BANSILAL RAMNATH AGARWAL CHARITABLE

TRUST`S

VISHWAKARMA INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
PUNE- 411 037
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to University of
Pune)

Mini Project
On

Flying Wing
Mechanism
Submitted By

Harshal Patil TE T-31

Pooja Patil

TE T-33

Vijay Patil

TE T-34

Priyanka Salve

TE T-43

Under The Guidance of

Prof. G. N. Kotwal

Department of Mechanical
Engineering

2013-2014
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VISHWAKARMA INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
PUNE-411 037

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to University of Pune.)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Mini Project titled Flying Wing Mechanism has
been completed in the academic year 2013 2014, by Harshal Patil (Gr. No.
111675), Pooja Patil (Gr. No. 111229), Vijay Patil (Gr. No. 111355) and
Priyanka Salve (Gr. No. 111291) in partial fulfillment of Bachelors Degree in
Mechanical Engineering as prescribed by University of Pune.

Prof. G. N. Kotwal
(Guide)

Prof. H. G. Phakatkar
(H.O.D. Mechanical Dept.)

Vishwakarma Institute of
Technology, Pune

Vishwakarma Institute of
Technology, Pune

Place: Pune
22/04/2014

Date:

________________

Examiner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Words are inadequate and out of place at times particularly in the context of
expressing sincere feelings in the contribution of this work, is no more than a mere
ritual. It is our privilege to acknowledge with respect & gratitude, the keen valuable
and ever-available guidance rendered to us by Prof. G. N. Kotwal without the wise
counsel and able guidance, it would have been impossible to complete the mini
project in this manner.
We express gratitude to other faculty members of Mechanical Engineering
Department for their intellectual support throughout the course of this work.
Finally, we are indebted to our family and friends and for their ever available
help in accomplishing this task successfully. We will be forever grateful to our friend
Mayuresh Marhadkar for his precious advice and for letting us do our project in The
Robocon Arena.
Above all we are thankful to the almighty god for giving strength to carry out
the present work.

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ABSTRACT

It is no surprise that humanitys first attempts at flight were in the form of birdlike,
human-powered ornithopters. The great artist and engineer Leonardo da Vinci is
often credited as the first to propose a reasonable flying machine in 1490: a giant
bat-shaped craft that uses both the pilots arms and legs to power the wings. Though
the aircraft was never built, and we now know that it would not have flown, it was a
remarkable achievement considering the knowledge of the day. At the turn of the
20th century, focus shifted both in the method of thrust production, from flapping
wings to the propeller, and the method of power generation, from the human body to
the internal combustion engine. With the aerodynamic problem greatly simplified, the
impossibility of human flight was disproved by the Wright brothers flight in 1903 and
the stage was set for the boom of aircraft developments in the decades to come.
Though work on human-powered aircraft was still carried on from time to time by
several groups in various countries, it would be three-quarters of a century before
anyone mastered the art of human-powered flight.
The problem of flapping-wing flight has been tackled by countless engineers and
craftsmen, but until recently only moderate success had been achieved. The
Subsonic Aerodynamics laboratory under Professor James de Laurier at the
University of Toronto has been a prolific contemporary contributor to the body of
knowledge concerning flapping-wing flight, with successes in remote-controlled
ornithopters, flapping-wing micro air vehicles, and even a full-scale human-piloted
engine powered ornithopter. In 1991 the Professor De Laurier and UTIAS were
awarded the Diplme dHonneur by the FAI for having flown the worlds first enginepowered remotely-piloted ornithopter. Theoretical and experimental research
intensified in subsequent years, culminating in the successful flight of a full-scale
piloted ornithopter on July 8th, 2006. A patented wing-twisting mechanism and
extensive research in aero elastic tailoring has kept the University of Toronto at the
forefront of ornithopter innovation for the last 20 years.

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Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................6
Flying on Flapping Wings.................................................................................... 6
Wing Design....................................................................................................... 6
LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................. 7
Manned flight...................................................................................................... 9
Projects Worldwide
..........................................................................................................................
10
DelFly
......................................................................................................................................................................

10

Robotic Insect
.......................................................................................................................
11
Flapping Wings at ETH
.......................................................................................................................
12
Aerodynamics of Flapping Wings
.............................................................................................................................
13
Lift
...........................................................................................................................................................................

13

PRESENT WORK
.............................................................................................................................
14
ABOUT OUR PROJECT
..........................................................................................................................
14
DIMENSIONS
...........................................................................................................................................................................

14

Components used
..........................................................................................................................
15
Advantages
...............................................................................................................................................................................

16

APPLICATION
...............................................................................................................................................................................

17

Applications for unmanned ornithopters

..........................................................................................................................
17
Ornithopters as a hobby
..........................................................................................................................
19
Conclusion
...............................................................................................................................................................................

21

REFERENCES
...............................................................................................................................................................................

22

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INTRODUCTION
Flying on Flapping Wings
What is ornithopter?
An ornithopter (from Greek ornithos "bird" and pteron "wing") is an aircraft that flies
by flapping its wings. Designers seek to imitate the flapping-wing flight of birds, bats,
and insects. Though machines may differ in form, they are usually built on the same
scale as these flying creatures. Manned ornithopters have also been built, and some
have been successful. The machines are of two general types: those with engines
and those powered by the muscles of the pilot.
The research on Micro Aerial Vehicles (MAV) is comparably young, which has
emerged over the past few years. The ongoing miniaturization of electric
components such as electric motors and the improvements in microelectronics made
it possible to build miniature planes and helicopters at relatively low costs. This
development also made it possible to start imitating insect and bird flight, which
needs a sophisticated miniaturized actuation chain for their flapping wing motion.
The goal of this research is to come up with small aerial vehicles that can operate
independently from ground stations, performing certain operations such as
surveillance or measurement, especially in environments that are hardly accessible
or even dangerous for people.

Wing Design
Ornithopters flapping wings and their motion through the air are designed to
maximize the amount of lift generated within limits of weight, material strength, and
mechanical complexity. A flexible wing material can increase efficiency while keeping
the driving mechanism simple. In wing designs with the spar sufficiently forward of
the airfoil that the aerodynamic center is aft of the elastic axis of the wing, aero
elastic deformation causes the wing to move in a manner close to its ideal efficiency
(in which pitching angles lag plunging displacements by approximately 90 degrees).
Flapping wings increase drag and are not as efficient as propeller-powered aircraft.
Some designs achieve increased efficiency by applying more power on the down
stroke than on the upstroke.
In order to achieve the desired flexibility and minimum weight, engineers and
researchers have experimented with wings that require carbon fiber, plywood, fabric
and ribs with a stiff strong trailing edge. Any mass located to the aft of the
empennage reduces the wing's performance, so lightweight materials and empty
spaces are used where possible. In order to minimize drag and maintain the desired
shape, choice of a material for the wing surface is also important. In De Laurier's
experiments, a smooth aerodynamic surface with a double-surface airfoil is more
efficient at producing lift than a single-surface airfoil.

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LITERATURE REVIEW
The Sanskrit epic Ramayana (4th
the Pushpaka Vimana. The ancient

Century BC) describes an ornithopter,

Greek legend of Daedalus (Greek demigod

engineer) and Icarus (Daedalus's son) and The Chinese Book of Han (19 AD) both
describe the use of feathers to make wings for a person but these are not actually
aircraft. Some early manned flight attempts may have been intended to achieve
flapping-wing flight though probably only a glide was actually achieved. These
include the flights of the 11th-century monk Eilmer of Malmesbury (recorded in the
12th century) and the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas (recorded in the 17th
century). Roger Bacon, writing in 1260, was also among the first to consider a
technological means of flight. In 1485, Leonardo da Vinci began to study the flight of
birds. He grasped that humans are too heavy, and not strong enough, to fly using
wings simply attached to the arms. Therefore he sketched a device in which the
aviator lies down on a plank and works two large, membranous wings using hand
levers, foot pedals, and a system of pulleys.
Some early manned flight attempts may have been intended to achieve flappingwing flight though probably only a glide was actually achieved. These include the
flights of the 11th-century monk Eilmer of Malmesbury (recorded in the 12th century)
and the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas (recorded in the 17th century). Roger
Bacon, writing in 1260, was also among the first to consider a technological means
of flight. In 1485, Leonardo da Vinci began to study the flight of birds. He grasped
that humans are too heavy, and not strong enough, to fly using wings simply
attached to the arms. Therefore he sketched a device in which the aviator lies down
on a plank and works two large, membranous wings using hand levers, foot pedals,
and a system of pulleys.

Leonardo da Vinci's ornithopter design

The first ornithopters capable of flight were constructed in France. Jobert in 1871
used a rubber band to power a small model bird. Alphonse Pnaud, Abel Hureau de
Villeneuve, and Victor Tatin, also made rubber-powered ornithopters during the
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1870s. Tatin's ornithopter (now in the US Air & Space Museum) was perhaps the first
to use active torsion of the wings, and apparently it served as the basis for a
commercial toy offered by Pichancourt c. 1889. Gustave Trouv was the first to use
internal combustion and his 1890 model flew a distance of 70 meters in a
demonstration for the French Academy of Sciences. The wings were flapped by
gunpowder charges activating a bourdon tube.
From 1884 on, Lawrence Hargrave built scores of ornithopters powered by rubber
bands, springs, steam, or compressed air. He introduced the use of small flapping
wings providing the thrust for a larger fixed wing. This eliminated the need for gear
reduction, thereby simplifying the construction.

E.P. Frost's 1902 ornithopter

E.P. Frost made ornithopters starting in the 1870s; first models power by steam
engines then in the 1900s an internal combustion one large enough for a person but
which did not fly.
In the 1930s, Alexander Lippisch and the NSFK in Germany constructed and
successfully flew a series of internal combustion powered ornithopters, using
Hargrave's concept of small flapping wings, but with aerodynamic improvements
resulting from methodical study.
Erich von Holst also working in the 1930s achieved great efficiency and realism in his
work with ornithopters powered by rubber band. This includes perhaps the first
success of an ornithopter with a bending wing, intended to more closely imitate the
folding wing action of birds although it was not a true variable span wing like birds
have.
Around 1960, Percival Spencer successfully flew a series of unmanned ornithopters
using internal combustion engines ranging from 0.020-to-0.80-cubic-inch (0.33 to
3

13.11 cm ) displacement, and having wingspans up to 8 feet (2.4 m). In 1961,

Percival Spencer and Jack Stephenson flew the first successful engine-powered,
remotely piloted ornithopter, known as the Spencer Orniplane. The Orniplane had a
90.7 inches (2,300 mm) wingspan, weighed 7.5 pounds (3.4 kg), and was powered
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by a 0.35-cubic-inch (5.7 cm ) displacement 2-stroke engine. It has a biplane

configuration, to reduce oscillation of the fuselage.

Manned flight

Otto Lilienthal on August 16, 1894 with his kleiner Schlagflgelapparat

Schmid 1942 Ornithopter

Manned ornithopters fall into two general categories: Those powered by the
muscular effort of the pilot (human-powered ornithopters), and those powered by an
engine.
Around 1894, Otto Lilienthal, an aviation pioneer, became famous in Germany for his
widely publicized and successful glider flights. Lilienthal also studied bird flight and
conducted some related experiments. He constructed an ornithopter, although its
complete development was prevented by his untimely death on the 9th of August
1896 in a glider accident.
In 1929, a man-powered ornithopter designed by Alexander Lippisch (designer of the
Me163 Komet) flew a distance of 250 to 300 meters after tow launch. Since a tow
launch was used, some have questioned whether the aircraft was capable of flying
on its own. Lippisch asserted that the aircraft was actually flying, not making an
extended glide. (Precise measurement of altitude and velocity over time would be
necessary to resolve this question.) Most of the subsequent human-powered
ornithopters likewise used a tow launch, and flights were brief simply because
human muscle power diminishes rapidly over time.
In 1942, Adalbert Schmid made a much longer flight of a human-powered ornithopter
at Munich-Laim. It travelled a distance of 900 meters, maintaining a height of 20
meters throughout most of the flight. Later this same aircraft was fitted with a
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3 hp (2.2 kW) Sachs motorcycle engine. With the engine, it made flights up to 15
minutes in duration. Schmid later constructed a 10 hp (7.5 kW) ornithopter based on
the Grunau-Baby IIa sailplane, which was flown in 1947. The second aircraft had
flapping outer wing panels.
In 2005, Yves Rousseau was given the Paul Tissandier Diploma, awarded by the FAI
for contributions to the field of aviation. Rousseau attempted his first human-musclepowered flight with flapping wings in 1995. On 20 April 2006, at his 212th attempt, he
succeeded in flying a distance of 64 meters, observed by officials of the Aero Club de
France. Unfortunately, on his 213th flight attempt, a gust of wind led to a wing
breaking up, causing the pilot to be gravely injured and rendered paraplegic.
A team at the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, headed by
Professor James De Laurier, worked for several years on an engine-powered, piloted
ornithopter. In July 2006, at the Bombardier Airfield at Downsview Park in Toronto,
Professor De Laurier's machine, the UTIAS Ornithopter No.1 made a jet-assisted
takeoff and 14-second flight. According to De Laurier, the jet was necessary for
sustained flight, but the flapping wings did most of the work.
On August 2, 2010, Todd Reichert of the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace
Studies piloted a human-powered ornithopter named Snowbird. The 32-metre (105 ft
0 in) wingspan, 42-kilogram (93 lb) aircraft was constructed from carbon fiber, balsa,
and foam. The pilot sat in a small cockpit suspended below the wings and pumped a
bar with his feet to operate a system of wires that flapped the wings up and down.
Towed by a car until airborne, it then sustained flight for almost 20 seconds. It flew
145 meters with an average speed of 25.6 km/h (7.1 m/s) Similar tow-launched
flights were made in the past, but improved data collection verified that the
ornithopter was capable of self-powered flight once aloft.

Projects Worldwide
With the ongoing miniaturization in robotics during the past years it became possible
to remarkably downsize aerial vehicles. Recently, several research groups have
been trying to build aerial vehicles that are based on the principle of flapping the
wings such as insects do. Two of these projects are the DelFly and from TU Delft and
the Robotic Insect from Harvard University.
DelFly
DelFly is a MAV developed at TU Delft in the Netherlands. It has four wings, which
are actuated by one electric motor. The wings are arranged in pairs, 3State of the Art
4 with the right upper wing connected to the left lower wing and vice versa. Via a
small gear train the wing pairs are connected to the electric motor so that the upper
and the lower wing approach towards each other. In forward flight, the course can be
controlled with rudders installed at the tail of the vehicle. DelFly also carries a
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camera onboard that sends images to a ground computer from where the vehicle is
controlled.
Figure 1: DelFly.

Robotic Insect
Another interesting project is the so called Robotic Insect, being developed at the
Harvard Micro robotics Laboratory. The underlying concept is the applying motion of
small insects such as flies. For the actuation of the wings of this very small scale
MAV a piezoelectric cantilever is used, inducing an oscillation of the wings at their
resonance frequency, in order to produce high amplitude. The joints are integrated in
the structure as exible parts. The power supply however is not included in this
vehicle, which means that despite of already producing remarkably high lift it is not
yet able to actually y.
Figure 2: Robotic Insect.

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Flapping Wings at ETH

The ASL at ETH also aims to develop a MAV of bird size that is based on the
aerodynamic principles used in insect flight and by small birds. Unlike other
developments in this area, the intended MAV at ETH shall be able to hover like
insects or Humming birds, and so it is supposed to become an interesting alternative
to Flapping Wings at ETH helicopters as currently being developed at ASL.
Furthermore, such an aerial vehicle should be large enough to carry some payload
such as a camera, but still small enough to have high agility. Hovering is closely
connected to unsteady aerodynamic effects at small Reynolds numbers used in
nature by insects and small birds. With a wingspan of 280mm and a weight of about
20g the Giant Hummingbird is one of the largest species in nature that can hover,
and therefore had been selected as natural ante type [2]. The goal, however, is not
to copy nature but to adopt the basic principles.
Figure 3: Female black-chinned Hummingbird in hover. (fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org)

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Aerodynamics of Flapping Wings

When flapping the wings, the airflow is highly turbulent and producing more lift
compared to wing flight. These are a consequence of the permanently changing
wing position during flapping, and are connected to the Reynolds number. In this
section the most important aerodynamic are described, however only as a short
introduction because this has already been subject to previous work by S. Gisler and
O. Breitenstein, where fairly detailed explanations can be found.

Lift
The lift that is produced by applying the wings is characterized by highly unstationary aerodynamic effects which make it difficult to predict the resulting lift force
for a given wing. In order to get a rough idea about what could be expected as lift,
and therefore have a boundary for the total weight of the MAV, some simplifications
are necessary, which allow applying the 2-dimensional airfoil theory with the formula
for lift (L)
2

L = (CL..v .A)/2
With the air density
Airspeed v
Platform area A
And,
The lift coefficient CL, for a specific angle of attack.
The lift coefficient (CL, Ca or Cz) is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift
generated by a lifting body to the density of the fluid around the body, its velocity and
an associated reference area. A lifting body is a foil or a complete foil-bearing body
such as a fixed-wing aircraft. CL is a function of the angle of the body to the flow, its
Reynolds number and its Mach number. The lift coefficient CL is refers to the
dynamic lift characteristics of a two-dimensional foil section, with the reference area
replaced by the foil chord.
The lift coefficient CL is defined by
,
where is the lift force, is fluid density,
is the fluid dynamic pressure.

is true airspeed,

is platform area and

Applying equation for the Flapping wings requires the following assumptions:
1. Non stationary lifts that occur only when the wings are flapping are neglected,
with the result that the resulting lift will likely be higher in reality.
2. The lift coefficient CL is independent of time and location on the wing.
3. Induced inflow is disregarded.

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PRESENT WORK
ABOUT OUR PROJECT
In our model there is one crank and connecting rods. Wings are attached to
connecting rods and the wings are hinged to two different slots. When we rotate the
crank, the second connecting rod oscillates. The oscillatory motion of connecting rod
leads to flapping of wings. Quick Return Mechanism is used here. The wings travel
faster during the downward stroke as compared to the upward stroke. This gives
more power during the downward stroke and hence gives lift.

DIMENSIONS
Crank radius= 4.5 cm
Length of connecting rod 1= 20 cm
Length of wing rod= 28 cm
Length of Wings= 30 cm

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Components used
Aluminum Linkages
Nut and bolts.
Lock nuts.
Vinyl Sheet (Wings)
Wooden Plank (Base)

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Advantages
Flapping wings offer potential advantages in maneuverability and energy savings
compared with fixed-wing aircraft, as well as potentially vertical take-off and landing.
It has been suggested that these advantages are greatest at small sizes and low
flying speeds.
Unlike airplanes and helicopters, the driving airfoils of the ornithopter have a flapping
or oscillating motion, instead of rotary. As with helicopters, the wings usually have a
combined function of providing both lift and thrust. Theoretically, the flapping wing
can be set to zero angle of attack on the upstroke, so it passes easily through the air.
Since typically the flapping airfoils produce both lift and thrust, drag-inducing
structures are minimized. These two advantages potentially allow a high degree of
efficiency.

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APPLICATION
Because ornithopters can be made to resemble birds or insects, they could be
used for military applications, such as aerial reconnaissance without alerting the
enemies that they are under surveillance. Several ornithopters have been flown with
video cameras on board, some of which can hover and maneuver in small spaces. In
2011, AeroVironment, Inc. announced a remotely piloted ornithopter resembling a
large hummingbird for possible spy missions.
Practical applications capitalize on the resemblance to birds or insects.
The Colorado Division of Wildlife has used
these machines to help save
the endangered Gunnison Sage Grouse. An artificial hawk under the control of an
operator causes the grouse to remain on the ground so they can be captured for
study.

Applications for unmanned ornithopters

Practical applications capitalize on the
The Colorado Division of Wildlife has used

resemblance to birds or insects.

these machines to help save

the endangered Gunnison Sage Grouse. An artificial hawk under the control of an
operator causes the grouse to remain on the ground so they can be captured for
study.
Because ornithopters can be made to resemble birds or insects, they could be
used for military applications, such as aerial reconnaissance without alerting the
enemies that they are under surveillance. Several ornithopters have been flown with
video cameras on board, some of which can hover and maneuver in small spaces. In
2011, AeroVironment, Inc. announced a remotely piloted ornithopter resembling a
large hummingbird for possible spy missions.

AeroVironment Humming bird

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AeroVironment, Inc., then led by Paul B. MacCready (Gossamer Albatross)

developed in the mid-1980s, for the Smithsonian Institution, a half-scale radio
controlled replica of the giant pterosaur, Quetzalcoatlus northropi. It was built to star
in the IMAX movie On the Wing. The model had a wingspan of 5.5 meters (18 feet)
and featured a complex, computerized autopilot control system, just as the full-size
pterosaur relied on its neuromuscular system to make constant adjustments in flight.
Researchers hope to eliminate the motors and gears of current designs by
more closely imitating animal flight muscles. Georgia Tech Research Institute's
Robert C. Michelson is developing a Reciprocating Chemical Muscle for use in
micro-scale flapping-wing aircraft. Michelson uses the term "entomopter" for this type
of ornithopter. SRI International is developing polymer artificial muscles which may
also be used for flapping-wing flight.
In 2002, Krister Wolff and Peter Nordin of Chalmers University of Technology
in Sweden built a flapping wing robot that learned flight techniques. The balsa wood
design was driven by machine learning software technology known as a steady state
linear evolutionary algorithm. Inspired by natural evolution, the software "evolves" in
response to feedback on how well it performs a given task. Although confined to a
laboratory apparatus, their ornithopter evolved behavior for maximum sustained lift
force and horizontal movement.
Since 2002, Prof. Theo van Holten has been working on an ornithopter which
is constructed like a helicopter. The device is called the ornicopter and was made by
constructing the main rotor so that it would have no reaction torque at all.
In 2008, Schiphol Airport started using a real looking mechanical hawk
designed by falconer Robert Musters. The radio controlled robot bird is used to scare
away birds that could damage the engines of airplanes.
In March 2011, scientists and engineers at the Festo Bionic Learning Network
introduced a robotic SmartBird, based on the motion of a seagull. The Smart Bird
weighs only 450 grams and is controlled by a radio handset. On video, its flight
appears remarkably realistic.

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Ornithopters as a hobby

The Dragonfly is a toy made by Wow-Wee.

Hobbyists can build and fly their own ornithopters. These range from lightweight models powered by rubber band, to larger models with radio control.
The rubber-band-powered model can be fairly simple in design and
construction. Hobbyists compete for the longest flight times with these models. An
introductory model can be fairly simple in design and construction, but the advanced
competition designs are extremely delicate and challenging to build. Roy White holds
the United States national record for indoor rubber-powered, with his flight time of 21
minutes, 44 seconds.
Commercial free-flight rubber-band powered toy ornithopters have long been
available. The first of these was sold under the name Tim Bird in Paris in 1879. Later
models were also sold as Tim Bird (made by G de Ruymbeke, France, since 1969).
Commercial radio controlled designs stem from Percival Spencer's enginepowered Seagulls, developed circa 1958, and Sean Kinkade's work in the late 1990s
to present day. The wings are usually driven by an electric motor. Many hobbyists
enjoy experimenting with their own new wing designs and mechanisms. The
opportunity to interact with real birds in their own domain also adds great enjoyment
to this hobby. Birds are often curious and will follow or investigate the model while it
is flying. In a few cases, RC birds have been attacked by birds of prey, crows, and
even cats. More recent cheaper models such as the Dragonfly from WowWee have
extended the market from dedicated hobbyists to the general toy market.
Some helpful resources for hobbyists include The Ornithopter Design Manual,
book written by Nathan Chronister, and The Ornithopter Zone web site, which
includes a large amount of information about building and flying these models. To
see video examples of a remote control Ornithopter visits the Birds You Fly website.
Ornithopters are also of interest as the subject of one of the events in the
nationwide Science Olympiad event list. The event ("Flying Bird") entails building a
self-propelled ornithopter to exacting specifications, with points awarded for high
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flight time and low weight. Bonus points are also awarded if the ornithopter happens
to look like a real bird.

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Conclusion
Sooner or later, maybe - in the nearest future, manned motor ornithopters will cease
to be "exotic", imaginary, unreal aircraft and start to service for humans as a junior
member of aircraft family. Necessary high aviation technology already exists.
Designers and engineers will be forced to solve not only, for example, wing design
problem, but all problems peculiar to any safe and reliable aircraft of any type. Parts
of them, such as stability, controllability, durability etc. are inherent to all aircraft with
no exemption. The second part - specific ornithopter new problems, unknown
before, which will appear at the first time; flapping wing design problem is only one of
them.

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REFERENCES
1. "Flying on Flapping Wings Ankit Bhardwaj- IIT Patna. (2012).
2. "An Ornithopter Wing Design" De Laurier, James D. (1994), 1018.
3. Winged robot learns to fly New Scientist, August 2002.

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