Lecture Notes - Algebra, Linear Equations

A Crash Course
… in College Algebra
Linear Equations
By
Jonathan D. Williams
Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Overview
• Lesson Objectives
• Properties of Linear Equations
• Intercepts
• Slope
• Forms of Linear Equations
• Slope-Intercept Form
• Point-Slope Form
• Standard Form
• Special Equations
• Vertical Lines
• Horizontal Lines
• Graphs of Linear Equations
• Parallel & Perpendicular Lines

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this presentation, you should be able to:
• Formally define a linear function
• Distinguish between and apply the three formulae used to
construct linear equations
• Evaluate the slope of a line segment between two points
• Understand the three forms of a linear equation
• Construct linear equations
• Evaluate the intercepts of a linear equation
• Describe a linear equation according to its graph on the
𝑥𝑦-plane
• Sketch the graphs of linear equations
• Construct equations for parallel and perpendicular lines

In this section you will learn how to formally define a
linear function and identify a linear relationship
PROPERTIES OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Properties of Linear Equations
Definition
• Linear function: A first-degree polynomial marked by a
constant rate of change
• Each linear relationship can be uniquely identified by
three parameters
• 𝑋-Intercept
• 𝑌-Intercept
• Slope
• Any two points that lay on the same line are said to be
collinear

Intercepts: The 𝑋-Intercept
• The corresponding input value for an output value of zero
• The point on the 𝑥𝑦-plane where the graph of a line
intersects the 𝑥-axis
• A linear function has at most one 𝑥-intercept
• The general coordinate for an 𝑥-intercept is given by the
ordered pair ℎ, 0 , where ℎ is a constant, real-valued number

Intercepts: The 𝑌-Intercept
• The corresponding output value for an input value of zero
• The point on the 𝑥𝑦-plane where the graph of a line
intersects the 𝑦-axis
• A linear function has exactly one 𝑦-intercept
• The general coordinate for a 𝑦-intercept is given by the
ordered pair 0, 𝑘 , where 𝑘 is a constant, real-valued number

Intercepts
• The origin, 0,0 is the only coordinate point that may be
both the x- and y-intercept
• All linear equations must have either an x-intercept or a y-
intercept, but not necessarily both

Slope
• The ratio between the change in output values (∆𝑦) and
the change in corresponding input values (∆𝑥)
• The measure of the constant rate of change of a function;
the change in the output value for each unit change of the
input value
• Generally represented in equations by the parameter “𝑚”

Slope
Use the equation below to evaluate the slope of a line that
intersects the points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 .
∆𝑦 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
𝑚= =
∆𝑥 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
or
∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= =
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Slope
For each pair of coordinate points, evaluate the slope of the
line that intersects them: 1,2 and 5,5 ; − 1 2 , 2 and
3 , −2 ; −10,8 and 9,8 ; and 4,1 and 4,11 .
2
∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
𝑚= = =
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥1 − 𝑥2

Slope
Evaluation Process
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
1. Write the formula for the slope 𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
of a line
2. Assign each coordinate value to 1,2  𝑥1 , 𝑦1
its corresponding parameter in 5,5  𝑥2 , 𝑦2
the equation
3. Substitute the values into the 5 − 2
𝑚=
equation 5 − 1
4. Simplify the equation
5−2 3
𝑚= =
5−1 4

Slope
− 1 2 , 2 and 3
2 , −2
−2 − 2 −2 − 2 −4 −4
𝑚= = = = = −2
3 1 3 1 4 2
2 − − 2 2+ 2 2
−10,8 and 9,8

8 − 8 8−8 0
𝑚= = = =0
9 − −10 9 + 10 19
4,1 and 4,11

11 − 1 11 − 1 10
𝑚= = = = Undefined
4 − 4 4−4 0

Slope
The table illustrates information that can be inferred about a
linear equation based on the value of its slope. There are only
four possible ways to describe the slope a linear equation.
Classification Notation Meaning

Positive 𝑚>0 The function is strictly increasing
Negative 𝑚<0 The function is strictly decreasing
The output value is the same for all
Horizontal 𝑚=0
input values; constant function
𝑚∉ℝ The input value is the same for all
Vertical
(𝑚 is undefined) output values; not a function

In this section you will learn how to identify and
construct the different equations used to represent
linear relationships
FORMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Forms of Linear Equations
Generally, there are three ways to represent the equations of
linear relationships.
• Slope-Intercept Form
• Point-Slope Form
• Standard Form
The following slides will explain how and when to use each
type of equation to describe a linear relationship.

Slope-Intercept Form
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃
The components of this notation are as follows:

• 𝑦 – output/dependent variable
• 𝑥 – input/independent variable
• 𝑚 – slope
• 𝑏 – 𝑦-intercept

Use this form to construct a linear equation when the values
for the slope, 𝑚, and y-intercept, 𝑏 , are known. Simply
identify the values for 𝑚 and 𝑏, and substitute them into the
equation.

What is the equation of a line with a slope of −2 and a y-
intercept of 3?

intercept of 3?
Methodology:
1. Identify your given information (𝑚 = −2 and 𝑏 = 3).
2. Substitute the essential values into the slope-intercept
formula.

intercept of 3?
Methodology:
1. Identify your given information (𝑚 = −2 and 𝑏 = 3).
2. Substitute essential values into the slope-intercept
formula.
Answer:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑦 = −2 𝑥 + 3
𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 3

What is the equation of a line with an average rate of change
of 5 and intersects the point 0, −7 ?

Methodology:
1. Identify your given information (𝑚 = 5 and 𝑏 = −7).
formula.

Methodology:
1. Identify your given information (𝑚 = 5 and 𝑏 = −7).
formula.
Answer:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑦 = 5 𝑥 + −7
𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 7

Point-Slope Form
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏

• 𝑚 – slope
• 𝑥1 – 𝑥-coordinate of a known point on the line
• 𝑦1 – corresponding 𝑦-coordinate of a point on the line

Point-Slope Form
Use this form to construct a linear equation when the values
for the slope, 𝑚, and any coordinate point, 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , on the
line are known.
NOTE:
You may use this formula if the coordinate point happens to
be the y-intercept. Yet, it is easier to apply the slope-intercept
formula if this is the case. However, both formulae yield the
same result.

Point-Slope Form
What is the equation of a line with a slope −9 that intersects
the coordinate point 1, −7 ?

Point-Slope Form
Methodology:
1. Identify your given information (𝑚 = −9, 𝑥1 = 1 and
𝑦1 = −7).
2. Substitute essential values into the point-slope formula.
3. Solve for 𝑦. (NOTE: This will transform the equation into
the slope-intercept form)

Point-Slope Form
Answer:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑦 − −7 = −9 𝑥 − 1
𝑦 + 7 = −9 𝑥 − 1
𝑦 + 7 = −9𝑥 + 9
𝑦 = −9𝑥 + 2

Point-Slope Form
What is the equation of a line with a slope 10 that intersects
the coordinate point −2,3 ?

Point-Slope Form
Methodology:
1. Identify your given information (𝑚 = 10, 𝑥1 = −2 and
𝑦1 = 3).
2. Substitute essential values into the point-slope formula.
3. Solve for 𝑦. (NOTE: This will transform the equation into
the slope-intercept form)

Point-Slope Form
Answer:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑦 − 3 = 10 𝑥 − −2
𝑦 − 3 = 10 𝑥 + 2
𝑦 − 3 = 10𝑥 + 20
𝑦 = 10𝑥 + 23

Standard Form
𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 = 𝑪

• 𝐴 – integer coefficient of 𝑥
• 𝐵 – integer coefficient of 𝑦
• 𝐶 – integer constant parameter

Standard Form
Use this form of a linear equation to easily determine the x-
and y-intercept—namely, 𝑥1 , 0 and 0, 𝑏 —of a line, if each
exists.

Standard Form
Given a linear equation—written in any form—with a nonzero
slope, use the following processes to determine the x- and y-
intercepts.
X-Intercept 𝒙𝟎 , 𝟎 Y-Intercept 𝟎, 𝒚𝟎
Process Example Process Example

① Replace the y-value in 6𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 15 ① Replace the x-value 6𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 15
the linear equation 6𝑥 − 3 0 in the linear 6 0 − 3𝑦
with zero. = 15 equation with zero. = 15
② Solve for the x-value. 6𝑥 − 0 = 15 ② Solve for the y-value. 0 − 3𝑦 = 15

6𝑥 = 15 −3𝑦 = 15
15 15
𝑥= 𝑦=−
6 3
𝟓 𝒚𝟎 = −𝟓
𝒙𝟎 =
𝟐
Use the flow chart below to determine how to create a
linear equation based on the information provided.
Yes Use the

Yes
Is this point the y-
intercept (0, 𝑏)?
Is one coordinate point
Use the
Yes on the line, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), No Point-Slope Form
given?
No You do not have
enough information
Is the slope, 𝑚, given?

No
You do not have
enough information
No Are two points on the
line, 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and
(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), given? Use the
Yes Slope Formula
then the
Point-Slope Form

In this section you will learn how to identify and
construct the different equations used to represent
linear relationships
SPECIAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

Special Linear Equations
Horizontal Line (Many-to-One Relation)
𝒚=𝒌
where 𝑘 is any real-valued, constant number
• Any two collinear points have the same output value, 𝑘

• The line has a 𝑦-intercept at 0, 𝑘
• The slope of the line is zero (0)
• Also called a constant function

If 𝑘 = 5,… If 𝑘 = −2,…
y y
𝒚=𝟓
0,5
Y- 𝒚 = −𝟐
intercept
x x
0, −2
Y-
intercept

What is the equation of a horizontal line that intersects the
9 6
point , ?
17 16

9 6
point , ?
17 16
Methodology:
1. Identify the y-coordinate for the point of intersection,
6
and set the parameter 𝑘 equal to this value 𝑘 = .
16
2. Substitute the value for 𝑘 into the equation 𝑦 = 𝑘.

9 6
point , ?
17 16
Methodology:
1. Identify the y-coordinate for the point of intersection,
6
and set the parameter 𝑘 equal to this value 𝑘 = .
16
2. Substitute the value for 𝑘 into the equation 𝑦 = 𝑘.
Answer:
6 3
𝑦= or 𝑦 =
16 8

Vertical Line (One-to-Many Relation)
𝒙=𝒉
where ℎ is any real-valued, constant number
• Any two collinear points have the same input value, ℎ

• The line has an 𝑥-intercept at ℎ, 0
• This linear equation does not represent a function

If ℎ = −3,… If ℎ = 4,…
y y
𝒙 = −𝟑
X- X- 𝒙=𝟒
intercept intercept
x x
−3,0 4,0

What is the equation of a vertical line that intersects the
1 3
point − , − ?
2 4

1 3
point − , − ?
2 4
Methodology:
1. Identify the x-coordinate for the point of intersection,
1
and set the parameter ℎ equal to this value ℎ = − .
2
2. Substitute the value for ℎ into the equation 𝑥 = ℎ.

1 3
point − , − ?
2 4
Methodology:
1. Identify the x-coordinate for the point of intersection,
1
and set the parameter ℎ equal to this value ℎ = − .
2
2. Substitute the value for ℎ into the equation 𝑥 = ℎ.
Answer:
1
𝑥=−
2

In this section you will learn how to describe a linear
equation according to its graph
GRAPHS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Graphs of Linear Equations
The graph of any linear equation can be described algebraically
according to its slope, 𝑚, and its y-intercept, 𝑏.
Y-Intercept (𝒃)
Positive Zero Negative

𝑏>0 𝑏=0 𝑏<0
Positive Increasing Increasing Increasing

𝑚>0 Y-intercept above x-axis Y-intercept at origin 0,0 Y-intercept below x-axis
Zero Horizontal Line (𝑦 = 𝑏) Horizontal Line (x-axis) Horizontal Line (𝑦 = 𝑏)

𝑚=0 Y-intercept above x-axis Y-intercept at origin 0,0 Y-intercept below x-axis
Slope
(𝒎) Negative Decreasing Decreasing Decreasing
𝑚<0 Y-intercept above x-axis Y-intercept at origin 0,0 Y-intercept below x-axis
Vertical Line (𝑥 = ℎ)
Undefined If ℎ < 0, the line is parallel to and to the left of the y-axis.
𝑚∉ℝ If ℎ = 0, the line is the y-axis.
If ℎ > 0, the line is parallel to and to the right of the y-axis.

There are only twelve (12) ways to graphically represent a
linear equation as described by its slope and intercepts.
The following slides illustrate these variations and provide

possible equations for each of the given graphs. For each
example, 𝑚 represents the slope and 𝑏 represents the y-
intercept.

Linear Equations with Negative Slopes (𝑚 < 0)
I y II y III y
x x x
𝑚 < 0 and 𝑏 > 0 𝑚 < 0 and 𝑏 = 0 𝑚 < 0 and 𝑏 < 0
Examples
1 9
𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 3 𝑦 = − 17 𝑥 𝑦 = −7𝑥 − 9
13 11
𝑦 = −5𝑥 + 4 𝑦 = −86𝑥 𝑦=− 𝑥 −
5 5

Linear Equations with Positive Slopes (𝑚 > 0)
IV y V y y
VI
x x x
𝑚 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑏 = 0 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑏 < 0
Examples
1
𝑦 = 7 𝑥 +9 𝑦 = 10𝑥 𝑦 = 2𝑥 −3
1 2 3 13
𝑦 = 8𝑥 + 8 𝑦 = 3𝑥 𝑦 = 7𝑥 − 7

Linear Equations with Zero Slopes (𝑚 = 0)
VII y VIII y y
IX
x x x
𝑚 = 0 and 𝑏 > 0 𝑚 = 0 and 𝑏 = 0 𝑚 = 0 and 𝑏 < 0
Examples
1
𝑦 = 13 𝑦=0 𝑦 = −6
5
𝑦 = 17 𝑥−axis 𝑦 = −7

Linear Equations with Undefined Slopes (𝑚 ∉ ℝ)
X y XI y XII y
x x x
𝑚 ∉ ℝ and 𝑚 ∉ ℝ and 𝑚 ∉ ℝ and

𝑥−intercept > 0 𝑥−intercept = 0 𝑥−intercept < 0
Examples
15
𝑥= 𝑥=0 𝑥 = −1
8
4
𝑥=4 𝑦−axis 𝑥 = − 52

In this section you will learn how to identify parallel
and perpendicular lines according to their slopes, and
construct their equations
PARALLEL & PERPENDICULAR LINES

Parallel & Perpendicular Lines
Parallel Lines
Two lines are said to be parallel with each other if they either:
a) Do not intersect at any point along the xy-plane, or
b) They completely overlap at every point on the xy-plane.
The slopes of any two parallel lines, 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 , are identical

to each other.
𝑚1 = 𝑚2

Parallel Lines
When given the slope of a line, 𝑚1 , and the point of
intersection, 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , with another line, follow the steps below
to determine the equation of a line that is parallel to the first.
1) Identify your given information.

2) Make the slope of the second line, 𝑚2 , equal to the slope of
the first, 𝑚1 .
3) Substitute the slope of the second line, 𝑚2 , and the
coordinate point, 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , into the Point-Slope formula.
4) Solve for y to transform the equation into the Slope-
Intercept form

Parallel Lines
What is the equation of a line that is parallel to 𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 7 and
intersects the point 2, −3 ?

Parallel Lines
What is the equation of a line that is parallel to 𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 7 and
Parallel Lines 𝒎𝟏 ∥ 𝒎𝟐
Process Solution Steps
① Identify your given information. 𝑚1 = 5 and intersects at 2, −3
② Make the slope of the second line, 𝑚2 , equal to the 𝑚2 = 𝑚1 = 5

slope of the first, 𝑚1 .
③ Substitute the slope of the second line, 𝑚2 , and the 𝑦 − 𝑦2 = 𝑚2 𝑥 − 𝑥2
coordinate point, 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , into the Point-Slope 𝑦 − −3 = 5 𝑥 − 2
formula.
④ Solve for y to transform the equation into the Slope- 𝑦+3=5 𝑥−2
Intercept form. 𝑦 + 3 = 5𝑥 − 10
𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 10 − 3
𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 13

Perpendicular Lines
Two lines are said to be perpendicular with each other if they
intersect at exactly one point along the xy-plane, and form a
90 degree angle at this intersection.
The slopes of any two perpendicular lines, 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 , are

negative reciprocals of each other.
1 1
𝑚1 = − or 𝑚2 = −
𝑚2 𝑚1

Perpendicular Lines
When given the slope of a line, 𝑚1 , and the point of
intersection, 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , with another line, follow the steps below
to determine the equation of a line that is perpendicular to the
first.
1) Identify your given information.

2) Make the slope of the second line, 𝑚2 , equal to the
negative reciprocal of the first slope.
3) Substitute the slope of the second line, 𝑚2 , and the
coordinate point, 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , into the Point-Slope formula.
4) Solve for y to transform the equation into the Slope-
Intercept form
Perpendicular Lines
What is the equation of a line that is parallel to 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3 and

Perpendicular Lines
What is the equation of a line that is parallel to 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3 and
Perpendicular Lines 𝒎𝟏 ⊥ 𝒎𝟐
Process Solution Steps
① Identify your given information. 𝑚1 = 2 and intersects at 1, −4
② Make the slope of the second line, 𝑚2 , equal to the 1 1

𝑚2 = − =−
negative reciprocal of the first slope. 𝑚1 2
③ Substitute the slope of the second line, 𝑚2 , and the 𝑦 − 𝑦2 = 𝑚2 𝑥 − 𝑥2
coordinate point, 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , into the Point-Slope 1
𝑦 − −4 = − 𝑥 − 1
formula. 2
④ Solve for y to transform the equation into the Slope- 1
𝑦+4=− 𝑥−1
Intercept form. 2
1 1
𝑦+4=− 𝑥+
2 2
1 1 4
𝑦=− 𝑥+ −
2 2 1
1 7
𝑦=− 𝑥−
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A Crash Course

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

PROPERTIES OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

−10,8 and 9,8

4,1 and 4,11

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Classification Notation Meaning

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

FORMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

The components of this notation are as follows:

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

The components of this notation are as follows:

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

The components of this notation are as follows:

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Process Example Process Example

② Solve for the x-value. 6𝑥 − 0 = 15 ② Solve for the y-value. 0 − 3𝑦 = 15

Yes Use the

Is the slope, 𝑚, given?

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

SPECIAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

• Any two collinear points have the same output value, 𝑘

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

• Any two collinear points have the same input value, ℎ

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

Copyright © 2012, 2013 Jonathan D. Williams

GRAPHS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Positive Zero Negative

Positive Increasing Increasing Increasing

Zero Horizontal Line (𝑦 = 𝑏) Horizontal Line (x-axis) Horizontal Line (𝑦 = 𝑏)