Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
India
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REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Digital and Analog communication systems, Simon Haykin, John Wildy India Lts, 2008
2. An introduction to Analog and Digital Communication, K. Sam Shanmugam, John Wiley
Pvt. Ltd, 2008.
3. Digital communications - Bernard Sklar: Pearson education 2007
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PREPARED BY:
RAGHUDATHESH G P
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Asst Prof
ECE Dept, GMIT
Davangere 577004
Cell: +917411459249
Mail: datheshraghubooks@gmail.com
Quotes:
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Page No - 1
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
The pulses of PAM can be converted to digital form. Thus the analog waveform is
converted to sequence of binary digital format. It is also called pulse code modulation.
When the analog pulse is converted to digital form, it is quantized to nearest digital level.
This introduces quantization noise in the signal.
The digital waveform coding techniques are always selected on the basis of quantization
noise and bandwidth of transmission.
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The carrier is a train of rectangular pulses. By making the amplitude of each rectangular
pulse the same as the value of the message signal at the leading edge of the pulse, PAM
so defined is exactly the same as flat-top sampling. Thus PAM Wave s(t), is defined as
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Here
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Page No - 2
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Disadvantages of PAM:
1. As we have seen just now, the bandwidth needed for transmission of PAM signal is very
large compared to its maximum frequency content.
2. The amplitude of PAM pulses varies according to modulating signal Therefore
interference of noise is maximum for the PAM signal and this noise cannot be removed
very easily.
3. Since amplitude of PAM signal varies, this also varies the peak power required by the
transmitter with modulating signal.
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There are two more types of pulse modulation other than PAM:
1. Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM):
In this technique the width of the pulse changes according to amplitude of the
modulating signal at sampling instant.
2. Pulse position Modulation(PPM):
In this technique the position of the pulse changes according to amplitude of the
modulating signal at sampling instant.
Pulse position modulation (PPM) and pulse duration modulation (PDM or PWM) both
modulate the time parameter of the pulses. PPM has fixed width pulses where as width of
PDM pulses varies. Both the methods are of constant amplitude.
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Page No - 3
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
PAM
PWM
PPM
4
5
6
7
Bandwidth of transmission
channel depends on rise time
of the pulse
The instantaneous power of
the transmitter varies.
Noise interference is
minimum.
Simple to implement.
Similar to frequency
modulation.
System is complex.
Similar to amplitude modulation
Bandwidth of transmission
channel depends on rising
time of the pulse.
The instantaneous power of
the
transmitter
remains
constant.
Noise interference is
minimum.
Simple to implement.
Similar to phase modulation.
The
bandwidth
of
the
transmission channel depends on
width of the pulse.
The instantaneous power of the
transmitter varies.
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Amplitude of the pulse is Width of the pulse is The relative position of pulse
proportional to amplitude of proportional to amplitude of is proportional to amplitude
modulating signal.
modulating signal.
of modulating signal.
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The concept of TDM is illustrated by the block diagram shown in Figure below.
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Page No - 4
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Waveform Coding
Each input message signal is first restricted in bandwidth by a low-pass pre-alias filter to
remove the frequencies that are nonessential to an adequate signal representation.
The pre-alias filter outputs are then applied to a commutator, which is usually
implemented using electronic switching circuitry.
Following the commutation process, the multiplexed signal is applied to a pulseamplitude modulator, the purpose of which is to transform-the multiplexed signal into a
form suitable for transmission over the communication channel.
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Suppose that the N message signals to be multiplexed have similar spectral properties.
Then the sampling rate for each message signal is determined accordance with the
sampling theorem.
Let
Ts = sampling period determined for each message signal.
Tx = time spacing between adjacent samples in the time-multiplexed signal.
Thus,
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Page No - 5
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
At the receiving end of the system, the received signal is applied to a pulse amplitude
demodulator, which performs the reverse operation of the pulse amplitude modulator.
The short pulses produced at the pulse demodulator output are distributed to the
appropriate low-pass reconstruction filters by means of a decommutator, which operates
in synchronism with the commutator in the transmitter.
The synchronization is essential for a satisfactory operation of the TDM system, and
provisions have to be made for it.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Drawbacks of TDM:
1. Synchronization is essential for proper operation.
2. Due to slow narrowband fading, all the TDM channels may get wiped out.
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Page No - 6
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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Problems on TDM
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Solution
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1. A Signal m1(t) is band limited to 3.6khz and three signals m2(t), m3(t) and m4(t) are band
limited to 1.2 kHz each. These signals are to be transmitted by means of TDM. Sketch set
up a scheme for realizing this multiplexing requirement with each signal sampled at its
nyquist rate. Determine the speed of commutator in samples per second.
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Message
Signal
m1(t)
m2(t)
m3(t)
m4(t)
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Bandwidth
Nyquist rate
fs = 2W
Number of
segments N
Angle of
separation of
corresponding
segments =
3600/N
3.6 kHz
1.2 kHz
1.2 kHz
1.2 kHz
7.2 kHz
2.4 kHz
2.4 kHz
2.4 kHz
3
1
1
1
1200
3600
3600
3600
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Page No - 7
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
m1(t)
m1(t)
2.4 kHz
PAM
Channel
m3(t)
Asst Professor
m4(t)
m2(t)
m1(t)
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2. Eight message signals are sampled and time multiplexed using PAM. The time
multiplexed signal is passed through a LPF before transmission. Six of the input signals
have a bandwidth of 4 kHz and the other two are band-limited to 12 kHz.
(a) What is the minimum overall sampling rate if all the messages are sampled at the same
rate?
(b) Design an asynchronous TDM for this application.
(c) Compare the transmission bandwidth requirements of parts (a) and (b).
Solution:
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Page No - 8
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
(a) If all the messages are sampled at the same rate, then f, = 2 x 12,000 = 24,000
samples/second per message.
Hence, overall sampling rate = 8 x 24, 000 = 192, 000 samples/second.
(b) Let g1(t), g2(t) be the 12 kHz message signals and g3(t), g4(t), .,g8(t) be the 4 kHz message
signals. Also let the switch make 8000 rotations/second. It samples 4 kHz messages once per
rotation and the 12 kHz messages three times per rotation.
g1(t)
g3(t)
g8(t)
g2(t)
g4(t)
Commutator
g2(t)
PAM
g1(t)
g6(t)
g5(t)
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g1(t)
g2(t)
Channel
g7(t)
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3. A signal x1(t) is bandlimited to 3 kHz. There are three more signals x2(t), x3(t) and x4(t)
which are bandlimited to 1 kHz each. These signals are to be transmitted by a TDM
system. (i) Design a TDM scheme where each signal is sampled at its Nyquist rate. (ii) What
must be the speed of the commutator? (iii) Calculate the minimum transmission bandwidth
of the channel.
Solution:
(i) Table below shows different message signals with corresponding Nyquist rates.
Message
Signal
Bandwidth
Nyquist
rate
fs = 2W
Number of
segments N
Angle of
separation of
corresponding
segments =
3600/N
x1(t)
x2(t)
x3(t)
x4(t)
3 kHz
1 kHz
1 kHz
1 kHz
6 kHz
2 kHz
2 kHz
2 kHz
3
1
1
1
1200
3600
3600
3600
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Page No - 9
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
If the sampling commutator rotates at the rate of 2000 rotations per second then the signals x2(t),
x3(t) and x4(t) will be sampled at their Nyquist rate. But, we have to sample x1(t) also at its
Nyquist rate which is three times higher than that of the other three.
In order to achieve this, we should sample x1(t) three times in one rotation of the commutator.
Therefore, the commutator must have atleast 6 poles connected to the signals as shown in figure
x3(t)
x1(t)
2000 rpm
x1(t)
PAM
x4(t)
x1(t)
x2(t)
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Channel
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4. Six message signals each of bandwidth 5 kHz are time division multiplexed and
transmitted. Determine the signaling rate and the minimum channel bandwidth of the
PAM/TDM channel.
Solution:
The number of channels N = 6
Bandwidth of each channel, fm = 5 kHz
Minimum sampling rate = 2 x 5 kHz = 10 kHz
Signaling rate = Number of bits per second = 6 x 10 kHz = 60 K bits/sec.
Minimum, channel bandwidth to avoid cross talk in PAM/TDM is,
BW Nfm = 6 x 5 kHz = 30 kHz.
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Page No - 10
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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5. Twenty-four voice signals are sampled uniformly and then time division multiplexed.
The sampling operation uses flat top samples with 1 s duration. The multiplexing
operation includes provision for synchronization by adding an extra pulse of appropriate
amplitude and 1 s duration. The highest frequency component of each voice signal is 3.4
kHz.
(i) Assuming a sampling rate of 8 kHz, calculate the spacing between successive pulses of
the multiplexed signal.
(ii) Repeat (i) assuming the use of Nyquist rate sampling.
Solution:
(i) Given that Sampling rate = 8 kHz = 8000 samples/sec.
There are 24 voice signals + 1 synchronizing pulse.
Pulse width of each voice channel and synchronizing pulse is 1 s.
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below
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Page No - 11
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
The use of digital representation of analog signals (e.g., voice, video) offers us the
following advantages:
1. Ruggedness to transmission noise and interference.
2. Relatively inexpensive digital circuitry may be used extensively in the system.
3. Digital information can be encrypted for security, coded against errors and
compressed to reduce storage and transmission costs.
4. The possibility of a uniform format for different kinds of pulse signals.
5. In long-distance digital telephone systems, a clean PCM waveform can be generated
using regenerative repeaters kept at regular locations all along the communication
route.
6. PCM signals derived from all types of analog sources (audio, video, etc.) may be
interleaved with data signals (e.g., from digital computers) and transmitted over a
common channel. This technique is called time-division multiplexing.
7. The noise performance of a digital communication system can be superior to that of
an analog communication system.
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The essential operations in the transmitter of a PCM system are sampling, quantizing,
and encoding, as shown in the figure below.
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Page No - 12
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
The sampling, quantizing, and encoding operations are, usually performed in the same
circuit, which is called an analog-to-digital converter.
At the receiver, the essential operations consist of one last stage of regeneration
followed by decoding, then demodulation of the train of quantized samples, as in the
Figure below.
The operations of decoding and reconstruction are usually performed in the same circuit,
called a digital-to-analog converter.
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Note:
The term "modulation" usually refers to the variation of some characteristic of a carrier
wave in accordance with an information-bearing signal.
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The only part of pulse-code modulation that conforms to this definition sampling.
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Page No - 13
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
To ensure perfect reconstruction of the message at the receiver, the sampling rate must be
greater than twice the highest frequency component W of the message wave (in
accordance with the sampling theorem).
Low-pass pre-alias filter is used at the front end of the sampler in order exclude
frequencies greater than W before sampling.
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2. Quantizing:
An analog signal, such as voice, has a continuous range of amplitudes and therefore its
samples cover a continuous amplitude range.
It is not necessary in fact to transmit the exact amplitudes of the samples. Any human
sense (the ear or the eye), as ultimate receiver, can detect only finite intensity differences.
The existence of a finite number of discrete amplitude levels is a basic condition of PCM.
Definition: The conversion of an analog (continuous) sample of the signal into a digital
(discrete) form is called the quantizing process.
Graphically, the quantizing process means that a straight line representing the relation
between the input and the output of a linear analog system is replaced by a transfer
characteristic that is staircase-like in appearance. Figure below depicts one such
characteristic.
The quantizing process has a two-fold effect:
1. the peak-to-peak range of input sample values is subdivided into a finite set of
decision levels or decision thresholds that are aligned with the "risers" of the
staircase, and
2. The output is assigned a discrete value selected from a finite set of
representation levels or reconstruction values that are aligned with the "treads"
of the staircase.
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For a uniform quantizer, whose characterized as in Figure below, the separation between
the decision thresholds and the separation between the representation levels of the
quantizer have a common value called the step size.
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Page No - 14
Waveform Coding
Asst Professor
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Raghudathesh G P
, . . . , and the
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Page No - 15
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
, . . . , where
is again
The memoryless quantizer is the simplest and most often used quantizer.
The transfer characteristics of Symmetric quantizer of the midtread type and Symmetric
quantizer of the midriser type, we have included a parameter labeled the overload level,
the absolute value of which is one half of peak-to-peak range of input sample values.
The number of intervals into which the peak-to-peak excursion is divided, or equivalently
the number of representation levels, is equal to twice the absolute value of the overload
level divided by the step size.
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Thus, for an analog input sample that lies anywhere inside an interval of either transfer
characteristic, the quantizer produces a discrete output equal to the midvalue of the pair
of decision thresh in question.
In so doing, however, a quantization error is introduced, the value of which equals the
difference between the output and input values of the quantizer.
Both figures show the variations of the quantization error with the input for the two
uniform quantizer types. In both cases, we see that the maximum instantaneous value of
this error is half of one step size, total range of variation is from minus half a step to plus
half a step.
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3. Encoding:
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Page No - 16
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Binary code:
Each symbol may be either of two distinct values or kinds, such as the
presence or absence of a pulse.
The two symbols of a binary code customarily denoted as 0 and 1.
Ternary code:
Each symbol may be one of three distinct values or kinds.
So on for other codes.
Generally binary codes are used due to maximum advantage over the effects of noise in a
transmission medium is obtained by using a binary code, because a binary symbol
withstands a relatively high level of noise and is easy to regenerate.
In a binary code, each code-word consists of n bits. Then, such a code, we may represent
a total of 2n distinct numbers.
Ex., a sample quantized into one of 24 = 16 levels may be represented by a 4-bit -word.
There are several formats (waveforms) for the representation of binary sequences
produced by analog-to-digital conversion (or by other sources). Figure below depicts two
such formats.
In Figure below, binary symbol 1 is represented by a pulse of constant amplitude for the
duration of one bit, and symbol 0 is represented by switching off the pulse for the same
duration. This format is called nonreturn-to-zero unipolar signal, or on-off signal.
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In Figure below, symbols 1 and 0 are represented by pulses of positive and negative
amplitude, respectively with each pulse occupying one complete bit duration. This
second format is called a nonreturn-to-zero polar signal.
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4. Regeneration:
The most important feature of PCM systems lies in the ability to control the effects of
distortion and noise produced by transmitting a PCM wave through a channel.
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Page No - 17
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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Scenario: In a PCM system with on-off signaling, the repeater makes a decision in each
bit interval as to whether or not a pulse is present.
Operation: If the decision is "yes," a clean new pulse is transmitted to the next repeater.
If, on the other hand, the decision is "no," a clean base line is transmitted. In this way, the
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Page No - 18
Waveform Coding
Asst Professor
Raghudathesh G P
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The first operation in the receiver is to regenerate (i.e., reshape and clean up) received
pulses.
These clean pulses are then regrouped into code-words decoded (i.e., mapped back) into a
quantized PAM signal.
The decoding process involves generating a pulse the amplitude of which is the linear
sum of the pulses in the code-word, with each pulse weighted by its place-value (2, 21 ,
22, 23, . . .) in the code.
6. Reconstruction:
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5. Decoding:
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Page No - 19
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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Waveform Coding
Figure above illustrates the concept of time-division multiplexing for three bit PCM
signals.
If the decommutator in the receiver not synchronized to that in the transmitter, then the
messages can be interchanged. This could be most annoying in a telephone conversation;
if we were talking to one person and the response was from another person.
In data communication system, loss of such synchronization could prove fatal. It can be
seen from Figure that there are 3 X 3 = 9 information bits in each frame and a 10th bit is
added for frame synchronization.
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The framing signal is a fixed pattern of ls and 0s in every 10th position and such an
alternating pattern of 1s and 0s will he rarely formed in any other positions for two or
three consecutive frames. Therefore, frame synchronization is fairly easy to achieve.
As the number of independent message sources is increased, the time Intervalallotted to
each message source has to be reduced, since the duration of the frame Ts = 1/fs fixed.
Thus, the width of pulses becomes too short. The process of generating and transmitting
very narrow pulses are very difficult.
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Page No - 20
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
3. CD laser disks
4. Voice mail
5. Digital Video etc.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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1. Low Noise Susceptibility: The PCM signal is a digital waveform. Digital waveforms
are less susceptible to interference and noise than analog signals. This is because a digital
waveform does not have to reproduce the exact data being transmitted. A transmitted
pulse that is close enough to the expected value of a binary one can be reliably
reproduced into a binary one. This low noise susceptibility allows PCM signals to
transmit farther than analog signals without signal degradation, information loss,
and distortion.
2. Repeatability: A PCM signal can be received by a repeater device that decodes the data
and retransmits it. This allows PCM signals to be sent very long distances without data
corruption. Repeaters must be placed close enough to the signal source so that extreme
noise does not corrupt the signal. Noise does not accumulate even after many passes
through multiple repeaters. This is because the signal is completely regenerated by each
repeater, making it noise-free at the start of each repeated transmission.
3. Storage: A PCM waveform may be saved for later recreation or playback. Since PCM
data is digital in origin, it can be stored using a computer or similar device. An example
of a consumer device that stores PCM data is the Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
technology. The audio portion of a DVD movie is encoded using PCM with a sampling
rate as high as 192 thousand samples per second. This PCM stream can be piped directly
to an amplifier using a digital audio cable, where it is then decoded into an audible signal.
4. Encoded Signal: A PCM signal can be modulated in such a way that only a specific
decoder can make sense of the underlying data. This is useful when the data being sent
requires a level of security. The transmitter and receiver each have circuitry that is
analogous to a dictionary. This circuit maps the binary pulse-codes to their definitions.
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Page No - 21
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
When a pulse-code is received, the receiver looks up the meaning in the dictionary.
Anyone who intercepted the PCM signal would be left with meaningless binary data.
Disadvantages of PCM:
1. Complex Circuitry
2. Requires large bandwidth
3. Synchronization is required between transmitter and receiver
Quantization:
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A specific example would be compact disc (CD) audio which is sampled at 44,100 Hz
and quantized with 16 bits (2 bytes) which can be one of 65,536 (i.e. 216) possible values
per sample.
A quantizer is memory less in that the quantizer output is determined only by the value of
a corresponding input sample, independently of earlier analog samples applied to the
input.
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Page No - 22
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Waveform Coding
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Page No - 23
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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Waveform Coding
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Page No - 24
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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Waveform Coding
In figure let us assume that the input to the quantizer x (nTs) varies from - 4 to + 4.
Thus, the peak to peak value of x (nT s) will be between - 4 to + 4. Here is the step
size.
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Thus, it may he observed from figure (b) that maximum quantization error would be .
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-------- (1)
Scenario:
Let
either or
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, the quantizer will assign any one of the nearest binary levels i.e.,
.
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Page No - 25
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
If
If
, then
, then
Thus, from above situation we see that maximum quantization error will be
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-------- (2)
Here we derive an expression for quantization noise (i.e., error) in a PCM system for
linear quantization or uniform quantization.
Because of quantization, inherent errors introduced in the signal. This error is called
quantization error. The quantization error is given as
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Assuming that the input x(nT s) to a linear or uniform quantizer has continuous amplitude
in the range -xmax to +xmax.
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------- (1)
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Page No - 26
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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Waveform Coding
From figure above, it may be observed that the total excursion of input x(nT s) is mapped
into 'q' levels on vertical axis.
This means that when input is 4, output is 7/2 and when input is - 4 , output is -7/2.
Thus, +xmax represents 7/2 and - xmax represents -7/2.
------- (3)
Again, now if signal x(t) is normalized to minimum and maximum values equal to 1, then
we have, xmax = 1 and - xmax = - 1. Therefore, step side would be,
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----- (2)
Now, if this total amplitude range is divided into 'q' levels of quantizer, then the step size
' ' will be,
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-------- (4)
Now, if step size '' is considered as sufficiently small, then it may be assumed that the
quantization error will be an uniformly distributed random variable. We know that the
maximum quantization error is given as,
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Page No - 27
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
------- (5)
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Figure (a) above shows a uniformly distributed random variable 'X' over an interval (a,
b).
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Thus, with the help of above equation, the probability density function (PDF) for
quantization error ` ' may be defined as
------- (7)
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-------- (6)
Also, from figure (b), it may be observed that quantization error `' has zero average
value. In other words, the mean 'm ' of the quantization error is zero.
Now, the signal to quantization noise ratio of the quantizer is defined as,
-------- (8)
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Page No - 28
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
If type of signal at input i.e., x(t) is known, then it is possible to calculate signal power.
The noise power is expressed as,
------- (9)
Here,
As, here noise is defined by random varible '', and PDF f() therefore, its mean square
value is given as,
--------- (11)
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--------- (10)
Thus,
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------- (12)
----------- (13)
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Page No - 29
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Hence, above is the value for Normalized noise power or Quantization noise power Or
Quantization error (in terms of power) for linear quantization.
------- (3)
Relation between the number of bits v and quantization levels is given as,
-------- (4)
Now, substituting the value of q from equation (2) in equation (4), we get
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-------- (2)
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--------- (1)
Assuming that input x(nTs) to a linear quantizer has continuous amplitude in the range xmax to +xmax. Therefore, total amplitude range is given as
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--------- (5)
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Page No - 30
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
---------- (6)
This is the required relation for signal to quantization noise ratio for linear quantization in
a PCM system.
This expression shows that signal to noise power ratio of quantizer increases
exponentially with increasing bits per sample.
Now, if we assume that inpur x(t) is normalized, i.e., xmax = 1. Also, if the destination
signal power 'P' is normalized, i.e., P 1. Then, signal to quantization noise ratio will be,
TH
ES
As, xmax = 1 and P1, the signal to noise ratio given by equation (8) is said to be
normalized.
Expressing the signal to noise ratio in decibels is given as below,
RA
GH
U
-------- (7)
DA
-------- (8)
Thus, signal to quantization noise ratio for normalized values of power P and amplitude
of input x(t) is given as above.
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Expression for Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio for PCM that Employs
Linear Quantization assuming the PCM system has a Sinusoidal Signal input:
Assuming the Sinusoidal Signal input is a voltage signal having a peak voltage of A m.
Power of the sinusoidal voltage signal is given as,
Here,
, thus ,
------ (2)
------ (3)
RA
GH
U
TH
ES
Consider a case where R =1 and power P is normalized, then normalized power is given
as,
DA
---------- (1)
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
--------- (3)
Let Quantizer input x represents the sampled value of random variable X with zero mean
and variance .
Let xmax denotes absolute value of the overload level of the Quantizer and represent
Step size.
TH
ES
-------- (2)
-------- (3)
RA
GH
U
---------- (1)
For a binary code with a code-word of n bits we can have upto 2n representation level. As
number of representation level for midtread quantizer is odd, thus L is given as below,
DA
The ratio
is called the loading factor. To avoid significant overload distortion,
the amplitude of the Quantizer input x extend from
to
, which corresponds to
loading factor of 4. Thus with
we can write equation (3) as
------- (4)
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Raghudathesh G P
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------ (5)
------ (6)
------ (7)
This formula states that each bit in codeword of a PCM system contributes 6db to the
signal to noise ratio.
The equation (7) gives a good description of the noise performance of a PCM system
provided that the following conditions are satisfied.
1. The Quantization error is uniformly distributed.
2. The system operates with an average signal power above the error threshold so that
the effect of channel noise is made negligible and performance is there by limited
essentially by Quantization noise alone.
3. The Quantization is fine enough (say n>6) to prevent signal correlated patterns in the
Quantization error waveform.
4. The Quantizer is aligned with input for a loading factor of 4.
--------- (8)
RA
GH
U
DA
TH
ES
Let us assume that the quantizer use v number of binary digits to represent each level.
Then, the number of levels that may be represented by v digits is given as,
------ (1)
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Here,
q= total number of digital levels of a q-level quantizer.
Each sample is converted to 'v' binary bits. i.e., Number of bits per sample is v.
We know that, Number of samples per second are represented as fs. Therefore, Number
of bits per second are expressed as
----- (2)
Here, the number of bits per second is known as signaling rate of PCM and is denoted
by `r' and is given by,
TH
ES
----- (3)
------ (4)
Here, fs 2 fm.
Also, bandwidth needed for PCM transmission is half of the signaling rate therefore,
Transmission Bandwidth in PCM,
GH
U
DA
-------- (6)
As fs 2 fm, Thus,
RA
------ (5)
------ (7)
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Robust Quantization:
Necessity of Nonuniform Quantization in a PCM System:
In case of uniform quantization, the quantizer has a linear characteristics. The step size
also remains same throughout the range of quantizer.
Thus, over the complete range of inputs, the maximum quantization error also remains
same.
---- (1)
Say let x(t) is normalized, its maximum value i.e, xmax= 1. Therefore, step size '' is,
DA
---- (2)
E.x.: Let consider a PCM system in which we take v = 4 bits. Then number of levels q
will be,
GH
U
TH
ES
RA
Thus, we see that the quantization error is 1/16th part of the full voltage range.
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Say if we assume that full range voltage is 16 volts. Then maximum quantization error
will be 1 volt.
But, for the low signal amplitudes like 2 volts, 3 volts etc., the maximum quantization
error of 1 volt which is quite high i.e., about 30 to 50%. This means that for signal
amplitudes which are close to 15 volts, 16 volts etc., the maximum quantization error
(which is same throughout the range) of 1 volt can be considered to be small.
In fact, this problem arises because of uniform quantization. Therefore non-uniform
quantization should be used in such cases.
As speech and music signals are characterized by large crest factor. This means that for
such signals the ratio of peak to rms value is quite high. Which is given as below,
RA
------ (2)
GH
U
----- (1)
DA
TH
ES
----- (3)
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Raghudathesh G P
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----- (5)
When we normalize the signal x(t), then xmax = 1 Substituting this value of xmax in
equation (5), we get
----- (6)
TH
ES
For a large crest factor of voice (i.e., speech) and music signals, P should be very very
less than one in above equation. i.e.,P << 1 for large crest factor
Therefore, actual signal to noise ratio would be significantly less than the value which is
given by equation (3) since in this equation P = 1. Again, consider equation (2).
---- (7)
GH
U
DA
This equation illustrates that the signal to noise ratio for large crest factor signal (P << 1)
would be very very less than that of the calculated theoretical value. The theoretical value
is obtained for normalized power (P = 1) by equation (3).
RA
Nonuniform Quantization:
Definition: If the quantizer characteristics is nonlinear and the step size is not constant
instead if it is variable, dependent on the amplitude of input signal then the quantization
is known as nonuniform quantization.
In non-uniform quantization, the step size is reduced with the reduction in signal level.
For weak signals (P < < 1), the step size is small, therefore the quantization noise
reduces, to improve the signal to quantization noise ratio for weak signals. The step size
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
is thus varied according to the signal level to keep the signal to noise ratio adequately
high. This is nonuniform quantization.
From above equation we see that in the uniform quantization, once the step size is fixed,
the quantization noise power remains constant. However, the signal power is not
constant. It is proportional to the square of signal amplitude.
Hence signal power will be small for weak signals, but quantization noise power is
constant. Therefore, the signal to quantization noise for the weak signals is very poor.
This will affect the quality of signal.
The remedy is to use companding. Companding is a term derived from two words i.e.,
compression and expansion as under:
GH
U
DA
TH
ES
Due to above reason, a particular method is used. The weak signals are amplified and
strong signals are attenuated before applying them to a uniform quantizer. This process is
called as compression and the block that provides it is called as a compressor.
RA
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Waveform Coding
TH
ES
1. Higher average signal to quantization noise power ratio than the uniform quantizer when
the signal pdf is non uniform which is the case in many practical situation.
2. RMS value of the quantizer noise power of a non uniform quantizer is substantially
proportional to the sampled value and hence the effect of the quantizer noise is reduced.
There are two type of compressor characteristics based on logarithmic compression laws
they are:
1. - law Companding and
2. A law Companding.
-law:
GH
U
DA
RA
---- (1)
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
The -law is used for PCM telephone systems in the USA, Canada and Japan.
A practical value for is 255.
A-law:
In A-law companding the compressor characteristics is defined by equation below,
The normalized form of A-law compressor characteristics is shown in the figure below,
GH
U
DA
TH
ES
---- (2)
RA
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Formulas
1) Number of Quantization levels
GH
U
6) Bit duration
DA
5) Transmission bandwidth
TH
ES
3) Sampling rate
Where W is the highest frequency of message signal
2) Number of bits
7) Bit rate
RA
8) Sampling frequency
9) Message bandwidth
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Raghudathesh G P
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Note:
Where
11)
TH
ES
Note: 1) or
GH
U
DA
2)
RA
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
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16)
TH
ES
18)
and
DA
GH
U
RA
22)
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Problems:
1. The output signal to noise ratio of a 10 bit PCM was found to be 30 dB. The desired SNR
is 42 dB. It was decided to increase the SNR to the desired value increasing the number of
quantization levels. Find the fractional increase in transmission bandwidth required for
this increase in SNR.
Solution: (i) To obtain number of bits for 42 dB .
Signal to noise ratio of PCM is given as,
Above equation shows that signal to noise ratio increases by 6 dB with ev bit. It is given that
TH
ES
for 10 bits
ratio is 42-30 = 12 dB N
ratio increases by 6 dB for 1 bit. Hence 2 bits are required t ) increase signal
DA
GH
U
RA
(10 bits) =
Fractional increase in
(12 bits) = =
=5
=6
100% = 20 %
2. A telephone signal with cut-off frequency of 4 kHz is digitized into 8 bit PCM, sampled
at Nyquist rate. Calculate baseband transmission bandwidth and quantization S/ N ratio.
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Raghudathesh G P
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telephone signal is non sinusoidal signal. Its signal to quantization noise ratio is given in
equation as,
4.8 + 6v
Given
= 40 dB
TH
ES
DA
W = 4 kHz
n number of levels (q)
quantization noise ratio is given as,
GH
U
4.8 + 6 v
RA
40 = 4.8 + 6 v
v = 5.866 or v = 6 bits.
number of levels will be,
q=
=
= 64 levels
ii) to obtain transmission bandwidth (
Transmission bandwidth is given as,
= 24kHz
4. Show that for = A, the -law and theA-law have the same companding gain.
Solution:
The -law is
where u and v are the input and output of the compander respectively.
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
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Companding gain,
GH
U
DA
the A law is
TH
ES
hence,
RA
5. A Television signal having a bandwidth of 4.2 MHz is transmitted using binary PCM
system. Given that the number of quantization levels is 512. Determine:
(i)
Code word length
(ii)
Transmission bandwidth
(iii)
Final bit rate
(iv)
Output signal to quantization noise ratio.
Solution:
Given that the bandwidth is 4.2 MHz. This means that highest frequency component will have
frequency of 4.2 MHz i.e.,
4.2 MHz
Also, given that Quantization levels, q = 512
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Raghudathesh G P
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(1) We know that the number of bits and quantization levels are related in binary PCM as
under:
TH
ES
Hz 37.8 MHz
DA
GH
U
RA
or
Substituting this value of
r = 9 x 8.4 x
bits/sec = 75.6 x
bits/sec
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Or
Asst Professor
But
Therefore,
GH
U
DA
TH
ES
6. The bandwidth of an input signal to the PCM is restricted to 4 kHz. The input signal
varies in amplitude from - 3.8 V to + 3.8 V and has the average power of 30 mW. The
required signal to noise ratio is given as 20 dB. The PCM modulator produces binary
output. Assuming uniform quantization,
i. Find the number of bits required per sample.
ii. Outputs of 30 such PCM coders are time multiplexed. What would be the minimum
required transmission bandwidth for this multiplexed signal?
Solution:
The given value of signal to noise ratio is 20 dB.
This means that.
Hence,
RA
(i)
= 100
Therefore,
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
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Solving, we get
(ii)
The maximum frequency is given as
We know that the transmission bandwidth is expressed as,
TH
ES
Since there are 30 PCM coders which are time multiplexed, the transmission bandwidth must
be,
We also know that the signaling rate is two times the transmission bandwidth, i.e.
Signaling rate,
RA
GH
U
DA
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Or
TH
ES
Here, given
We know that minimum 10,000 levels should be used to quantize the signal. If binary
PCM is used, then number of bits for each samples may be calculated as under, i.e.
GH
U
ii.
DA
RA
Here
Thus,
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2
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(i)
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
iv)
.
The transmission bandwidth for PCM is expressed as, m
DA
TH
ES
8. Twenty four voice signals are sampled uniformly and then have to be time division
multiplexed. The highest frequency component for each voice signal is equal to 3.4 kHz.
Now
(i)
If the signals are pulse amplitude modulated using Nyquist rate sampling, what
would be the minimum channel bandwidth required.
(ii)
If the signals are pulse code modulated with an 8 bit encoder, what would be the
sampling rate? The bit rate of system is given as 1.5 x
bits/sec.
Solution:
(i) As a matter of fact, if N channels are time division multiplexed, then minimum transmission
bandwidth is expressed as,
GH
U
Here,
is the maximum frequency in the signals.
Given ,
= 3.4KHz
Therefere BW = 24 x 3.4 kHz = 81.6 kHz
(iii)
The signaling rate of the system is given as,
r = 1.5 x
bits/sec
RA
Since there are 24 channels, the bit rate of an individual channel is,
Further, since each sample is encoded using 8 bits, the samples per second will be,
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
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Note that the samples per seconds is nothing but sampling frequency
Thus, we have ,
Solving, we get,
9. A PCM system uses a uniform quantizer followed by a 7-bit binary encoder. The bit rate
TH
ES
DA
GH
U
Or
RA
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
GH
U
DA
TH
ES
RA
11. A signal having bandwidth equal to 3.5 kHz is sampled, quantized and coded by a PCM
system. The coded signal is then transmitted over a transmission channel of supporting a
transmission rate of 50 k bits/sec. Determine the maximum signal to noise ratio that can be
obtained by this system. The input signal has peak to peak value of 4 volts and rms value of
0.2 V.
Solution:
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7x
Simplifying, we get
7x
DA
8 bits
bits/sec and
TH
ES
Substituting values of r = 50 x
GH
U
The rms value of the signal is 0.2 V. Therefore the normalized signal power will be,
Normalized signal power
RA
i.e
Further, the maximum signal to noise ratio is given by,
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Raghudathesh G P
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GH
U
DA
TH
ES
RA
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Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
TH
ES
We know that the relation between step size, maximum amplitude of signal and number of levels
is given as
Step size
DA
GH
U
RA
Since q =
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
or
(ii)
Determine the signal to quantization noise ratio when this is quantized using 10
bit PCM.
How many bits of quantization are needed to achieve a signal to quantization
noise ratio of atleast 40 dB?
(i)
TH
ES
Solution:
Here,
GH
U
DA
RA
ii)
To get signal to noise ratio of at least 40 dB we can write above equation as,
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Hence, at least 7 bits are required to get signal to noise ratio of 40 dB. Ans.
DA
TH
ES
14. A 7 bit PCM system employing uniform quantization has an overall signaling rate of 56
k bits per second. Calculate the signal to quantization noise that would result when its
input is a sine wave with peak amplitude equal to 5 Volt. Find the dynamic range for the
sine wave inputs in order that the signal to quantization noise ratio may be less than 30
dBs. What is the theoretical maximum frequency that this system can handle?
Solution:
The number of bits in the PCM system are
v = 7 bits
Assume that 5 V peak to peak voltage utilizes complete range of quantizer. Then, we can find the
signal to quantization noise ratio as,
RA
GH
U
15. Given a sine wave of frequency fu, and amplitude Am applied to a delta modulator having step size 4.
Show that the slope overload distortion will occur if
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
TH
ES
It may be noted that the slope of x(t) will be maximum when derivative of x(t) with respect to `t' will be
maximum. The maximum slope of delta modulator may be given as,
RA
GH
U
DA
We know that, slope overload distortion will take place if slope of sine wave is greater than slope of delta
modulator i.e.,
Hence proved.
15. Determine the output signal to noise ratio of a linear delta modulation system for a 2
kHz sinusoidal input signal sampled at 64 kHz. Slope overload distortion is not present and
the post reconstruction filter has a bandwidth of 4 kHz.
Solution :
We know that
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= 2 kHz and
Asst Professor
= 4kHz
Here,
= 64 kHz,
Therefore,
Raghudathesh G P
TH
ES
16. For the same sinusoidal input of example 4.15, calculate the signal to quantization noise
ratio of a PCM system which has the same data rate of 64 kbits/s. The sampling frequency
is 8 kHz and the number of bits per sample is N = 8. Comment on the result.
Solution :
The signal to noise ratio of a PCM system is given by,
(SNR)q = (1.8 + 6 N) dB = 1.8 + (6 x 8) = 49.8 dB
DA
COMMENTS: The SNR of a DM system is 27.94 dB which is too poor as compared to 49.8 dB
of an 8 bit PCM system. Thus, for all the simplicity of DM, it cannot perform as well as an 8 bit
PCM.
RA
GH
U
17. A binary channel with bit rate r= 36000 bits per second (b/s) is available for PCM voice
transmission .Evaluate the appropriate values of the sampling rate , the quantizing level
q, and the number of binary digits v. Assume fin= 3.2 kHz.
Solution:
Here, we require that
Therefore, we have, v 5,
and also,
and
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Raghudathesh G P
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where
where
indicates the next higher integer to be taken if
binary pulses must be transmitted per second.
TH
ES
19. The output signal-to-quantizing-noise ratio (SNR)0 in a PCM system is defined as the
ratio of average signal power to average quantizing noise power. For a full-scale sinusoidal
modulating signal with amplitude A, prove that
GH
U
DA
RA
The output signal-to-quantizing-noise ratio of a PCM system for a full scale test tone is,
therefore,
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Raghudathesh G P
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GH
U
Thus we have ,
TH
ES
Therefore ,
DA
Now,since
RA
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Raghudathesh G P
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NOTE: Equation W indicates that each bit in the code word of a binary PCM system contributes
6 dB to the output signal.to-quantizing noise ratio. In fact, this is called the 6 dB rule.
DA
TH
ES
21. Consider an audio signal with spectral components limited to the frequency band of 300
to 3300 Hz. A PCM signal is generated with a sampling rate of 8000 samples/s. The
required output signal-to-quantizing-noise ratio is 30 dB.
(i)
What is the minimum number of uniform quantizing levels needed, and what is the
minimum number of bits per sample needed?
(ii)
Calculate the minimum system bandwidth required.
(iii)
Repeat parts (i) and (ii) when a g-law compander is used with g = 255.
Solution:
(i) Here, we have
GH
U
RA
We have
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TH
ES
RA
GH
U
where
Solution:
We have so that
DA
22. Consider a sinusoidal signal m(t) = A cos wmt applied to a delta modulator step size A.
Show that the slope overload distortion will occur if
Thus, if A > /
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23. A DM system is designed to operate at 3 times the Nyquist rate for a signal with a 3 kHz
bandwidth. The quantizing step size is 250 mV.
(i)
Determine the maximum amplitude of a 1-kHz input siinusoid for which the delta
modulator does not show slope overload.
(ii)
Determine the posfiltered output signal-to-quantizing-noise ratio for the signal of
part (i)
Solution:
We have
DA
TH
ES
GH
U
ii) Assuming that the cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter is I'm, we have
RA
24. The pulse rate in a DM system is 56,000 per sec. The input signal is
Find the minimum value of step size which will avoid slope overload distortion. What
would be the disadvantages of choosing a value of larger than the minimum?
Solution:
Input signal,
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Asst Professor
is sampling rate.
TH
ES
where
Raghudathesh G P
DA
Hence, larger step size out of two will be the required step size. i.e., = 0.56 V. If a value larger
than the minimum will be choosen, then granular noise will occur.
RA
GH
U
25. Bandwidth of the input to pulse code modulator is restricted to 4 kHz. The input varies
from - 3.8 V to 3.8 V and has the average power of 30 mW, the required signal to
quantization noise power ratio is 20 dB. The modulator produces binary output. Assume
uniform quantization Calculate the number of bits required per sample.
Solution:
Given that
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Raghudathesh G P
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TH
ES
RA
GH
U
DA
26. A low pass signal of 3 kHz bandwidth and amplitude over - 5 Volts to + 5 Volts range is
sampled at Nyquist rate and converted to 8-bit PCM using uniform quantization. The
mean squared value of message signal is 2 Volt-squared. Determine the following :
(i)
The normalized power for quantization noise.
(ii)
The bit transmission rate.
(iii)
The signal to quantization noise ratio in dB. (iv) Derive the expressions used in (i)
and (iii).
Solution :
Given that
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Therefore,
TH
ES
we have
DA
Therefore,
As the signal is sampled at Nyquist rate,
RA
GH
U
Therefore,
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27. For a full scale sinusoidal modulating signal with peak value A, show that, output signal
to quantization noise ratio in binary PCM system is given by,
TH
ES
DA
RA
ii)
GH
U
(i) Output signal to noise ratio for full scale sinusoid is given by
Including the additional 100% overhead, the output bit rate will be
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iii)
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
28. Determine the output SNR in a DM system for 1 kHz sinusoid, sampled at 32 kHz
without slope overload and followed by a 4 kHz post construction filter. Derive the formula
used.
Solution :
Given that,
DA
Therefore,
TH
ES
RA
GH
U
29. The bandwidth of TV video plus audio signal is 4.5 MHz. If this signal is converted into
PCM bit stream with 1024 quantization levels, determine number of bits/sec of the
resulting signal. Assume that the signal is sampled at the rate 20% above Nyquist rate.
Solution :
Given that
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Page No - 71
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Therefore, bits/sec
Asst Professor
TH
ES
30. If a voice frequency signal is sampled at the rate of 32,000 samples/sec and
characterized by peak value of 2 Volts, determine the value of step size to avoid slope
overload. What is quantization noise power Ng and corresponding SNR ? Assume
bandwidth of signal as 4 kHz.
Solution :
Given that
. Bandwidth
.
Peak value of the signal
i)
Step size A to avoid slope overload can be calculated as under :
To avoid slope overload the following condition must be satisfied :
GH
U
DA
RA
).
Department ECE,GMIT
datheshraghubooks@gmail.com
Page No - 72
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
31. A compact disc (CD) records audio signals digitally by PCM. Assume audio signal's
bandwidth to be 15 kHz. If signals are sampled at a rate 20% above Nyquist rate for
practical reasons and the samples are quantized into 65,536 levels. Determine bits/sec
required to encode the signal and minimum bandwidth required to transmit encoded
signal.
Solution :
Given that
DA
TH
ES
is 576 Kbits/sec.
GH
U
RA
32. In a single integration DM scheme, the voice signal is sampled at a rate of 64 kHz. The
maximum signal amplitude is 1 Volt.
(i)
Determine the minimum value of step size to avoid slope overload.
(ii)
Determine granular noise power No, if the voice signal bandwidth is 3.5 kHz.
Department ECE,GMIT
datheshraghubooks@gmail.com
Page No - 73
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
(iii)
ii)
TH
ES
DA
Solving, we get
GH
U
Question Bank:
RA
1. What are the advantages of digital representation of analog signals? December 2011 (04
M)
2. What is the need for non-uniform quantization? Explain the -law companding.
December 2011 (09 M), December 2013 (08 M)
3. Derive an expression for the SNR of a PCM system. December 2011 (07 M)
4. Derive an expression for output SNR of the quantizer and show that
in decibles if a sinusoidal signal is quantized. December 2013 (08 M)
5. For a binary PCM signal, determine L if the compression parameter
and the
minimum
. Determine the
with this value of L.
December 2013 (04 M), June 2012 (06 M)
6. With a neat block diagram and waveform, explain TDM. June 2012 (06 M)
Department ECE,GMIT
datheshraghubooks@gmail.com
Page No - 74
Waveform Coding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
7. Show that the signal to quantization noise power ratio of a uniform quantizer is
. June 2012 (08 M)
8. Write a note on robust quantization. December 2012 (04 M)
9. Determine the probability of symbols error for binary encoded PCM wave and is given
by
RA
GH
U
DA
TH
ES
10. Derive the expression for signal to quantization noise ratio (SNR) and show that for
uniform quantization, each bit in the codeword of a PCM contributes 6 dB to SNR. June
2013 (08 M)
11. Six independent message sources of bandwidths w, w, 2w, 2w, 3w and 3w hertz are to be
transmitted on TDM. Set up a scheme to accomplish this requirement, with each message
signal sampled at its Nyquist rate. June 2013 (05 M)
12. The signal m(t) = 6 sin (2t) Volts, is transmitted using 4-bit binary PCM system. The
quantizer is of midriser type with a step size of 1 Volt. The sampling frequency is 4 Hz
with samples taken at t = 1/8, 3/8, 5/8, sec. Sketch the PCM wave for one
complete cycle of the input. June 2013 (07 M)
13. Explain regenerative repeater in a PCM system with a block diagram. June 2014 (05 M)
14. The bandwidth of a signal is 3.4 kHz. If the signal is converted to PCM bit stream with
1024 levels, determine the number of bits per second generated by the PCM system.
Assume that the signal is sampled at the rate of 20% above the Nyquist rete. June 2014
(06 M)
15. Derive an expression for the output SNR of s uniform quantizer in terms of step size of
the quantizer. Hence show that for mid-tread type uniform quantizer the SNR is
(SNR)output = 6n 7.2 dB, whrer n is the number of bits per sample. Assume a loading
factor of 4. June 2014 (12 M)
Department ECE,GMIT
datheshraghubooks@gmail.com
Page No - 75