection. With Mirror Reflectors, LOR goes up and Glare comes into Consideration.

Industrial Luminaries
Coming to industrial areas if in the Interior-up to 6m Fluorescent Lamp with matt white reflector
are employed. In High bays beyond 6m Discharge Lamps with Mirror Reflectors are employed.
Luminaries in Hazardous Areas are specially deigned. They are encapsulated in boxes made of
steel or cast iron exterior housing to avoid any explosion, sturdy resisting pressure.

Categories of Explosive Areas

In this respect explosives are as are categorized as

Zone 0 Explosive all the time,

Zone 1 Normally Explosive and
Zone 2 Explosive Abnormally.
Here moisture & dust are taken care by Gasketted Luminnaires Completely sealed eg: in a
Shower or a Laundry. Emergency Lighting is required when normal lighting fails. Escape
Lighting sufficient for evacuation typically 1 10 lx. Safety Lighting 5% normal Lighting
is provided in Potentially Hazardous areas. Stand by power supply required for activation of vital
implements. A permanent, separate, self supporting Power system which is reliable and mains
rechargeable batteries in each Luminnaire are provided
Non Permanent - Auto Switching - Emergency Generator - Battery Supply is also used.

Road Lighting
Conventionally by they are arranged in a column, mounted on a wall or suspended by a span
wire. Plane of Symmetry being in vertical plane perpendicular to the axis of the road along the
road. Catenary suspended from a catenary cable parallel to the axis of road. Plane of
symmetry parallel to the axis of road. They employ Corrosion Resistant sturdy materials and are
usually closed.

Flood Lights
Rain Proof Lamp holder with wide / narrow beam Reflectors are used for flood light. They are
usually High wattage Incandescent Lamps, Halogen Lamps, High Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp
or Low / high Pressure Sodium Lamp.
Spot lights / down lights are usually used with Screens, Reflectors, Filters, Colored envelope and
Closed Lamps.
Down lights are Spot lights when suspended.
This lesson has had a look at the components of an Illumination system under various scenarios.

As already brought out the components of an Illumination system are Lamp, the Radiation
Source, Luminaire that directs and controls the light flux. Control Gear is the accessory that
helps in controlling the requisite amount of flux on the work plane. Now we take a look at the
accessories involved. First of these is Ballast. In a discharge lamp a series impedance to limit the
current is required. If the current is allowed to increase there can be explosion of the lamp. This
takes the form in a.c. as Inductance-w/o undue loss of power. This is called Ballast. It should
have high power factor for economic use of the supply and should generate minimum harmonics.
It should offer high impedance to audio frequencies.It should suppress-Electromagnetic
interference (Radio interference-TV interference). It is essentially, a reactor of a wound coil on a
magnetic core often called Choke and is in series with the lamp. Typical power factor is 0.5 Lag.
Power factor is improved by having a capacitor connected across input lines.

Fig 1 shows the connection for a discharge lamp employing a ballast formed by a reactor
commonly known as choke. Fig 2 shows how the capacitor may be connected to improve the
power factor. As may be seen the capacitor is placed in shunt. At times a lead circuit may result
by placing a capacitor in series as shown in Fig 3. However, when a illumination system
employing two lamps is used power factor may be improved by having one with a lead circuit
and other with a lag circuit as shown in Fig. 4. Next important accessory is a starter that initiates
the discharge in a discharge lamp. Starter is marked as S in the Figs.1 to 4. Starter less circuit
are shown in Fig 5. They employ pre-heated filament electrodes. The preheating obtained
through a small portion of voltage tapped from the input source.

When discharge lamps are used on dc the ballast takes the form of a resistor together with
associated power loss. These days they take the form of an electronic ballast which converts dc
to high frequency ac of around 20 kHZ.
Except high pressure mercury lamp where V > VS (starting) all lamps need a starting device.
At times, it is integral part of a lamp. Switch start employs bimetallic strip that opens upon

heating. Starterless, rapid start or instant starts are useful for outdoor applications. Other
forms of starters employed are three electrode devices called ignitors.

Ignitors are small 3 electrode devices, which are ignited by control pulses from small electronic
circuit. Typically Metal Halide lamps require 600 700V and Low Pressure Sodium Vapor
lamps require 400- 600V. Ignition is through a Thyristor that generate a set of HV pulses, which

are stopped after Lamp glows or ignited. High Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamp needs about
3000V.
Different Light Flux Levels are required at different times. This consists Local and General
Lighting taken care by having dimmers and lamps of different wattages. Fig. 7 shows a typical
Dimmer stat.

A dimmer stat is an autotransformer that can give a variable output voltage. Fig. 8 shows a
typical metal halide lamp employing ignitor as a starting device.
Fig. 9 shows a typical scheme for a multi watt circuit. Typically street lighting requires
such multi watt lamps. High wattage lighting is employed during heavy traffic and low wattage
during the rest of the night.
This lecture thus covered the accessories necessary in an Illumination system.

An important issue in effective use of an illumination system is Glare. Glare by definition

brightness within the field of vision that causes discomfort, annoyance interference and eye
fatigue. It reduces the visibility of an object. This is the common fault of lighting installations. It
injures the eye, disturbs the nervous system, causes discomfort and fatigue, reduces efficiency,
interferes with clear vision and increases risk of accident.
Glare is experienced, when Lamps, Windows, Luminaries, other areas are brighter than
general brightness in the environment. Glare may be Direct and Reflected. Direct glare results
from bright luminaire in the field of vision. Reflected glare arises due to reflection of such a
source from a glossy surface it is more annoying than direct glare can be avoided by appropriate
choice of interiors.
Direct glare, minimization or avoidance is possible by mounting luminaries well above the
line of vision or field of vision. Limit both brightness and light flux (in the normal field of view).
Disability glare is that level of glare that impairs the vision. Whereas Discomfort glare only
causes feeling of discomfort that increases or depends on time of exposure. There is no reduction
of visual acuity but leads to fatigue. Annoyance is at lower ever luminance of the glare but
source is more than the general luminance. Solid angle subtended at the observers eye in the
field of view is a measure of glare. There is a need to look at the Glare Evaluation System.

Glare Evaluation
Visual comfort system is most common evaluation in the USA/Canada. This is expressed as
percentage of people considering an installation comfortable as viewed from one end. Glare
tables list various proportions and layout of room for glare free lighting. Figure of merit is based
on a source of 1000 lm.from a luminaire. If VCP 70% then the system is said to be glare free.
British method employs Zone of luminaire with a classification for quality of light expressed as

Glare index. Luminance limit system is adopted in Australia. Standard code for Luminaire base
lamp. dep. on room dimensions, mounting height and a Empirical shielding angle

Luminance curve system is employed in Europe.

Luminance limits for luminaires critical angles, are 45 < < 85. Quality class is expressed
from A to E type is based on Luminaire orientation.
Type 1. Luminous sides when Luminous side plane> 30 mm
Type 2. Elongated -

length
>2
width

Orientation C0 C180 Plane

Table I
Shielding Angle
Luminance Cd/m2
L 2.104
2.104 < L 50.104
L > 50.104

B
10
15
30

Glare Limit
D
0
5
15

E
0
0
0

Lamp
Fluorescent lamp.
HP discharge lamp
LP Sodium lamp
HP Discharge clear

Table I lists for different types of lamps effective shielding angle. Quality class A denotes very
high level; B denotes high, C medium D low and E very low.
General light is predominantly light coming downwards. Typically reflectance of 0.5 for walls /
ceiling and 0.25 for furniture.
How is Glare evaluated?
1.
2.
3.
4.

Determine luminance of the source between 45 - 85

Determine the quality class and illuminance required.
Select the curve class / level.
Determine. Max. Angle to be considered from length & height and plane of eye level &
plane of luminaires. (Refer to Fig 1)
5. Horizontal limit based on a / h, part of the line ( or curve) to be ignored.
6. Compare luminance of one luminaire with selected part of the limiting curve.
No glare if luminance given by the curve > actual luminance over the whole range of Emission.

Table II

Luminance
curve system

British Glare
Index
American VCP

Quality Service values of Illuminance (lux)

class
2000 1000 500
300
A
2000 1000 500
300
B
2000 1000 500
300
C
2000 1000 500
E
2000 1000
F
Curve
a
b
c
d
e
f
letter
15,5 17,0 18,5 20,0 21,5 23,0
75% 65%

Glare
rating
1.15
1.50
1.85
300
2.20
500
300 2.55
g
h
24,5

26,0

45%

Table II lists glare in dicer and curves to be used for different levels of illuminance and quality.
Quality
class
A
B
C
E
F

Service values of Illuminance (lux)

2000

1.15
1.50
1.85
2.20
2.55
a

1000
2000

500
1000
2000

300
500
1000
2000

300
500
1000
2000

300
500
1000

300
500

300

Fig 4 and 5 show the luminaire curves to be employed for different levels for Type I luminaire
and Type II luminaire.

IllumA (B)

IllumD

IllumC

1
2
3
4

1.35 I/h2
1.72 I/h2
1.85 I/h2
1.91 I/h2

1.425
1.798
1.902
1.943

1.43 I/h2
1.827 I/h2
1.919 I/h2
1.95 I/h2

1
h
Illuminance at A (B) =
1+

h2 h2 +1

(i)

Namely height is an issue in avoiding glare. Fig. 6 shows two lamps placed at a height h from
ground at A and B. As can be seen from relations (i), (ii),(iii). Illuminance below the lamp falls
rapidly, less rapidly at the mid point C.
Illuminance at C =

(ii)
*2

h h 2 + 0.25

h

1
Illuminance at D =

h 2 h 2 + (0.75) 2

h 2 + (0.25) 2
h

(iii)

h (i) (ii) (iii)

2

Glare from windows is the next issue. Sky has a typical luminance of 2000 Cd/m . Horizontal
Illuminance 10,000 lx. under overcast conditions. It is prevented by curtains, blinds, louvers.
Opening of windows can be reduced. Shift the work plane away from offending windows. i.e.
normal field of view no light enters from the offending window on the work plane. Lightest
decorative finish on surfaces surrounding window openings. Veiling reflections and reflected
glare are allowed outside the task. Reflected by glossy surface semi matt. Mild distraction can
cause considerable discomfort. When glare (bright light) on the task. Veiling reflection reduce
task contrast with some loss of details.
Glare can be minimized by not locating in the forbidden zone, increase light from sideways at
right angles to the direction of viewing. Luminaries having large surface area with low
luminance may be employed. Working surface to be provided with reduced reflection preferably
Matt surface
CRF (Contrast Rendition Factor) is yet another index and influence of Lighting on Task Contrast
and Task Visibility is Contrast Rendition Factor. By definition
Task visibility =

Given Emmision
Sphere Illuminance

Where Sphere Illuminance is the Illuminance by the source providing equal Luminous Intensity
in all directional in a hypothetical sphere. (ESI)
Observer is located / views at angle of 25 to the vertical. Observer considered to be viewing
pencil task which id believed to be slightly conveying.

This lecture has had a look at glare, how originated various evaluation procedures and ways to
minimize.

Interior Lighting
Interior Lighting is a complex problem depending on various factors such as

Purpose intended service,

Class of Interiors.
Luminaire best suited,
Color effect and
Reflection from ceiling, walls, floors.

Good Lighting means intensity should be ample to see clearly and distinctly. The light
distribution should be nearly uniform over a part of the room at least. It should be diffused that

is soft and well diffused. Color depends on purpose and taste source but should approach
daylight / yellow. Source location should be well above range of vision. To avoid glare intrinsic
brightness is reduced by diffused glass ware and by remaining objects of secular reflection from
range of vision. Shadows are a must for accentuating depth but should not too apparent abruptly
or dense, they are not to be harsh and should toned down.
Standard practice is to have general lighting in all areas at a level comfortable to eye. It should
eliminate dark shadows and avoid sharp contrast. In order to emphasize on parts that should be
shown. Light sources located such that visual importance of object is kept in mind. Lamp may be
concealed or counter lighted with a very low attention value to itself. Glare minimized by
diffusing.
American Institute of Architects Recommends for Good Illumination.
1. General. Lighting effectively illuminate all objects/areas with due regard to relative
importance in the interior composition. Adequate for eye comfort throughout the room
elimination of dark shadows and sharp contrasts preserve soft shadows for
roundness/relief lighting emphasis on those parts that need first attention.
2. Light sources be subordinated in visual importance to the things intended to illuminate,
except rarely when itself is a dominant decorative element. Unless concealed/counter
lighted, that they are not apparent they have extremely high attention value dominate
the scheme. If visible so disposed to attract eye to major feature of room than
themselves.
3. Glare must be eliminated. Result of intense brightness in concentrated areas within the
line of vision. Produced by excess brightness of visible light.

reflection of bright lights from Polished low diffused surfaces - extreme contrast of
light/shade
Employ means of diffusing at source or finish the room - with Diffusing/Absorbing
materials rather than reflecting material.
4. Level of illumination to be adequate for the type of eye work. Local lighting to
supplement general lighting adequate illumination working at m/cs desks reading
tables High level local lighting is always to be accompanied by general lighting to avoid
eye strain and minimize controls. If glare is avoided there is no over illumination.
Natural light limits are for outdoor 107600 lux and 1076 lux for indoor. Level should be
adequate for eye task expected.
5. General lighting is to be related and controlled to suit the mood. While worship,
meditation, introspection need low levels. Gaiety, mental activity, physical activity or
intense activity needs high levels. Theaters, homes and restaurants may need levels varied
according to mood. Shops level should be appropriate to woo customers through
psychological reaction. Offices, factories and schools adequate illumination to work w/o
eye strain.
6. Light source must suit interior in style, shape and finish in all architectural aspects.

Trends
It is always taken care to keep brightest surface not greater than 3 4 times brightness of task on
hand whereas brightness of task not greater than 3 4 times darkest surface. That is to say
luminance ratio from brightest to darkest is 10:3:1. Eliminating glare results in good visibility,
eases viewing, and creates pleasing psychological effect. All the calls for large light sources
covering entire ceiling approaching sheet of light. This ensures good uniform illumination all
over the room! Commonly white ceiling with semi indirect luminaires. One may employ false
ceiling (white or off white) with translucent diffusing material on top of which an array of lamps
are located. Major defects in lighting design are too bright luminaires, too dark floors and
furniture. Preferred scheme is to have light color interiors with large sources of low brightness.
Day light illumination or natural illumination, constantly changes, varies with weather, time of
the day or season. Typically lower daylight levels on upper levels. This required looking into
openings or windows. It is observed that at 20 25' from window, daylight falls below 10lx
under these conditions artificial general lighting needs to be turned on. Common technique is to
partially screen them, thus makes uniform general lighting. Top section of window should be as
close to ceiling as possible. It controls the light to the deepest end of the room. Normally height
to top window not less than the depth of the room. Window area is responsible for glare.
Hence termed glare are. Glare area = 1/5th the floor space. Shades, baffles, louver, diffusers are
employed to control glare
If X be the artificial illuminance that is sufficient for the task on hand: natural daylight
illuminance (minimum) = 2X. Say windows are located only on one wall. Width of the room less
than 2 times height to top of the window is preferred. Say windows are located on the opposite
walls, width between the walls not greater than 6 times height to top of the window.
Location of lamps based on candle power, maximum allowable spacing, height at which located.
Too great a spacing introduces dark shadows and dark spaces. Preferably lamps closer to ceiling,
clear of obstructions are useful. They may be mounted on surface, suspended or recessed in the

ceiling. Typically tasks of great visual acuity are at a plane 1.2m above floor low hanging light
units are used for local lighting. In using a matrix of lamps spacing not greater than mounting
height.
Remembering that a plane source of light gives out light flux which produces illuminance
independent of distance, mounting height is redundant when approaching a sheet of light.

Interior Finish
It is an important issue in interior lighting. Color reflectance affects utilization white or off
white or yellow are preferred. Typical reflectance for Ceiling is 70 85%, for Walls is 45
60%, for Floor is 10 20%. In addition systems need to be maintained regular by Periodic check
preferably when lux levels fall by 20 25%, time to replace lamps. Usually luminaires are likely
to collect direct light. 1 times of minimum requirement is taken to take care of this. If voltage
is maintained properly energy costs will be optimum. If voltage greater than labeled voltage, life
is shortened. If voltage is less than labeled voltage, less light output results. Lamps and
Luminaires are washed, cleaned. Direct lamps have less dirt, indirect lamps have more dirt.
Luminaries are wiped with brush/dry cloth if necessary with a damp cloth. Grease removed by
washing. Painting walls/ceiling every 1 - 2 years ensures good lighting levels. Clean offices
may be lit using direct/indirect fluorescent lamps. Dusty smoky factory lit by mercury vapor
direct or sodium vapor lamps. Replacement strategy should be related to large no. of lamps reach
70% of life preferably in a group.
This lesson covered issues pertaining to interior lighting. Best thing is to approach near plane
source of light. Reflectances of Walls, Ceiling and Floor also matter. Last but not least a good
maintenance strategy is required.

Sports Lighting
This lesson addresses sports lighting application. Lighting for sports facility looks for comfort of
four user groups namely Players, Officials, Spectators and Media. Players and officials should
see clearly in the play area to produce best possible results the object used in the game.
Spectators should follow the performance of the players. In addition to play area surroundings
also need to be illuminated. Lighting should be such that it enables safe entry and exit. With
increasing crowd level safety becomes more and more important. Media include TV and film, for
whom lighting should provide lighting such that conditions are suitable for color picture quality
as per CIE 83. This should be suitable for both general pictures as well as close up of players and
spectators. Additionally, it should have provisions for emergency power supply to provide
continuous transmission.
Criteria relevant for sports lighting are Horizontal Illuminance, Vertical Illuminance, Illuminance
Uniformity, Glare restrictions, Modeling & shadows and Color appearance & rendering

Horizontal Illuminance
This becomes important as major part of view is illuminated playing area. Illuminance on the
horizontal plane serves adaptation of the eye. It acts as a background, so adequate illuminance is
important. For safe entry and exit adequate illumination is required in the circulation area also.

Vertical Illuminance
Sufficient contrast across players body is essential for the identification of the player. This is
possible only if sufficient vertical illumination is there. This is characterized by both magnitude
and direction. Players need adequate vertical illumination, from all directions. Spectators and
Media need illumination only in defined directions. Generally, if horizontal illuminance is taken
care, vertical illuminance levels become adequate. Usually vertical illuminance is specified or
measured at a vertical height 1.5 m above the play area. Apart from player recognition and
picture quality vertical illuminance should enable observation of movement of ball (or object
moving in the sport concerned) above the playing field by both players and spectators.
Spectators stands are also part of the environment and must also have adequate vertical
illuminance, more from the safety point of view.

Illuminance Uniformity
Good illuminance is important in both the horizontal and vertical planes. If it be good it does
away need for continuous adjustment of cameras. This is achieved by having Illuminance
Uniformity. Uniformity of illumination is expressed by two indices:
Lowest Illuminance
U1 =
(1).
Highest Illuminance
(2).

U2 =

Lowest Illuminance
Average Illuminance

For best conditions of Illumination ratio of average illuminance in the horizontal plane to vertical
plane should be between 0.5 and 2.0.

Glare
When disturbing brightness nears or enters field of view, glare is said to be there. As already
caused at low levels it could cause discomfort or annoyance but can be disabling at higher levels.
It is minimized by a proper choice of flood lights or luminaries, located suitably and aimed in
appropriate direction.

Modeling and Shadows

Ability of lighting to reveal form and texture provides overall pleasant impression of players,
ball and spectators. It depends on direction of the light, no. and type of light sources. Shadows
from narrow beams are termed hard are deep. The while light from luminous side lighting
termed Flat produce no shadows. These are two extremes and are not desirable. Later
improved by few spotlights. Good quality pictures on TV require good modeling. Hence, for
media to limit shadows about 60 % light must come from main camera side and 40 % from
opposite side.

Color Appearance and Color Rendering

Good color perception is very important for complete recognition. Some color distortion is
acceptable in the field but becomes important for media transmission.
Color has two distinct aspects:

i.
ii.

Color appearance of the light that takes care of color impression of the total environment,
essentially due to the lamp.
Color rendering of the light, the ability to reproduce color of an object faithfully.

Depends on spectral energy distribution of light emitted. Color appearance obtained from color
temperature varying between 2000 (warmer) to 6000 (cooler) K. Color rendering is specified by
CRI or Ra. Maximum possible CRI being 100, which is comparable to day light situation.
Higher the Ra more agreeable is the environment.
Table I lists the recommendations for various types of sports in terms of E Average Minimum
Horizontal Illuminance and Illuminance Uniformity indices.

Table I
Sport
Athletics
Indoor

E (lux)
Level
of
activity

U1

U2

Ra

Tk

A
t/r
Ca
Cp

200
300
500

0.3
0.4
0.5

0.5
0.5
0.7

65
65
65

2000
4000
4000

t/r
Ca
Cp
Badminton t/r
Ca
Cp
Basketball
Indoor
t/r
Ca
Cp

100
200
400
300
600
800

0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5

0.3
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7

20
20
65
65
65
65

2000
2000
4000
4000
4000
4000

300
400
600

0.4
0.5
0.5

0.6
0.7
0.7

65
65
65

4000
4000
4000

Outdoor

t/r
Ca

100
200

0.2
0.3

0.3
0.4

60
60

2000
2000

t/r/Ca
Cp

750
1500

0.5
0.7

0.7
0.8

65
65

4000
4000

t/r/Ca
Cp

100
200

0.4
0.5

0.5
0.6

65
65

4000
4000

Outdoor

Cricket
Indoor
Outdoor
Football
Indoor

Outdoor
Table
Tennis
Tennis
Indoor

Outdoor

Group

B
B

B
t/r
Ca
Cp

300
600
800

0.4
0.5
0.5

0.6
0.7
0.7

65
65
65

4000
4000
4000

t/r
Ca
Cp
t/r
Ca
Cp

100
200
500
300
400
600

0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5

0.6
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.7

65
65
65
60
60
60

4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000

t/r
Ca
Cp

500
750
1000

0.4
0.4
0.4

0.6
0.6
0.7

65
65
65

4000
4000
4000

t/r
Ca
Cp

250
500
750

0.4
0.4
0.4

0.6
0.6
0.6

60
65
65

2000
4000
4000

C
B

Here

t training amateur and professional

r General recreation
Ca National competition amateur
Cp National and International competition, without media requirements
E Average minimum horizontal illuminance
U1 Illuminance uniformity Emin/Emax
U2 Illuminance uniformity Emin/Eav
Ra color rendering index
Tk correlated color temperature
Group according to CIE 83.

Initial values are taken to be 1.5 times indicated minimum levels. CIE grouping into A, B, C
denotes speed of action in descending order. One may observe small ball size and high speed of
movement are grouped under C. These recommendations change as shown in Table II for media
coverage for National TV, while that for International coverage are as shown in Table III and for
HDTV as shown in Table IV

Recommendations for TV (National)

Table II
Group

A
B
C

Maximum
Shooting
distance

25m
75m
150m
25m
75m
150m
25m
75m

Illuminance level

Illuminance
vertical

Uniformity
Horizontal

Main
camer
a
(lux)
500
700
1000
500
1000
1400
1000
1400

Secondary
camera
(lux)

U1

U2

U1

U2

500
500
700
500
700
1000
700
1000

0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.6

0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.7

0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4

0.5
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6

Color Color
Rend Temper
ering ature

65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65

4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000

Recommendations for TV (International)

Table III
Group

A
B
C

Maximum
Shooting
distance

25m
75m
150m
25m
75m
150m
25m
75m

Illuminance level

Illuminance
vertical

Uniformity
Horizontal

Main
camer
a (lux)
700
1000
1400
1000
1400
1750
1400
1750

U1

U2

U1

U2

0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7

0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8

0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5

0.5
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7

Secondar
y camera
(lux)
500
700
1000
700
1000
1250
1000
1250

Color
Rende
ring

Color
Temper
ature

65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65

4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000

Color
Rende
ring

Color
Temper
ature

90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90

5500
5500
5500
5500
5500
5500
5500
5500

Recommendations for HDTV

Table IV
Group

A
B
C

Maximum
Shooting
distance

25m
75m
150m
25m
75m
150m
25m
75m

Illuminance level

Illuminance
vertical

Uniformity
Horizontal

Main
camer
a (lux)
1000
1500
2000
1500
2000
2500
2000
2500

U1

U2

U1

U2

0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7

0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8

0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7

0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8

Secondar
y camera
(lux)
700
1000
1500
1000
1500
1750
1500
1750

The recommended values are average Horizontal Illuminance values to be maintained

throughout operation and installation. Therefore, initial values are taken 1.25 times these
suggested values.
Vertical Illuminance is provided such that camera operators have free choice of camera angle.
These levels are specified at a height of 1.5m above the playing area.
As seen from the recommendations, Illuminance uniformity is very stringent for TV or media
although human eye is less sensitive and has ability to adjust, levels of uniformity required
higher for TV coverage.

Metal Halide Lamps

Most sports installations employ metal halide lamps. They are similar to high pressure mercury
lamps. It contains number of metal halides in addition to mercury. Halides are partly vaporized
when normal operating temperature is reached. Hence dissociates into halogen and metal in the
hot central region. Radiation attains the color of the metal employed.
Groups of halides include:
1) three band color radiators
2) multiline radiators
3) molecular radiators
Three band radiator are Indium (In), Titanium (Ti), Sodium (Na). Multi Line radiator are
Dyspersium (Dy), Hofnium(Ho), Thalum(Tm); Titanum (Ti), Sodium (Na) and Dyspersium
(Dy), Titanium (Ti), Sodium (Na). Molecular radiators are Stannic Chloride (SnCl2) and Stannic
Iodide ( SnI2) Essentially improve color rendering ability of a mercury vapor radiation.

Road Lighting
Road lighting provides visual conditions for safe, quick and comfortable movement of Road
users.
The factors responsible for the lighting scheme for roads are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Luminance Level.
Luminance Uniformity.
Degree of Glare limitation.
Lamp Spectra and
Effectiveness of visual guidance.

Luminance Level
As the Luminance of a road influences contrast sensitivity of drivers eyes and contrast of
obstacles, relative to back ground. Hence affects performance of Road users. Surrounding
brightness affects the adaptation of human eye. Bright surroundings lower contrast sensitivity
there by requiring higher luminance for the road surface. Darker surroundings make driver
adapted to road (assuming road is brighter). Roads with dark surrounds are to be lit by including
surroundings. Otherwise drivers cannot perceive objects in the surroundings. CIE 12
recommends that 5m away from the road on either side should be lit by illuminance level at least
50% of that on the road.

Luminance Uniformity
Adequate uniformity is necessary for visual performance and visual comfort of the user. From
visual performance view point, uniformity ratio is defined by U0 = Lmin / Lavg .U0 should not be
below 0.4. From visual comfort view point uniformity ratio is defined as U1 = Lmin / Lmax
measured along the line passing through the observer positioned in the middle of the traffic
facing the traffic flow. Termed longitudinal uniformity ratio.

Glare Limitation

Physiological or disability glare affect visual performance. Psychological or discomfort glare

affect visual comfort. Glare is to be avoided at all costs.

Lamp Spectra
Spectral composition determines color appearance of the lamp. The way lamp is going to render
color to objects Low pressure sodium vapour lamps give greater visual acuity. Spectrum should
be such; there is Great speed of perception, less discomfort glare and shorter recovery time after
glare.

Visual Guidance
Visual guidance guides the road user and hence must for user to get a recognizable picture of the
course immediately. This is improved by lamp arrangement that follows the run of the road.
More so if turns and intersections are there. Lighting scheme must provide visual guidance. On
roads having separate lanes with a separator the lighting columns are located on the separator.
As is the custom in large avenues in Metros. On a curve the lighting column is located along the
outer column. This gives a clear indication of the run of the road on the curvature. Visual
guidance pilots traffic through lights of different colors on different routes. Exits on main roads
are lit differently. Sodium vapour lamps for the main road and mercury lights for exits are
employed.

Official Recommendations
National standards are taken from CIE 12. Visual conditions for smooth movement and safe
traffic pattern. They depend on speed, intensity, composition of traffic and complexity of the
road.
Table I lists the categories of the road as A to E based on the locality and traffic density. Table II
lists the appropriate recommendations for lighting.

Road categories
Table I
Category
A

Type and density of

traffic
Heavy and high speed
motorized traffic.

Type of Road

Examples

Road with separators. No

crossings. Complete access
control
Important traffic road for
motorized traffic only.
Separate road for slow
traffic/pedestrian.
Heavy and moderate
Important all purpose rural
speed motorized traffic or urban road
or heavy mixed traffic
of moderate speed.
Fairly heavy mixed
Roads in City or shopping
traffic of which a
centers, approach roads
major part may be
motorized traffic meets
slow traffic or
heavy slow or pedestrians.
pedestrians.
Mixed traffic of
Collector road between
limited speed and
residential areas
moderate

Motorway
Expressway
Trunk road
Major road
Ring road
Radial road
Trunk road
Commercial road
Shopping streets
etc.
Collector road
Local streets.

Recommendations for lighting

Table II
Category

A
B1
2
C1
2
D
E1
2

Surrounds

Any
Bright
Dark
Bright
Dark
Bright
Bright
Dark

Luminance level.
Average road
surface luminance
2
Lav(Cd/m )

2
2
1
2
1
2
1
0.5

Uniformity road
Overall
Lengthwise
Uniformity ratio Uniformity ratio
U0
U1

0.4
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.5

Lighting Arrangements
Depending on the road category there are various arrangements for two way traffic roads. They
are four types as shown in Fig. 1. They are:
a) Single sided located on one side, if width of the road mounting height. Luminance at
the opposite remote end lower than under the lamp.
b) Staggered located on either side of the road in a staggered or zigzag fashion when width
is 1 1.5 times the mounting height. Here care is to be taken to avoid dark patches.
c) Opposite located opposite one another. When width is greater than 1.5 times the
mounting height.
d) Span wire luminnaires suspended along the axis of the road only normally for narrow
roads. Suspended from cables strung between buildings.

a
d
b
c
Single sided Staggered Opposite Span wire
Fig. 1 Lighting arrangement for 2 way street
High speed ways and dual lanes lamps may be located on the separator and are termed central
twin bracket arrangement. As shown in Fig 2.

(a)
Central Twin
Bracket

(b)
Central Twin
Bracket and opposite

Fig. 2 Lighting arrangement on the 2 Lane Roads.

Road Junctions
Special care is taken at road junctions as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. Care is taken such that junction
is clearly visible from a distance. Should prevent traffic congestion. Higher luminance at
junction. Using different colors at the junction. Different arrangements be for main roads and
secondary roads. High mast lighting preferred at junctions.

Fig. 3 Crossing of major and minor roads roads.

Fig. 4 Crossing on a two lane highway.

Curves
Special care is taken on curves. On radius larger than 300m, the curve can be treated as straight
roads. Smaller radius curves, lamps are located outside of the curve. Smaller the radius, closer
is the spacing. Usually 0.5 0.25 times that for a straight road.

Tunnel lighting
Tunnels needs to be lit both during day and night. Sense of safety same as on open road. Tunnel
for this purpose is divided into five zones Access zone, Threshold zone, Transition zone, Interior
zone and Exit zone. Access zone is immediately outside the tunnel, where driver must be able to
detect obstacles in the tunnel. Threshold zone is first of the four zones driver in the access zone
must detect, obstacles in this zone before entering the tunnel. Length depends on the maximum
speed and corresponding stopping distance. Transition zone is where levels can be gradually
reduced. This is where reduction takes place. Interior zone is the Tunnel stretch farthest from
influence of day light. Only artificial light enables drivers vision in this zone. Level is constant
throughout depending on the speed, here highest level is chosen. Exit zone where vision is
influenced by the brightness outside. Tunnels need extra day time lighting when tunnels are very
long. CIE recommendation, including various aspects, needs at least for tunnel lengths.
Tunnel lengths < 25m no day time lighting, 25 125m 50% normal threshold zone lighting
and >125m normal threshold zone lighting . Fig. 5 shows Tunnel lighting levels as a function
of tunnel length.
Entrance
20
L
Lth
Access
Zone

Exit
Lexit
Transition
Interior

Threshold Zone

Exit Zone

Fig. 5 Tunnel lighting levels

Tunnel lighting employs transverse and longitudinal light distributions which are symmetrical
and counter beam system, which is asymmetrical. Transverse light radiated at 90 to the axis of
the tunnel may be continuous line of tubular fluorescent lamps that give good visual guidance,
minimal glare and require simple switching. Only disadvantage is close spacing. Longitudinal
light radiated parallel to the tunnel axis. It leads to high efficacy and large luminaire spacing.
Counter beam is light radiated parallel to the tunnel axis against the direction of traffic flow. In
Residential area, road safety, security and amenity are kept in mind. Where only pedestrians are
there, security and amenity are major criteria. In such areas high pressure mercury vapour lamps
or blended lamps are preferred. Sodium vapor lamps of 50 / 70W have been successfully used.
Wherever light needs to serve pedestrians post top lanterns are preferred.

Transverse

Longitudinal

Counter beam