MA1102R CALCULUS

Lesson 6
Wang Fei

matwf@nus.edu.sg

Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937

Chapter 2:Continuous Functions 2

Continuity of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Chapter 3:Derivatives 20
Tangent Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1
Chapter 2:
Continuous Functions 2 / 26

Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

• f (x) = sin x.
◦ lim sin x = 0.
x→0+
◦ lim sin x = lim+ sin(−y) = − lim+ sin y = 0.
x→0− y→0 y→0

⇒ lim sin x = 0 = sin 0.

x→0

∴ sin x is continuous at 0.
• g(x) = cos x. Let −π/2 < x < π/2.

1 ≥ cos x ≥ cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x ≥ 1 − x2 .

)
lim 1 = 1
x→0
⇒ lim cos x = 1 = cos 0.
lim (1 − x2 ) = 1 x→0
x→0

∴ cos x is continuous at 0.

3 / 26

Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

• Let a ∈ R.
lim sin x = lim sin(a + h)
x→a h→0
= lim (sin a cos h + cos a sin h)
h→0
= sin a · lim cos h + cos a · lim sin h
h→0 h→0
= sin a · 1 + cos a · 0
= sin a.
◦ sin x is continuous everywhere.

O x

4 / 26

2
Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
• Let a ∈ R.
lim cos x = lim cos(a + h)
x→a h→0
= lim (cos a cos h − sin a sin h)
h→0
= cos a · lim cos h − sin a · lim sin h
h→0 h→0
= cos a · 1 − sin a · 0
= cos a.
◦ cos x is continuous everywhere.

O x

5 / 26

Continuity of Trigonometric Functions


sin x 
tan x = 
cos x

are continuous whenever cos x 6= 0,
1 
sec x = 

cos x
Domain = R\{± π2 , ± 3π
2
, ± 5π
2
, ± 7π
2
, . . .}.
y
y = sec x

y = tan x

O x

6 / 26

3
Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
cos x 
cot x = 
sin x 
are continuous whenever sin x 6= 0,
1 
csc x = 
sin x
Domain = R\{0, ±π, ±2π, ±3π, ±4π, . . .}.
y

y = csc x

y = cot x

O x

7 / 26

Example
q
4
• Example. f (x) = | x50 − x2 + 1| is continuous on R.

O x

◦ We may prove it using ǫ, δ -definition directly.

However, it may be toooooooo tedious.
◦ f is the composite of continuous functions.
Do we have a shortcut?

8 / 26

4
Composite of Continuous Functions
• Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then
x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
x→a

Or equivalently,  
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

In other words, lim commutes with continuous function.

• Corollary. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite f ◦ g is
continuous at a.

• Proof of Corollary.  
lim (f ◦ g)(x) = lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
= f (g(a)) = (f ◦ g)(a).
9 / 26

Example
• Suppose y = f (x) such that lim f (x) = b. Then
x→a

◦ lim g(f (x)) = lim g(y),

x→a y→b
provided that the limit on the right exists.

Proof. Define g(b) = lim g(y).

y→b

◦ Then g is continuous
 at y = 
b, and then
◦ lim g(f (x)) = g lim f (x) = g(b) = lim g(y).
x→a x→a y→b

• Example. We see that lim sin x = 0.

x→0

◦ Then lim sin(sin x) = lim sin(y) = 0.

x→0 y→0

• Exercise. Can you find a counterexample such that

◦ lim f (x) = b, lim g(f (x)) 6= lim g(y)?
x→a x→a y→b

10 / 26

5
Composite of Continuous Functions
• Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then
x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
x→a

• Idea of the Proof.

◦ f is continuous at b.
For any ǫ1 > 0, there exists δ1 > 0 such that

|y − b| < δ1 ⇒ |f (y) − f (b)| < ǫ1 .

◦ lim g(x) = b.
x→a
For any ǫ2 > 0, there exists δ2 > 0 such that

0 < |x − a| < δ2 ⇒ |g(x) − b| < ǫ2

◦ There two statements can be combined by taking
• y = g(x), and ǫ2 = δ1 .

11 / 26

Composite of Continuous Functions

• Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then
x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
x→a

• Proof of Theorem.
◦ Let ǫ > 0. There exists δ1 > 0 such that
|y − b| < δ1 ⇒ |f (y) − f (b)| < ǫ.
◦ For this δ1 > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |g(x) − b| < δ1 .
◦ Therefore,
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |g(x) − b| < δ1
⇒ |f (g(x)) − f (b)| < ǫ.
12 / 26

6
Intermediate Value Theorem
• Let f be a function continuous on [a, b].
Suppose f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0.
y

O b x

◦ As x moves from a to b,
f (x) moves smoothly from negative to positive.
◦ f is continuous ⇒ the graph has no break.

• The graph cuts the x-axis somewhere between a and b .

13 / 26

Intermediate Value Theorem

• Intermediate Value Theorem (Simple Version)
Let f be a function continuous on [a, b].
◦ If f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0, then
there exists a number c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
• Remark. The theorem
◦ DOES NOT tell us the exact value of the solution.
It shows only the existence of solution.
◦ DOES NOT show the number of the solutions.
There may be more than one root for f (x) = 0.
y

O b x

14 / 26

7
Example
• Show that there is a real root to 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0.
◦ Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2.
• f is a polynomial ⇒ f is continuous on R.
In order to use Intermediate Value Theorem,
we shall find two numbers a and b such that
• f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0.

f (0) = −2 < 0 
there is a c ∈ (0, 2)
f (2) = 12 > 0 ⇒
such that f (c) = 0.
f is continuous on [0, 2]


y
b

3
√
1 + 3
2 2

O 1
b
b x
2

15 / 26

Example
• Stretch a rubber band by moving one end to the right and the other to the left.

It seems that some point of the band will end up in its original position.
• Solution. Suppose the rubber band has length 1, and it is put on the interval [0, 1].
◦ Let f (x) be the position of x after stretching. Then
• f is continuous on [0, 1], f (0) < 0, f (1) > 1.
◦ Define g(x) = f (x) − x. Then

g is continuous on [0, 1]
⇒ g(c) = 0 for some c ∈ (0, 1).
g(0) < 0 and g(1) > 0
i.e., f (c) = c. The rubber band has a fixed point.

16 / 26

8
Intermediate Value Theorem (General Version)
• Intermediate Value Theorem
Let f be a function continuous on [a, b] with f (a) 6= f (b).
◦ Let N be a number between f (a) and f (b),
◦ Then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = N .
y

f (b)

N b

f (a)

O a c x
b

• The proof is to use the Simple Version of Intermediate Value Theorem.

17 / 26

Intermediate Value Theorem (General Version)

• Proof. Case 1. f (a) < f (b).
y y

f (b) f (b) − N

a x
N b b
O c b
y = f (x)
f (a) f (a) − N y = f (x) − N

O a c b x

◦ Let g(x) = f (x) − N .

Then g is continuous on [a, b].

g(a) = f (a) − N < 0
⇒ g(c) = 0 for some c ∈ (a, b).
g(b) = f (b) − N > 0
◦ That is, f (c) = N .

18 / 26

9
 Intermediate Value Theorem (General Version)
• Proof. Case 2. f (a) > f (b).
y y

f (a) N − f (b)
y = f (x)
a x
N b b
O c b

f (b) N − f (a) y = N − f (x)

O a c b x

◦ Let g(x) = N − f (x).

Then g is continuous on [a, b].

g(a) = N − f (a) < 0
⇒ g(c) = 0 for some c ∈ (a, b).
g(b) = N − f (b) > 0
◦ That is, f (c) = N .
(Alternatively, we may define g(x) = −f (x) and use the result of case 1 to prove case 2.)

19 / 26

Chapter 3:
Derivatives 20 / 26

The Tangent Line

• Recall that in Chapter 1 we have seen how to find the tangent line of y = x2 at P (a, a2 ):

y ∆y
Q mP Q =
• (a + h)2 ∆x
Q
• (a + h)2 − a2
=
Q h
•
Q
•
P
b a2

O a x
a+h

◦ The slope of the tangent line can be written as

(a + h)2 − a2
m := lim mP Q = lim .
h→0 h→0 h

21 / 26

10
Definition of Derivative
• The derivative of a function f at a number a is
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) := lim .
h→0 h
◦ f is differentiable at a if f ′ (a) exists.
◦ f ′ (a) is the slope of y = f (x) at x = a.
• Let x = a + h. Then h = x − a, and h → 0 ⇔ x → a. We may use an equivalent definition:
f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) := lim .
x→a x−a
• The tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is the line passing through (a, f (a)) with slope f ′ (a):

y − f (a) = f ′ (a)(x − a).

22 / 26

Examples of Derivatives
• Let f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9. Find f ′ (3).

f (3 + h) − f (3)
f ′ (3) = lim
h→0 h
[(3 + h)2 − 8(3 + h) + 9] − (32 − 8 · 3 + 9)
= lim
h→0 h
(−6 − 2h + h2 ) − (−6)
= lim
h→0 h
−2h + h2
= lim = lim (−2 + h) = −2.
h→0 h h→0

◦ The tangent line of y = f (x) passing through (3, −6):

y − (−6) = f ′ (3)(x − 3) = −2(x − 3).

That is, 2x + y = 0.

23 / 26

11
Examples of Derivatives
x sin x1 , if x 6= 0,
 2

• Let f (x) = Find f ′ (0).
0, if x = 0.

f (h + 0) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim
h→0h

h2 sin h1 − 0
= lim
h→0
h 
1
= lim h sin
h→0 h
= 0.

Note that −|h| ≤ h sin h1

≤ |h| for all h 6= 0.
h→0 ↓ ↓ ↓
0 ⇒ 0 ⇐ 0
(Squeeze Theorem)

24 / 26

Velocity
• Let s = s(t) be the position function of a particle.
◦ instantaneous velocity at time t = a: s′ (a);
◦ speed at time t = a: |s′ (a)|.
• Example. A ball is dropped from a tower 450m above the ground. Find its velocity after 5
seconds.

s(5) ◦ s(t) = 12 gt2 = 4.9t2 .

s(5 + h)
◦ v(5) = s′ (5) = 49.

∆s 4.9(5 + h)2 − 4.9(5)2 49h + 4.9h2

◦ = =
∆t (5 + h) − 5 h
2
49h + 4.9h
◦ Velocity at t = 5: lim = 49 m/s.
h→0 h
25 / 26

12
Example
1
• The position of a particle is given by s(t) = .
1+t
Find its velocity and speed after 2 seconds.

s(2 + h) − s(2)
s′ (2) = lim
h→0 h
1 1 −h
1+2+h
− 1+2 3(3+h)
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
−1 1
= lim =− .
h→0 3(3 + h) 9

◦ Velocity: −1/9 m/s, Speed: 1/9 m/s.

◦ It is moving towards the negative direction.

26 / 26

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