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Technical Knowledge
Published Papers

The future of fracture assessment

Low Power Laser Surfi-Sculpt
Wet welding repairs (May 2006)
Moving contact arc welding (March 1998)
Fabricating LNG carriers (September 2006)
Friction stir welding of aluminium alloys
Developments in A-TIG welding (March 1998)
Welding aluminium by laser (November 1996)
Welding of titanium alloy risers (May 2000)
Fatigue Life Prediction in Welded Structures
Validation of CIVA software (September 2005)
The early days of laser cutting (August 2007)
Advanced hybrid joining technology (June 2009)
Sound field modelling using SimulUS (May 2008)
The new age of pipeline inspection (July 2007)
Avoiding PWHT - Can it be justified? (May 2005)
Friction stir welding developments (April 2002)
Performance of weldments in advanced 9%Cr steel
Laser welding for plastic components (May 2002)
Viewpoint - Value and Quality [robotic welding]
Advanced joining techniques for the 21st century
Digital Radiography - Is It for You? (July 2004)
Mechanical testing of plastics welds (Sept 2002)
Welding fume - Do you know your WEL? (July 2006)
Welding technologies for polymers and composites
Transmission laser welding of plastics (May 2002)
TWI: Corrosion, welds and pipelines. (March 1999)
A review of plastic welding processes (March 2005)

Advances in rail inspection technology (June 2005)

Material selection for supercritical CO2 transport
Modelling of adhesively bonded joints (April 2001)
Resistance welding - state of the art (March 2003)
Computerising your welding information (April 2001)
Reliable technical failure investigation (May 2005)
Bonding plastics? Stuck for a solution? (April 2006)
BS 7910: History and future developments
COMELD - An innovation in composite to metal joining
Creating a stir in the rail industry
Evaluation of CrackFirst fatigue sensors
Friction stir welding of aluminium ships (June 2007)
Hybrid joining - the best of both worlds (Sept 2002)
Laser welding of thermoplastic materials (June 2001)
Predicting adhesive joint life-times (February 2002)
Recent Developments in Welding Technology (May 2006)
The Medical Devices Faraday Partnership
Adhesive joining of metallic materials (October 1999)
R-Curve Modelling with Constraint Effect? (July 2009)
Welded aerospace structures pass the test
Friction stir welding of magnesium alloys (March 2003)
Friction welding of aero engine components
Shielding gases for arc welding and cutting (May 2001)
Sustained load cracking in titanium alloys (July 2003)
Validating the integrity for re-use of a land pipeline
A competitive advantage through innovation (March 2001)
European-sponsored NDT Research at TWI Ltd
Modelling the radiography of thick-section welds (1999)

Review of rail axle inspection methods (September 2003)

Tandem MIG welding for improved productivity (May 2001)
Industrial lasers and applications in automotive welding
Innovation in Materials Joining Technologies (July 2006)
Laser welding automotive steel and aluminium
Structural integrity methods, where next? (October 2002)
Fatigue design rules for welded structures (January 2000)
Friction stir welding - tool developments (February 2001)
Friction Stir Welding in Series Production (October 2004)
The SINTAP fracture toughness estimation procedure (2000)
Welding engineering knowledge on the Internet (July 2001)
Foresight - Future trends in materials joining (June 2001)
Resistance spot welding of high strength steels (May 2003)
Emerging technologies for ceramic joining. (September 1998)
Friction based welding technology for aluminium (July 2002)
Friction stir welding of steel - a feasibility study (1999)
J-fracture toughness of polymers at slow speed (March 2001)
Modelling guided waves in complex structures - Part 1: Rail
Pressure vessel corrosion damage assessment (November 2005)
Some developments in the joining of light alloys (Nov.2001)
Transition joints between dissimilar materials (April 2006)
TWI: Corrosion, welds and pipelines - An update (July 2000)
Dual-rotation Stir Welding - Preliminary trials (April 2004)
Friction stir welding of titanium alloys - A progress update
Hybrid laser/GMA welding of new land pipelines (August 2003)
Advanced joining processes for repair in nuclear power plants
Glob top materials to chip on board components
Hydroprocessing reactor integrity: The basics (November 2004)

The application of ultrasound to refine weld metal structures

The potential of high power lasers in nuclear decommissioning
The use of power beams in surface modification (January 2007)
Adaptively Controlled High Brightness Laser-Arc Hybrid Welding
Canister sealing for high level waste encapsulation (May 2001)
Four decades of electron beam development at TWI (August 2006)
Novel Techniques for Corner Joints Using Friction Stir Welding
The feasibility of friction stir welding steel (February 1999)
Weld modeling of thin structures with VFT software (July 2004)
A review of the concept of mildly sour environments (June 1998)
Environmental Lining Systems - Raising the Standards (May 2001)
Novel technologies for repair and refurbishment (November 2006)
Rotary friction welding of an Fe3Al based ODS alloy (July 2000)
Sustained load cracking of titanium alloy weldments (June 2005)
Taking fabrication management into the 21st century (June 2006)
The laser alternative....to nuclear decommissioning
The weldability of vanadium-microalloyed steels (November 2000)
Advances in welded creep resistant 9-12%Cr steels (October 2007)
Fatigue life prediction for toe ground welded joints (July 2009)
Material selection requirements for civil structures (July 2003)
Demonstration of in-situ weld repair to a FPSO hull (August 2004)
Developments in fusion welding of stainless steels (January 1994)
Optimisation of resources for managing competing risks (May 2009)
The reliability of radiography of thick section welds (July 1999)
Welding and testing of thermoplastics tanks and pipes (June 2006)
Corrosion of welded components in marine environments (April 2003)
In the beginning ... [the history of laser cutting] (October 2002)
In-line reciprocating friction stir welding of plastics (May 2007)

Innovation and the Medical Devices Faraday Partnership (June 2005)

Laser diode based vision system for viewing arc welding (May 2009)
The effect of low H2S concentrations on welded steels (March 2000)
ADIMEW Test: Assessment of a cracked dissimilar metal weld assembly
Friction stir welding - process variants - an update (October 2007)
Laser welding of low-porosity aerospace aluminium alloy
Recent trends in the implementation of EN 729 (ISO 3834) - May 2001
Reliability of manually applied phased array inspection (June 2009)
Risk based optimisation of inspection planning in ships (June 2010)
Silsesquioxanes - Tailored multifunctional oligomers (October 2007)
The importance of welding quality in ship construction (March 2009)
The phased array inspection of friction stir welded aluminium plant
Validation of arc welding equipment - revision of BS7570 (May 2001)
Virtual fabrication technology (VFT) and shipbuilding
Bringing aerospace welding specifications up to standard
EB welding of large components without a vacuum chamber (April 2007)
Fatigue performance of riser girth welds for deep-water applications
Friction welding of near net shape preforms in Ti-6Al-4V (June 2007)
Management processes for innovation in joining technology (Nov.2001)
Manufacturing with Lasers Developments and Opportunities (July 2004)
Moving weld management from the desk to the desktop (September 1999)
Process monitoring methods in laser welding of plastics (April 2006)
Production of titanium deposits by Cold Gas Dynamic Spray (May 2005)
Testing of superduplex stainless steel for sour service (March 2003)
Trends in the design and fabrication of rolling stock
Welding of Ti-6Al-4V with fibre delivered laser beams (October 2007)
A review of adhesive bonding techniques for joining medical materials
A review of ball grid arrays for electronic assembly

Industry survey of risk-based life management practices (August 2002)

Laser welding of plastics - process selection software (October 2003)
Modelling of time reversal focussing in straight pipes (October 2007)
Radiography of thin-section welds, part 2: modelling (September 2002)
TELETEST (R) Guided wave technology - case histories (September 2001)
Ultrasonic phased array inspection of FSW lap joints (September 2004)
Aero engine improvements through linear friction welding
Corrosion fatigue behaviour of welded risers and pipelines (June 2007)
Development of a fatigue sensor for welded steel structures (May 2006)
Development of HVOF sprayed aluminium alloy engine bearings (May 2003)
Developments in the use of adhesives in industrial applications (2005)
Materials processing with a 10kW Nd:YAG laser facility (November 1999)
NOMAD - Autonomous manufacture of large steel fabrications (June 2002)
Operational Excellence through an asset management optimisation system
Plume attenuation under high power Nd:YAG laser welding (October 2002)
Trials using the Instrumented Indentation Technique (IIT) (March 2005)
Welding new stainless steels for the oil and gas industry (March 2000)
Development of corrosion resistant coatings by HVOF spraying (May 2000)
Digital radiography for the inspection of small defects (February 2006)
Evaluation of weld metal strength mismatch in X100 pipeline girth welds
Fracture toughness estimation for pipeline girth welds (September 2002)
Friction based technologies for joining and processing (September 2001)
Reduced pressure electron beam welding in the power generation industry
Welding and joining techniques for polymeric medical devices
A review of postweld heat treatment code exemption - Part 1 (March 2006)
Development of the Trivex(TM) friction stir welding tool (February 2003)
Hydrogen cracking - its causes, costs and future occurrence (March 1999)
Performance Improvement through an Asset Maintenance Optimisation System

Heat insulation and fire resistance using composite materials (June 1999)
Modelling of Guided Ultrasonic Waves in Aircraft Wiring (September 2008)
Overview of the European Fitnet fitness-for-service procedure (June 2008)
Reliability of inspection for root flaws in riser girth welds (June 2004)
Techniques for welding polymeric devices using laser sources (April 2003)
Yb Fibre Laser/MAG Hybrid Processing for Welding of Pipelines (July 2005)
Advanced welding processes for fusion reactor fabrication (September 1999)
Corrosion fatigue of steel catenary risers in sweet production (June 2008)
Enhancements to power beam welding processes for land transport (May 2004)
Fracture mechanics assessment of flaws in pipeline girth welds (June 2006)
Friction stir welding conquers austenitic stainless steels (November 2000)
Laser-vapour interaction in high-power cw CO2 laser welding (October 2003)
National and international qualifications for welding personnel (May 2005)
Novel joining and sealing processes for solid oxide fuel cells (July 2002)
Use of infrared dyes for transmission laser welding of plastics (May 2000)
Application of extreme value analysis to corrosion mapping data (June 2009)
Inspection reliability and periodicity for rail axle inspection (June 2006)
Joining polyethersulphone to aluminium by ultrasonic welding (January 1999)
Laser welding of aluminium alloys using different laser sources (June 1998)
Magnesium joining - process developments and future requirements (May 2001)
Nd:YAG laser welding of titanium alloys using a directed gas jet (May 2010)
New Advances in Plastics Joining for High Speed Production (September 2001)
Re-evaluation of fatigue curves for flush ground girth welds (October 2008)
The fibre laser - a newcomer for material welding and cutting (August 2005)
The Generation Of Autogeneous Surface Features Using A Low Power Laser Beam
Assessment of flaw significance in a pipeline weld - a case study (May 2000)
Friction stir welding - how to weld aluminium without melting it (May 2001)
Friction stir welding - invention, innovations and applications (March 2001)

Steeling the competitive edge: is there a place for robots?

The development of lightweight self-piercing riveting equipment (March 2001)
Training and Certification in Long Range Ultrasonic Testing (September 2008)
A general review of recent developments in resistance welding (November 2002)
Assessing toughness levels for steels to determine the need for PWHT - Part 2
Autogenous Nd:YAG laser welding of 6mm thick dissimilar steels (October 2001)
FPSO Structural integrity - a TWI collection of case studies (September 2004)
Friction stir weld integrity and its importance to the rolling stock industry
Friction stir welders provide prefabricated components and panels (July 2004)
Hybrid Nd:YAG laser/gas metal arc welding for new land pipelines (March 2002)
Laser-vapour interaction in high-power cw Nd:YAG laser welding (October 2003)
Long-range ultrasonic testing (LRUT) of pipelines and piping (September 2004)
Radiography of thin-section welds, part 4: Further modelling (September 2004)
Solid state joining of metals by linear friction welding: A literature review
Activating Flux - Improving the Performance of the TIG Process (February 2000)
Effects of plastic strain on cleavage fracture predictions in steel (Dec.2001)
Evaluation of necessary delay before inspection for hydrogen cracks (May 2001)
Fibre lasers for surface removal of contaimated concrete in the nuclear sector
Finite Element Residual Stress Prediction After Pwht Of Branch-Pipe Connection
Radiography of Thin Section Welds, Part 1: Practical Approach (September 2002)
The simultaneous use of two or more friction stir welding tools (January 2005)
Friction stir welding and related friction process characteristics (April 1998)
Friction Stir Welding for the fabrication of aluminium rolling stock (May 2008)
Laser and Hybrid Laser MAG Welding of Thick Section C-Mn Steel (September
2005)
Modelling of long range ultrasonic waves in complex structures (September
2008)
Nd:YAG Laser welding of a stiffened panel demonstration component (August
2001)

Plastics welding and adhesive bonding - Innovative applications (November

2000)
Resistance seam and laser welding of large hybrid metal packages
Signal processing for quality assurance in friction stir welds
The significance of softened HAZs in high strength structural steels (May 2003)
Welding supermartensitic stainless steels for corrosive service (November 2007)
Achieving low-porosity laser welds in aerospace aluminium alloy
Friction stir welding: invention, innovations and industrialisation (March 2002)
Novel joining methods applicable to textiles and smart garments (September
2005)
Novel joining techniques for repair in the power generation industry (June 2002)
The special importance of personnel competence in welding fabrication (May
2009)
Adaptively controlled hybrid welding using a high brightness laser (October
2010)
Application of friction stir welding in the shipbuilding industry
Critical review of joining processes for powder metallurgy parts (September
2008)
Electron beam welding of crack sensitive nickel super alloy MAR-M-002 (July
2006)
Energy absorbing joints between fibre reinforced plastics and metals (April 2006)
Friction and forge welding processes for the automotive industry (September
1999)
Low-porosity laser welding of 12.7mm thickness aerospace aluminium
Modelling of crashworthy welded joints of aluminium railway carbodies
Programme of mitigation for in-service damage of FPSO hull structures (June
2001)
Quality requirements for an FPSO hull and marine piping fabrication (August
2004)
Review of the effect of hydrogen gas on fatigue performance of steels (June
2010)
Yb-Fibre laser single sided tube cutting for nuclear decommissioning applications

Corrosion fatigue of simulated C-mn steel HAZs in sour produced fluids (June
2008)
FSW process variants and mechanical properties (July 2004)
Laser and hybrd laser-MAG welding of steel structures for shipbuilding (June
2007)
Overview of recent welding-related pipeline technology advances at TWI (June
2008)
Railway rolling stock manufacturers implement friction stir welding (October
2002)
Review of statistical methods used in quantifying NDT reliability
Spectroscopic studies of plume/plasma in different gas environments (October
2001)
The resistance spot welding of high and ultra-high strength steels (November
2004)
Validation of fracture assessment procedures through full-scale testing (May
2008)
Validation of idealised Charpy impact energy transition curve shape (October
2001)
Detection of corrosion in offshore risers using guided ultrasonic waves (June
2007)
Hydrogen cracking of ferritic-austenitic stainless steel weld metal (February
2000)
Industrialisation of friction stir welding for aerospace structures
PD 6493 becomes BS 7910; what's new in fracture and fatigue assessment?
(June 1999)
Remote crack repair welding in steels using high power Nd:YAG lasers (October
2000)
Structure/property relationships in polyetheretherketone vibration welds (May
1999)
Surfi-Sculpt - Revolutionary surface processing with an electron beam (August
2005)
The influence of vanadium-microalloying on the weldability of steels (October
2001)
The use of bobbin tools for friction stir welding of aluminium alloys (August 2009)

Coatings for offshore applications by high velocity wire flame spraying (April
2005)
Comeld - A New approach to damage control for composite to metal joints (April
2005)
Laser welding of ultra-high strength steels for automotive applications (April
2008)
Mechanical Properties of Friction Welds in High Strength Titanium Alloys (June
1999)
Which procedures for fitness-for-service assessment: API 579 or BS 7910? (July
2003)
Analysis of crack arrest event in NESC-1 spinning cylinder experiment (November
2002)
Application studies using through-transmission laser welding of polymers (April
2006)
Eddy current and thermography application for robotic aircraft inspection (July
2002)
Independent qualification of phased array inspection of fillet welds (September
2002)
Laser sealing of plastics for medical devices
Static and fatigue behaviour of spot welded 5182-0 aluminium alloy sheet (March
1999)
Adhesive shear properties - development of a simplified test specimen
(September 2002)
An investigation into arc constriction by active fluxes for TIG (A-TIG) welding
(2000)
Corrosion damage assessment and burst test validation of 8in x 52 linepipe (July
2001)
Corrosion fatigue performance of welded risers for deepwater applications
(March 2004)
Heat affected zone microstructures in supermartensitic stainless steels (October
2002)
Influence of spraying parameters on the properties of HVOF alumina coatings
(May 2005)
Significance of liquation cracks in thick section welds in Al-Mg-Si plate (April
1998)

Static shoulder friction stir welding of Ti-6Al-4V; process and evaluation (June
2007)
The application of finite element modelling to guided wave testing systems (July
2002)
The special importance of personnel competence in welding fabrication
A new technique for girth welds in land pipelines: hybrid laser-arc welding (June
2003)
A novel polymeric coating for enhanced ultrasound imaging of medical devices
Condition monitoring of large structures using piezoelectric transducers (October
2007)
Loading rate effects on tensile properties and fracture toughness of steel (April
1999)
Review of fatigue assessment procedures for welded aluminium structures
(December 2003)
Risk-based inspection and maintenance - industry feedback and user needs
(October 2002)
A review of K-solutions for through-thickness flaws in cylinders and spheres (July
2007)
Correlation of phased array inspection and fatigue performance of FSW joints
(June 2007)
Design of pipelines subject to lateral buckling to resist corrosion fatigue (March
2009)
Friction stir welding - recent developments in tool and process technologies (July
2003)
Information technologies and their influence on joining and construction
Modelling and measurements for the assessment of a full scale pipe bend test
(July 2007)
Radiography of thin section welds, Part 3: Additional Flaw Measurements
(September 2004)
Recent developments & applications in electron beam and friction technologies
(May 2001)
The prediction of maximum HAZ hardness in C-Mn and low alloy steel arc welds
(June 2008)
A review of joining processes for packaging with plastics (May 1999 + Addendum
July 2001)

Advanced transducer development for Long Range Ultrasonic inspection systems

Application of friction stir welding for the manufacture of aluminium ferries (May
2000)
Application of innovative welding methods to prefabricate aluminium panels
(October 2004)
Constraint loss in welds due to geometry, loading mode and strength mismatch
Corrosion fatigue of welded stainless steels for deepwater riser applications (June
2005)
Development of Nd:Yag Laser-MAG hybrid welding of T joints for shipbuilding
Development of the laser/MAG hybrid welding process for land pipeline
construction
Hybrid Nd:YAG Laser-AC MIG welding of thin section automotive aluminium alloy
(June 2006)
Hydrogen induced stress cracking of duplex stainless steel subsea components
(June 2010)
Joining technology for high volume manufacturing of lightweight vehicle
structures
Recommended hot-spot stress design S-N curves for fatigue assessment of
FPSOs (June 2001)
A review of the effect of cold-work on resistance to sulphide stress cracking
(March 2007)
A thermal method for surface crack detection in metals with high lift-off
(September 2004)
Friction Stir Welding - Process Variants and Recent Industrial Developments
(October 2007)
Long range inspection of engineering assets using guided ultrasonic waves
(September 2008)
Subsea dissimilar joints: Failure mechanisms and opportunities for mitigation
(March 2009)
A novel polymeric coating for enhanced ultrasound visibility of medical devices
An Introduction to Surfi-Sculpt Technology - New Opportunities, New Challenges
(April 2007)
Assessment of Dissimilar Metal Interfaces for Sub-Sea Application under Cathodic
Protection

Comparison of the ASME, BS and CEN fatigue design rules for pressure vessels
(October 2003)
Detection of fouling in food pipelines using Long Range Ultrasonic Testing
(September 2009)
Experimental study and prediction of fatigue crack growth in girth welded pipes
(June 2002)
Hybrid Nd:YAG laser-MAG welding of thick section steel with adaptive control
(October 2004)
Integrity of FPSO [floating production storage and offloading] hull structures
(March 2000)
Integrity of reduced pressure electron beam girth welds for deep water pipelines
(May 2004)
Making the link - Effective joining technology for aluminium in the 21st Century
(May 2006)
Novel method of recording cooling curves during laser & laser/arc hybrid welding
(May 2003)
Recent developments in friction stir welding of thick section aluminium alloys
(March 2007)
The evolution of Yb fibre laser/MAG hybrid processing for welding of pipelines
(June 2005)
Use of supermartensitic stainless steel pipe for offshore flowline applications
(June 2006)
Development of thermal sprayed plain bearings for automotive engine
applications (July 2006)
Ferric chloride testing for weld procedure qualification of duplex stainless steel
weldments
Hydrogen embrittlement stress corrosion cracking of superduplex stainless steel
(March 2001)
Investigation of the A-TIG Mechanism and the Productivity Benefits in TIG
Welding (May 2009)
Preferential weld corrosion: Effects of weldment microstructure and composition
(April 2005)
The prediction of maximum HAZ hardness in various regions of multiple pass
welds (June 2008)
Long term monitoring of offshore installations using ultrasonic guided waves
(September 2008)

Reliability analysis of defect-containing structures using partial safety factors

(June 2009)
Structural integrity with Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) ultrasonic inspection
(July 2005)
The potential for solid state welding of titanium pipe in offshore industries
(November 1997)
Corrosion mitigation in biomass combustion plant using thermal spray coatings
(September 2009)
Development of a permanent installation tool for structural health monitoring
(September 2008)
Immersion Transmit-Receive Longitudinal phased array probe for stainless steel
(December 2008)
Priority areas for welding, joining and associated engineering research in Europe
(April 2002)
Progress in friction stir welding of aluminium and steel for marine applications
(October 2003)
Recent Developments in Welding Inspection Certification (including
developments in EWF and IIW)
Trends in welding processes in engineering construction for infrastructure
projects
Comparison of long-term and short-term tests for electrofusion joints in PE pipes
(October 2006)
Condition monitoring of large oil and chemical storage tanks using guided waves
(September 2004)
Environment assisted cracking assessment methods: The behaviour of shallow
cracks (October 2007)
Interim fatigue design recommendations for fillet welded joints under complex
loading (May 2001)
Towards a simplified assessment procedure for corroded nozzles in pressure
vessels (August 1999)
Development of laser, and laser/arc hybrid welding for land pipeline applications
(February 2003)
Friction Stir Welding - Process variants and developments in the automotive
industry (April 2006)
Laser and hybrid laser-MIG welding of 6.35 and 12.7mm thick aluminium
aerospace alloy

Modelling guided waves in complex structures - Part 2: Wire bundles - with and
without insulation
The corrosion behaviour of high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) sprayed Ni-Cr-Si-B
coatings (March 2002)
Three-dimensional robotic high-power Nd:YAG laser welding: Opportunities and
obstacles (May 2001)
Development and evaluation of CO2 laser-MAG hybrid welding for DH36
shipbuilding steel
Friction stir technology - recent developments in process variants and
applications (October 2006)
New developments in ultrasound phased array for the evaluation of friction stir
welds (March 2003)
Sulphide stress cracking of welded joints in weldable martensitic stainless steels
(February 2001)
A new method of laser beam induced surface modification using the Surfi-Sculpt
process (April 2008)
Compilation of stress intensity factor and load limit solutions for the Fitnet
procedure (May 2008)
Emerging friction joining technology for stainless steel and aluminium
applications (February 1996)
Extending the internal examination intervals for pressure vessels using an RBI
approach (July 2009)
HVOF sprayed WC-Co-Cr as a generic coating type for replacement of hard
chrome plating (March 2002)
Microstructure & properties of autogenous high-power Nd:YAG laser welds in CMn steels (April 2002)
Microstructure characteristics and corrosion behaviour of HVOF sprayed metallic
coatings (May 2001)
Sour service limits of dual-certified 316/316L austenitic stainless steel and
weldments (March 2010)
Stress corrosion cracking of ferritic steel weld metal - the effect of nickel. Part 1
(January 1982)
Techniques for improving the weldability of trip steel using resistance spot
welding (December 2005)
Battle of the sources - using a high-power Yb-fibre laser for welding steel and
aluminium (July 2005)

Battle of the Sources - Using a high-power Yb-fibre laser for welding steel and
aluminium (June 2005)
Effects of different gas environments on CO2 and Nd:YAG laser welding process
efficiencies (May 2002)
Healthy Aims - Development of Implantable Microsystems Medical Devices
Stress corrosion cracking of ferritic steel weld metal - the effect of nickel. Part 2
(February 1982)
The Potential of High Power Lasers for Tube Cutting and Concrete Scabbling in
Nuclear Decommissioning
Case studies on ECA-based flaw acceptance criteria for pipe girth welds using BS
7910:2005 (June 2007)
Probabilistic remnant life assessment of corroding pipelines within a risk-based
framework (July 2002)
Requirements for the European education of railway track welders in
aluminothermic welding (June 2006)
Ultrasonic phased array inspection technology for the evaluation of friction stir
welds (January 2004)
Welding of structural steel components with high power, fibre delivered Nd:YAG
lasers (September 2003)
Autonomous Manufacture of Large Steel Fabrications EC Contract: G1RD-CT2000-00461 'NOMAD' (March 2004)
Comparison of methods for predicting the influence of residual stresses on brittle
fracture (July 2007)
Pipeline Corrosion Control: a historical perspective and a long range approach to
the future (May 2007)
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consequences for fatigue damage
Novel Induction Heating Technique for Joining of Carbon Fibre Composites
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> Technical Knowledge > Published Papers > Demonstration of in-situ weld
repair to a FPSO hull (August 2004)
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Demonstration of in-situ weld repair to a FPSO hull
D J Abson and H G Pisarski
Paper presented at Proceedings of OMAE-FPSO 2004, OMAE Specialty Symposium
on FPSO Integrity, Houston, USA, 30 Aug - 2 Sept 2004.
Abstract
If repair to the underside of an FPSO becomes necessary, economic
considerations require that, if at all possible, repair be carried out with the FPSO
remaining on station. Any repair of defects in the bottom of an FPSO must
therefore be effected underwater. The preferred approach is to attach an
enclosed dam to the underside of the vessel, pump out the water and then
complete the repair from the inside. However, where the risk of fire or explosion
orballast considerations require, it may be necessary to complete the welded
repair from inside the vessel by wet underwater welding.
This paper describes how weld repairs can be effected by the attachment of such
a dam, and grinding, to simulate the removal and welded repair of a through-wall
fatigue crack by wet underwater welding. The integrity and mechanical
properties of these welds are discussed.
Introduction
In view of the interruption to supply that would accompany taking an FPSO offstation, and moving it to a dry dock, a repair will normally be carried out with the
vessel on-station. For a repair to the bottom of an FPSO, the preferred approach
will generally be to attach an enclosed dam to the underside of the vessel, drain
it from inside, so that the damaged region can be repaired in the dry, prior to
removing the dam. Where circumstances permit, the repair from the inside can
be effected by welding in air. However, for safety or ballast considerations, it
may be necessary to carry out the repair by welding under water from inside the
hull.

This paper describes a demonstration of single-sided repair, appropriate to a

repair following gouging and grinding to remove a through-wall crack in the
bottom of an FPSO. The repair welds were made both by welding in air and bywet
underwater welding. The paper also considers their inspection and mechanical
testing. Also included is a demonstration of the attachment of an enclosed dam
to the underside of a plate that simulated the bottom of an FPSO. In this case, a
butt weld was deposited, simulating the repair of a gouged through-thickness
crack.
Experimental approach
Parent Steels
The 20mm thick steel plate met the requirements of DNV 27S and LRS Grade D.
This plate will be referred to as 'ship plate' in this paper. Parallel to the rolling
direction, it had a yield strength of 293MPa and tensile strength of458MPa. An
additional 20mm thick plate, to ASTM A516 Grade I, was also used. The chemical
composition of these plates is given in Table 1.

Table 1 Chemical analysis of the parent steels and backing bars

Identity

Element, wt%
C

Si

Mn P

Cr

Mo

Ni

Al

Cu

Nb

Ti

Ship plate
DNV 27S

0.1 0.2 0.9 0.01

0.01 <0.0 0.02
0.01 0.0 0.00 0.0
0.006
0.033
5 1 6 9
8
04
1
0
02
1
02

A516 grade
65

0.1 0.2 1.1 0.01 <0.0 0.03 <0.0 0.03

0.00
0.00 <0.0
0.034
0.014
6 9 0 6
02
0
05
0
5
9
02

BS EN 10025 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.01

0.05
0.04
0.06 <0.0 0.00 <0.0
0.030
0.005
0.010
S275 JR
8 3 9 0
1
2
5
02
1
01
Mild steel

0.0 0.1 0.4 0.01

0.08
0.09 <0.0
<0.0 0.00 <0.0
0.032
0.017
0.24
5 1 1 5
0
1
03
02
1
01

The A516 plate was also used to simulate the bottom of an FPSO in an exercise
to attach an enclosed dam underwater to its underside. A simple 'dam' was
fabricated from 460mm diameter API 5L X65 steel pipe, that was closed at one
end with a disc of steel of similar strength. A flange, 15mm thick, was flame-cut
and then welded in place so that it left a rim approximately 30mm wide on the
outside. Four screw dogs were also fabricated, by cutting out L-shaped pieces of
steel plate, each from a plate approximately 150 x 175 x 15mm, and welding
M16 nuts down one edge, with a bolt threaded through them; the deployment of
these screw dogs is discussed in the section on wet underwater welding.
Preparation of panels for welding

Two 'composite' butt weld panels were assembled with the ship plate constituting
one side of the panel, and the ASTM A516 Grade 65 steel, for the opposite side;
one of these was destined for welding in air, and the other for wet underwater
welding. A further panel, 600mm long, was welded entirely in ASTM A516 Grade
65. In order to reduce distortion during welding, an end bar was welded to each
end of both of the composite panels, and strong-backs were welded on to the
panels that were welded in air.
Grooves were air carbon arc gouged and ground in the three panels. A U-groove
with a root gap of approximately 4mm and an included angle of 50 10 degrees
was prepared for the panel that was to be welded in air with an open root. The
groove length was approximately 375mm long in the root, and approximately
475mm long at the 'cap' side. A further panel was prepared with the same
preparation, except that the root gap was opened up to 8mm, and a backing bar
was introduced. The backing strip was 12.5mm wide and approximately 3.5mm
thick; it was held in place by wires that were threaded through predrilled holes,
and tied to temporary supports that straddled the groove. The chemical
composition of this backing bar is given in Table 1.
The preparation employed for the panel destined for wet underwater welding
was a V-groove, with an included angle of approximately 30 degrees, and a root
gap of approximately 10mm. The groove length was again approximately
375mmlong in the root, and approximately 475mm long at the 'cap' side. A
backing bar was prepared from 25mm wide, 6mm thick mild steel, supplied to BS
EN 10025 S275JR, Table 1; it was introduced from the 'cap' side of the weld, and
held in place by wire loops passed through predrilled holes and then through
washers that straddled the groove, and nuts; the wires were then tightened by
twisting the nuts. (This preparation was done before the panel was inserted into
the welding tank, but could have been carried out underwater.)
Welding in Air
A summary of all the welds is given in Table 2. All welding was carried out in the
flat position. The U-groove in the composite panel, W02, was welded with an
open root. The heat input values for the TIG root and hot pass, deposited with BS
2901 Part 1; 1983 A18wire, were 1.4 and 2.0 kJ/mm. The heat input for the third
and fourth passes, deposited with 3.2mm diameter Eland 7018 MMA electrodes,
and for the remaining passes with 4mm diameter Elga PSI 7018 MMA electrodes,
was between 1.2 and 1.5kJ/mm. Welding was carried out without preheat.

Table 2 Summary of welds

Identit Configurati Consumable used for root and
y
on
hot pass

Consumable used for fill and

cap

W01

V-groove

Hydroweld FS

Hydroweld FS

W02

U-groove

A18 TIG rod

3.2mm Eland 7018 & 4mm

diameter
Elga P51 7018
W03

U-groove

3.2mm Eland 7018 & 4mm

diameter
Elga P51 7018

W04

3-pass
fillet

Hydroweld FS

4mm diameter Elga P51 7018

Hydroweld FS

For the gouged and ground groove in weld W03, the root pass was deposited
against a backing bar using 3.2mm diameter Eland 7018 MMA electrodes; the
heat input was 1.3kJ/mm. For the remaining passes, deposited with 4mm
diameter ElgaPSI 7018 MMA electrodes, the heat input was in the range 1.3 to
1.5kJ/mm. Again, no preheating was employed.
Wet Underwater Welding
The electrodes used for the wet underwater weld, W01, were 3.2mm diameter
Hydroweld FS electrodes. All welding was carried out in a flat position, except
that the fillet welding to attach the screw dogs to the underside of the plate was
carried out overhead.
Two exercises were carried out. The first exercise consisted of a simple
demonstration of the attachment of an enclosed dam to the underside of a plate
underwater, simulating the attachment of such a structure to the underside of an
FPSO. A gasket cut from closed cell polymer foam was adhesively bonded to the
welded flange of the enclosed dam; see Fig.1. The attachment of the dam was
effected by welding each of four screw dogs to a flat plate, representing the hull,
with a three-pass fillet weld. The screw dogs were arranged radially, such that
each bolt impinged on the flange of the enclosed dam. Whilst a flotation device
would normally be used in practice, it was not employed in this instance. Instead,
the enclosed dam was supported from above, through a hole cut in the centre of
the plate to which it was being attached, thereby simplifying positioning of the
assembly underwater. However, in other respects the activity was a simulation of
the attachment of an enclosed dam.

Fig.1. Enclosed dam attached to the plate that simulated the bottom of the hull
of an FPSO. Each of the four screw dogs shown was attached by depositing a
three-pass fillet weld on one side in the overhead position.

The second exercise consisted of depositing a butt weld, W01, in the prepared Vgroove, in the flat position.
A separate piece of the plate from which the screw dogs were cut was similarly
fillet welded on to the ship plate, so that HAZ hardness could be measured. (This
welding was actually carried out in the flat position, rather than overhead.)
Examination and Testing
The panels were examined visually, radiographed, and examined ultrasonically,
using P-scan, with both 60 and 70 degree probes, to generate a threedimensional representation of any defects present.
Following visual examination and NDE, the panels were sectioned, as required in
BS EN 288:Part 3 [1] . Samples for metallographic examination, chemical analysis
and mechanical testing were prepared. These included cross-weld tensile,
hardness and fracture toughness tests. Transverse weld tensile specimens were
machined and tested according to BS EN895:1995 [2] . Fracture toughness
specimens were prepared and tested in accordance with BS 7448: Parts 1 and 2
[3, 4] . These were all notched in the through-thickness direction, (NP direction
according to BS 7448:Part 2). Specimens were notched along the weld centre
line, and in the HAZ (with the notch intersecting the weld fusion boundary at
mid-thickness). The primary rolling direction in the Grade 'A' ship plate, which
contained the test HAZ, was parallel to the welding direction (BS 7448:Part 2
crack plane orientation N x P).
After notching, the ligament below the notch was locally compressed, in
accordance with BS 7448:Part 2 [4] , in order to reduce residual stresses to low
and uniform levels, and so promote the growth of straight fatigue cracks.

The specimens were instrumented with a double clip gauge arrangement, in

order to estimate crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD). This arrangement
enabled CTOD and J to be estimated in accordance with the BS 7448:Parts 1 and
2,and also J to be estimated from CMOD. The equations for estimating J from
CMOD are given in Ref. [7] .
The fracture toughness tests were conducted according to the requirements of
BS 7448:Parts 1 and 2 [3, 4] at 0C; this is intended to represent a typical
minimum sea water temperature.
Results
Welding in Air
Welding proceeded satisfactorily, with no serious problems being encountered,
except for slight burn-through of the 3.5mm thick backing bar, which indicates
that the use of a slightly thicker backing bar is preferable.
Wet Underwater Welding
Deposition of the wet underwater weld, W01, proceeded smoothly, with no major
problems, and with only occasional grinding, particularly of weld finish regions,
being required. The welder diver generally has only limited scope for varying the
heat input. The reported range of heat input values was from approximately 1.5
to 1.8 kJ/mm. Short lengths of tack weld in the root, that joined the backing bars
to the panels, prior to removal of the wires supporting the backing bar, were
blended into the root weld beads.
Similarly, the deposition overhead of the four three-pass fillet welds to attach the
screw dogs did not give any welding problems. For each of the welds, the first
pass was deposited at a heat input of approximately 2.5kJ/mm, and the two
subsequent passes at a heat input of approximately 1.2kJ/mm.
Visual Appearance of the Panels
Photographs of two of the butt welded panels are shown in Fig.2 and 3. The
visual appearance of all the welds, including W01 deposited underwater, was
good, as expected for MMA welds deposited in the flat position.

Fig.2. Weld W02, deposited in air, with an open root

Fig.3. Weld W01, deposited under water employing a backing bar

X-Radiography
W01, the wet underwater weld, met the radiographic requirements of AWS D3.6
[5] Class A, which is the quality that is required of welds deposited in air. Welds
W02 and W03 contained no significant defects, and were acceptable to BS EN
25817:1992 [6] Level B.
Ultrasonic Testing
The P-scan images of the three butt welds were obtained using a 70 degree
probe. The 60 degree probe picked up spurious images from the backing bar for
welds W01 and W02. The interface between the two parts of the composite
panel, beyond the end of the weld, was picked up for welds W01 and W02, and
the edges of the backing bar were detected in weld W01. For the latter, two
indications, that were 6 and 28mm long, respectively, were found in the root of
W01. These root features were investigated by metallographic sectioning
through the appropriate location.
Chemical Analysis
Weld metal chemical analyses, Table 3, show the expected leaner composition,
and a normal comparatively high oxygen level, for the wet underwater weld,
W01.

Table 3 Chemical analysis of welds W01 (wet underwater weld) and W02 (welded
in air)
Identi Element, wt%
ty
C
Si Mn P

Cr

Mo Ni

Al

Cu Nb Ti

W01

0.0 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 <0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.10
82 2 3 23 07 24 04 36 03 18 04 12 11 67 0

W02

0.0 0.5 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
53 5 9 10 50 50 27 47 0
13 03 25 16

Metallographic Examination
Photomacrographs of two of the three butt-welds are shown in Fig.4(a), and 5(a).
The generally good profile of all the welds is noted, particularly that of the TIG
root bead that was deposited in the open root of weld W02, Fig.4(b).

4a) Overall view

4b) Root Detail

Fig.4. Transverse section through weld W02. The nominal

magnification is indicated by the millimeter scale

5a) Overall view

5b) Root detail, showing a small

crack in the weld metal

Fig.5. Transverse section through weld W01. The nominal

magnifications are indicated by the millimeter scale and by the

micron bar.

he features detected by ultrasonic testing at two locations along weld W01 were
investigated by metallographic sectioning, which revealed, in each case, a
shallow crack in the weld root, approximately 1mm deep. One of these features
is shown in Fig.5(b).
The section through the three-pass weld, simulating the weld that attached the
screw dog plate to the ship plate revealed adequate penetration on both legs of
the fillet weld, but some undercut in the weld that impinges on the screwdog
plate. However, this is of little consequence, as such welds are intended as
temporary attachments, and the weld in these trials was deposited solely to
permit measurement of HAZ hardness in the underlying plate.
Cross-Weld Tensile Tests
The cross-weld tensile tests revealed that fracture occurred in the ship plate
parent steel, with a tensile strength of > 475MPa. This is just above the ultimate
tensile strength determined for this material (458MPa).
Hardness Tests
The Vickers hardness test results, reported in Table 4, reveal that mean weld
metal hardness for the butt-welds ranged from 173HV10 to 220HV10. Mean
hardness values for the ship plate showed some variability, with a range of
154HV10 to 174HV10. Maximum HAZ hardness values in this plate ranged from
177HV10 to 207HV10 for weld W02, deposited in air, and from 215HV10 to
336HV10 for weld W01, deposited underwater.

Table 4 Vickers hardness data

Parent steel
Parent
HAZ in
HAZ in
steel
Ship plate Weld metal A516 grade
A516 grade
Ship plate
65
Identity
65

W01 cap
W01
root
W02 cap

W02
root
W04
'cap'

W04
'root'

The cap and root mean weld metal hardness values for the three-pass
underwater fillet weld, W04, were 173 HV10 and 220HV10, respectively, which is
a little higher than for the butt weld deposited underwater, possibly reflecting a
faster cooling rate. Parent steel mean hardness values were surprisingly low at
134HV10, while the maximum HAZ hardness was 345HV10, which is marginally
higher than the maximum value for the wet underwater butt-weld.
Fracture Toughness Tests
The fracture toughness test results are summarised in Table 5. Since the weld
metal yield strength was not determined, an estimated room temperature yield
strength of 390MPa was calculated from the hardness results given in Table 4,
using an equation given in BS 7448:Part 2 [4] . The weld metal overmatched the
yield strength of the parent plate by about 33%.

Table 5 Fracture toughness results on weld metal and HAZ at 0C

Notch location

CTOD
Specimen
(1)
No
mm

Type of
result

J CMOD,
(2)
N/mm

Wet underwater V-weld, weld

W01-1
metal

0.085

67.8

Wet underwater V-weld, weld

W01-2
metal

0.104

83.7

Wet underwater V-weld, weld

W01-3
metal

0.086

66.2

Wet underwater V-weld, HAZ W01-4

0.093

70.4

Wet underwater V-weld, HAZ W01-5

0.100

76.8

Wet underwater V-weld, HAZ W01-6

0.142

116.5

U-weld made in air, weld

metal

W02-1

0.438

415.3

U-weld made in air, weld

W02-2

0.258

275.9

metal
U-weld made in air, weld
metal

W02-3

0.734

711.7

U-weld made in air, HAZ

W02-4

0.401

346.1

U-weld made in air, HAZ

W02-5

0.385

332.6

U-weld made in air, HAZ

W02-6

0.418

359.0

Notes:
(1) CTOD estimated according to BS 7448:Parts 1 and 2 [3, 4]
(2) J estimated from CMOD according to Ref [7]

The CTOD results for the HAZ in the ship plate tend to reflect the trends
observed in the weld metal tests. Namely, lower values (in the range 0.093 to
0.142mm) were obtained from the underwater weld W01 compared with the
weld made in air, W02 (where the CTOD values were in the range 0.385 to
0.418mm). None of the specimens fractured by cleavage, and all gave maximum
load behaviour ( m). Given that in welds W01 and W02 the line of the notch in
the test specimens contains HAZs made in the same parent plate, made at
similar heat inputs and the weld metal hardness/estimated yield strengths were
the same, the CTOD values would be expected to be similar. The difference is
attributed to the way the HAZ fracture toughness specimens were notched. The
HAZ was intersected at mid-thickness, so that approximately half the front was in
weld metal. It is therefore likely that the CTOD values are dominated by the
fracture behaviour of the weld metal. This means that in these welds, fracture
behaviour of the joint is controlled by the weld metal rather than the HAZ.
Estimates of fracture toughness based on J reflect CTOD performance.
Discussion
A satisfactory approach for the repair of a fatigue crack in the bottom of the hull
of an FPSO has been demonstrated. The attachment of the enclosed dam to the
underside of a plate underwater provided a simple demonstration of the
approach adopted prior to removal of a crack or damaged material in the bottom
of the hull of an FPSO. The closed cell polymer gasket was used to provide a seal
against the uneven bottom of a hull. In a real repair situation, a perforation
would be made in the FPSO hull into the region enclosed by the dam, and the
space drained and dried, if appropriate. The repair region would be excavated,
and the repair effected from inside the vessel. In addition, upon completion of
the repair, the screw dogs would be broken off, the residual parts of the
attachment fillet welds ground flush with the bottom of the FPSO, and freedom
from defects established by non-destructive examination. The check carried out
on the HAZ hardness of the weld attaching the screw dog plate to the ship plate
revealed a satisfactory level of hardness.

The wet underwater weld, deposited in the flat position, simulated the repair of a
fatigue crack, the removal of which (by gouging and grinding to create a Vgroove) was simulated. The groove had a root gap that was closed attaching a
backing bar to the under-side. The exercise proceeded satisfactorily, giving a
weld of good integrity, with only minor defects in the root. In practice, such
defects would have been detected by inspection after grinding to remove the
backing bar, and removed by further grinding. It should be noted that the quality
of weld achieved, which met the AWS D 3.6 Class A inspection requirements, was
of appreciably higher quality than would have been achieved if a weld had been
attempted in the overhead position from below the hull of the vessel.
Of the two welds deposited in air, the preferred approach for the root pass was to
deposit the bead by TIG welding, without a backing bar. The weld deposited
using this procedure was subjected to the more detailed examination and
testing.
The fracture toughness results indicate that at 0C the fracture performance of
both the wet underwater weld and the weld made in air is controlled by the
fracture behaviour of the weld metal rather than the HAZ in the ship plate. In this
particular case, the fracture toughness of the HAZ is not considered to be
limiting. The apparently low HAZ fracture toughness values recorded for the wet
underwater weld are considered to reflect the toughness of the weld metal rather
than the HAZ, as approximately half the crack front was located in weld metal.
Thus, the fracture toughness of the HAZ is expected to be higher than the weld
metal.
The observation that HAZ fracture toughness is not limiting the fracture
behaviour of the weld at 0C is supported by previous work on the same ship
plate. That investigation was conducted on the HAZ of a submerged arc weld
made at a heat inputs in the range 2.7 to 3.6kJ/mm. Nine fracture toughness
tests were performed at -50C, and the lowest result was a CTOD of 0.092mm.
Typically, CTOD values were above 0.4mm.
The fracture toughness of the wet underwater weld metal in the present
programme was low (CTOD in the range 0.085 to 0.104mm), but not as a result
of fracture by cleavage. It appears that the weld has poor resistance to ductile
tearing, which has limited the CTOD at maximum load. This behaviour is
expected for a wet underwater weld, as a consequence of the (normal)
comparatively high weld metal oxygen content.
The fracture toughness of the weld metal made in air (W02) was relatively high,
although initiation by cleavage was observed in two tests. The lowest CTOD was
a c value of 0.258 at 0C. Cleavage could be avoided by changing the
consumables employed. It is assumed that there is more scope for changing
consumables for welding in air compared with those designed for wet
underwater welding, where the range of appropriate consumables is limited.
Conclusions

From an exercise that involved the deposition of welds both in air and
underwater and subsequent non-destructive and mechanical testing of the
welds, the following conclusions have been drawn.
In a simple demonstration exercise, an enclosed dam was attached successfully
to the underside of a plate by fillet welding screw dogs in place, simulating the
attachment to the underside of an FPSO.
Single-sided butt welds were deposited both in air and underwater in the flat
position, simulating a repair of a gouged groove in the bottom of an FPSO.
The visual appearance of the butt welds was satisfactory, and X-radiography
revealed no reportable defects.
Ultrasonic examination of the butt-weld deposited in air with an open root
revealed no reportable defects. However, root defects (that were revealed as
small cracks 1mm deep by subsequent metallographic examination) were found
in the root of the wet underwater weld.
Cross weld tensile tests were satisfactory, as failure occurred in parent plate,
remote from the weld, and the tensile strength was 475MPa.
Fracture toughness testing of the weld metal deposited in air and underwater
revealed that the minimum CTOD in the wet underwater weld was 0.085mm (at
0C), whilst the minimum CTOD in the weld made in air was 0.258mm. The
difference is attributed to the poor tearing resistance of the wet underwater
weld.
Fracture toughness testing of the HAZ of the underwater weld and of the weld
deposited in air indicated that HAZ fracture toughness was higher than the weld
metal in each weld.
Acknowledgments
The wet underwater welding was carried out, under contract, by Hydroweld. The
authors would like to thank the other participants of Phase II of the FPSO Fatigue
Capacity JIP for making this work possible: Hyundai Heavy Industries(HHI),
Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering (DSME), Bluewater, Total,
ConocoPhillips, Shell Deepwater Develop. Systems, Statoil, BP Exploration
Operating Company Limited, Petrobras, Navion, Bureau Veritas, Det Norske
Veritas,Health and Safety Executive (HSE), MARIN, Technical University HamburgHarburg, National University of Singapore, NTNU and Shanghai Jiaotong
University.
References
BS EN 288:Part 3: 'Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic
materials - Welding procedure tests for the arc welding of steels'
BS EN 895:1995 'Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials. Transverse
tensile test'

BS 7448:Part 1: 1991: 'Fracture mechanics toughness tests, Part 1. Method for

the determination of K Ic Ic, critical CTOD and critical J values of metallic
materials'
BS 7448:Part 2: 1997: 'Fracture mechanics toughness tests - Method for the
determination of K Ic ' critical CTOD and critical J values of welds in metallic
materials'
AWS D3.6: 1999: 'Specification for underwater welding'
BS EN 25817:1992: '(ISO 5817) Arc welded joints in steel - Guidance on quality
levels for imperfections'
DNV OS-F101, 2000, 'Submarine Pipeline Systems', Det Norske Veritas, Hovik,
Norway, 2000.
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