Harmonic Motion

Sawyer Harris
4/24/2015

Analysis

1.1

A Simple Oscillator

Simple harmonic motion occurs in physics whenever the net force on an object is a restoring force proportional
to its displacement. This relationship is described by Hookes Law for a spring
F~ = k~x

(1)

where k is the spring constant. For a one-dimensional spring-mass system with no frictional forces,
Newtons 2nd law tells us
Fnet = kx = m
x

(2)

The equation of motion is thus

k
x=0
(3)
m
To solve this linear second-order homogeneous differential equation, we assume a solution of x(t) = ert
and find the characteristic equation
x
+

k
= 02
m
which gives imaginary roots r1 = +i0 and r2 = i0 and solutions
r2 =

x1 (t) = ei0 t
x2 (t) = e

i0 t

(4)

(5a)
(5b)

Because the motion of the mass is real, we want our solutions to be real as well. By the principle of
superposition, if x1 (t) and x2 (t) are solutions, then so are
1
1
(x1 (t) + x2 (t)) = (ei0 t + ei0 t ) = cos(w0 t)
2
2
1
1 i0 t
(x1 (t) x2 (t)) = (e
ei0 t ) = sin(w0 t)
2i
2i

(6a)
(6b)

The general solution for this single oscillator is then a linear combination of the above
x(t) = C1 cos(w0 t) + C2 sin(w0 t)

(7)

Figure 1: Coupled harmonic oscillators

1.2

Coupled Oscillators

Figure 1 shows two masses m1 and m2 attached by a spring and attached to the nearest wall by another
spring each. These one-dimensional oscillators are said to be coupled, and may be analyzed in a similar
fashion as the simple harmonic oscillator.
Defining the displacements of m1 and m2 as x1 and x2 respectively, we again assume each spring obeys
Hookes Law with spring constant k and find the force on each mass
F1 = kx1 + k(x2 x1 )

(8a)

F2 = k(x2 x1 ) kx2

(8b)

Using Newtons 2nd Law, we find the equations of motion

k
(2x1 x2 )
m1
k
x2 =
(x1 + 2x2 )
m2
x1 =

(9a)
(9b)

Normalizing k, m1 , and m2 to 1, we can write this system of equations in matrix form as

= AX
X
with coefficient matrix
A=


2
1

(10)


1
2

Previously, with one oscillator, we made the assumption of sinusoidal motion and found solutions for the
mass. With two coupled oscillators, however, we will now assume that both masses oscillate with the same
frequency but different amplitudes. Guess

 

x1 (t)
C1 eit
X=
=
x2 (t)
C2 eit
Differentiating, we can easily show that
=
X

2 C1 eit
2 C2 eit

= 2 X

into Equation (10), we find an eigenvalue problem

Plugging X
X = AX
where = 2 . As before when finding the characteristic equation, we divide out the exponential from
both sides. In doing so, the coefficient vector becomes the eigenvector. Thus we have

C1
C2


=

2
1

 
1
C1
2
C2

and can find the frequency and coefficients C1 , C2 by solving the eigenvalue problem.
To solve the eigenvalue problem, multiply the left hand side by the identity matrix and the subtract the
right hand side to find
(I A)v = 0

(11)

To find non-trivial solutions, we find values of for which the new matrix is non-singular. To accomplish
this, set the determinant to zero. Doing so, we find


 + 2
1 

= ( + 2)2 1 = 0
 1
+ 2
which yields 1 = 1 and 2 = 3. Plugging these eigenvalues into the matrix and row reducing to
find the null space yields the eigenvectors v1 = (1, 1)T and v2 = (1, 1)T . Each eigenvalue corresponds
to the frequency of oscillation, and each corresponding eigenvector gives the relative amplitudes of the
masses. Again, we want real solutions because the motion of the masses is real, so we use the principle
of superposition once more and convert the complex exponentials into sines and cosines. As with the onedimensional oscillator, the general solution is a linear combination of these modes of oscillation.
X = c1 v1 cos(1 t) + c2 v1 sin(1 t) + c3 v2 cos(2 t) + c4 v2 sin(2 t)
(12)

where 1 = + 1 = 1 and 2 = + 2 = 3.
Each of these modes of oscillation is known as a normal mode because each can be excited independently
of the others. Thus the modes are normal or orthogonal.

1.3

Normal Modes

Lets take a closer look at the normal modes. The coefficients of the first normal mode are both 1, which
suggests that the two masses oscillate with the same amplitude in the same direction. From Figure 1, we
can see that both masses would maintain their relative distance and the spring between them would remain
unstretched. This behavior should be identical to that of a large block of mass 2m with the two springs
attached to its outside, which we can verify with Newtons 2nd Law.
F = (2m)
x = kx + k(x) = 2kx
k
x
+ x=0
m

(13a)
(13b)

Clearly, this results in the same equation of motion as the simple harmonic oscillator, and thus the same
solution and frequency for k = 1 and m = 1.
The second normal mode has coefficients of 1 and -1, meaning that the two masses move with equal and
opposite amplitude. In this mode, the masses
travel towards the walls and each other in unison, oscillating
with the same frequency. The frequency 2 = 3 is different than the first normal mode because each mass
has two springs of different stretch acting on it at any given time. Again from the diagram, we can see that
the stretch of the spring pulling inwards will always be twice the stretch of the spring pulling towards the
wall (due to the movement of the other mass). We can use Newtons 2nd Law to model this motion for
either mass and verify that it is the same as described by the second normal mode.
F = m
x = kx + k(2x) = 3kx
3k
x
+
x=0
m
3

(14a)
(14b)

Figure 2: Standing waves of harmonics on a string

Again choosing k = 1 and m = 1, we find that
x
+ 2 x = 0

(15)

where is clearly 3, which matches the frequency of the second normal mode.
The normal modes of these coupled oscillators have physical significance and correspond to two fundamental patterns of motion of the two masses. When perturbed in just the right way (by carefully selected
initial conditions), the behavior of each mode can be isolated. Interestingly, any motion of this system can
be described as a linear combination of normal modes.
Normal modes of any system represent the natural vibrations that may occur, and the corresponding
frequencies are known as resonant frequencies. Given a perturbation, any system will vibrate at these
resonant frequencies. For example, a wine glass that is struck or rubbed on the rim will produce an audible
tone at its resonant frequency. Additionally, if a talented vocalist sings a note at the glass resonant frequency,
the glass is said to be driven and may eventually shatter when the amplitude of oscillation grows too large.
The type of normal modes occurring inside the glass are known as standing waves because all points
of the sound wave oscillate with the same frequency and phase. In particular, the frequency of the sound
produced depends on the length of the column of air, which is why organ pipes have different lengths.
Normal modes in music correspond to the standing waves produced in a column of air, the membrane
of a drum, or the strings of a guitar, for example. While the actual motion of any of these systems may
be complicated when a note is played, a Fourier analysis reveals that the sound heard is actually composed
of a fundamental frequency and integer multiples known as harmonics or overtones. These harmonics
are the normal modes of the system, and as suggested by Fourier analysis, any sound produced is a linear
combination of them. The relative proportions of overtones determine the timbre of an instrument, which
differentiates the same note played on a trumpet from a violin.
Additionally, because the harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, the corresponding
wavelengths are the inverses of increasing integer multiples, as seen in the aptly named harmonic series

X
1
1 1
= 1 + + + ...
n
2 3
n=1

(16)

This effect is easy to verify with a guitar by plucking a string and then again while pressing the fret that
divides the string into two equal sections, thus halving the wavelength. The two notes will be an octave
apart, which corresponds to a doubling of frequency.
The harmonic motion in our simple oscillator and coupled oscillators is thus named for the linear combination of normal modes that produces sound.

Problems

2.1

6.2 Problem 7

Assume that the solutions are of the form x1 = a1 sin t, x2 = a2 sin t. Substitute these expressions into
the system and solve for the frequency and the amplitudes a1 and a2 .
Plugging the solutions into the equations of motion, we find
a1 2 sin t = (2a1 sin t a2 sin t)
2

a2 sin t = (a1 sin t + 2a2 sin t)

(17a)
(17b)

which is an eigenvalue problem, as expected. In matrix form, we have

  
 
a
2 1
a1
2 1 =
a2
1 2
a2

which is the same eigenvalue problem as before. From earlier the solutions are 1 = 1 and 2 = 3 with
corresponding coefficients a11 = 1, a12 = 1, and a21 = 1, a2 = 1. We choose the positive root of 2 because
sin t is an odd function and a negative simply means a phase difference of radians.

2.2

6.2 Problem 8

Solve the problem using the initial conditions x1 (0) = x2 (0) = 1, x01 (0) = 4, and x02 (0) = 2.
Starting with the general solution,



c cos t + c2 sin t + c3 cos 3t + c4 sin 3t
X(t) = 1
c1 cos t + c2 sin t c3 cos 3t c4 sin 3t
we take the derivative and find



c1 sin t + c2 cos t 3c3 sin 3t + 3c4 cos 3t
X0 (t) =
c1 sin t + c2 cos t + 3c3 sin 3t 3c4 cos 3t
Plugging in conditions x1 (0) = 1 and x2 (0) = 1,
1 = c1 + c3

(18a)

1 = c1 c3

(18b)

and conditions x01 (0) = 4 and x02 (0) = 2,

4 = c2 +
2 = c2

3c4

(19a)

3c4

(19b)

we have two linear systems we can

solve by adding one the first equation to the second. Doing so yields
c1 = 1, c2 = 3, c3 = 0, and c4 = 1/ 3. Plugging these coefficients into the general solution, we have the
particular solution
!
cos t + 3 sin t + 13 sin 3t

X(t) =
cos t + 3 sin t 13 sin 3t

Reflection

Coming into this course, I was already familiar with many on the concepts, such as matrix multiplication,
determinants, linear independence, bases, and eigenvalue problems. Because of my background knowledge,
I would have gotten bored if the class had been purely lecture. Fortunately, structuring the class with
worksheets worked well for me because it gave me a chance to read ahead and hone my knowledge at my
own pace. Working with groups was also an excellent idea because I gained friendship and the ability to
check my work. I would not change any structural aspect of the course.
I enjoyed the linear algebra material much because I have now become more comfortable working with
matrices. I especially enjoyed seeing some of the proofs for the theorems about inverses and determinants
because my other classes that applied the concepts did not derive them. I also now understand why the row
reduction method works and feel comfortable solving systems with matrices.

References
[1] Leon, Steven J. Linear Algebra with Applications (8th ed) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall (2010).
[2] Tipler, Paul A. Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed) Freeman, W. H. and Company (2007).