Chapter 36Diffraction Hints-5/30/10

1. Answer the following questions about diffraction.

a) How does Huygens principle explain diffraction? Under what relationship between opening and
wavelength is diffraction most noticeable? The edges of a wave-front act like point sources that
spread the wave into the shadow regions on either side of an opening. Diffraction is most
noticeable when wavelength and opening are of comparable size. When the wave-front is long
compared to the opening the edge effects are negligible and the wave appears to go straight
through the opening.
b) Although we can hear around corners. We cannot see around corners. How can you explain this in
view of the fact that sound and light are both waves? The wavelengths of sound are in the cm->meter
range which is comparable to the size of common openings like doors, windows, etcWavelengths of
light are 400700 nm which makes it hard to detect diffraction of light around ordinary openings.
c) If a coin is glued to a glass sheet and this arrangement is held in front of a laser beam, the projected
shadow of the coin has diffraction rings around its edge and a bright spot in the center (called
Poissons dot). Explain how this happens. Light that diffracts around the edges of the coin makes
rings of constructive and destructive interference in the coins shadow. On the axis behind the
coins center theres constructive interference and a bright spot can be seen. Its called Poissons dot
because this famous mathematician was the first to suggest that a wave theory of light would predict
such a spot. When this was demonstrated the wave theory of light got a big boost.
d) Describe the change in width of the central maximum in the single-slit diffraction pattern if you
decrease any of the following: (i) the slit width, (ii) the wavelength, (iii) the frequency of the light,
(iv) the distance L between the slit and projection screen. Given that sin=/a for the first node, and
that tan=y/L: (i) increase; (ii) decrease; (iii) increase; (iv) decrease
e) The 2-slit diffraction-interference pattern is a superposition of the single slit and double slit pattern.
Explain how the 2-slit pattern is modified by the single slit pattern. The second slit doubles the overall
intensity of the single slit pattern, but the two separate slits interfere with each other and generate a
double-slit pattern that is superimposed on the single-slit pattern. The resultant pattern looks like a
series of equally spaced maxima that decrease in intensity as one gets farther from the center.
Single-slit interference pattern and its intensity
2. The analysis of the single-slit pattern has significant differences from the double-slit pattern. With 1-slit
we assume that theres an infinite number of point sources in a finite sized opening, but with 2-slits we
assume theres a finite number of sources (2) and the size of the openings is ignored.
a) Compare and contrast the 1-slit to the 2-slit pattern, in the chart below:
Single slit *

Double slit **
|
/a

| sin
2/a

r= a sin
= 2r/
Central: =0
Central: =0
Secondary:
Maxima or Secondary:
brights
r = (m+)
= 2(m+)
m=1,2,3..
m=1,2,3..
Minima or
= 2m;
r = m
darks
m=1,2,3..
m=1,2,3..
I/Io=[sin(/2)/ /2] 2;
Intensity
comparison
Also used to compare 2-slit maxs
In general

|
/d

|
2/d

sin

r = d sin

= 2r/

r = m
m=0,1,2,3..

= 2m;
m=0,1,2,3..

r = (m+)
= 2(m+);
m=0,1,2,3..
m=0,1,2,3..
Within one antinode: I/Io=[cos(/2)] 2
Antinode/Antinode: Im/Io Use 1-slit formula

*The r and in the single-slit pattern compare the edges of a single wave-front.
** The r and in the double-slit pattern compare two separate wave-fronts.

b) What is when =0 (the central antinode) in the single-slit pattern? Why isnt the intensity of the
central antinode zero? When =0, =0, but this doesnt mean the intensity of the central antinode is zero,
on the contrary, it is the most intense (Io). As 0, sin (/2) (/2), so at Ao , I/Io =[(/2)/(/2)]2= 1
3. Consider two slits side by side, each slits size a is 2 and the slit separation d (center-to-center) is 6.
a) How many double-slit antinodes would you be able to see within the central maxima of the single slit
pattern? Make a rough sketch of the pattern. N1 (=30) in the 1-slit pattern
corresponds to m=3 (A 3)in the 2-slit pattern. So m=02, or 5 maxima, would
be visible (m=3, would not be visible because it would coincide with the N1 node).
b) Repeat (a) assuming that the separation d is 7. Here N1 in the single-slit pattern corresponds to
m=3.5 in the double-slit pattern, which corresponds to N3 in the double-slit pattern. So m=03, or 7
maxima would be visible, with m=3 very faint.
c) In general, if two slits with openings a are a distance d apart, how many 2-slit antinodes would fit into
the major 1-slit antinode? Its not possible to come up with a simple formula that works all the time, it
depends on whether N1 in the single-slit pattern corresponds to a max or min in the double-slit
pattern, and whether you count the faint maxima near N1, but roughly2(d/a) or [2(d/a)-1] works.
d) Each slit produces a single slit pattern of its own, how do the two single-slit patterns affect each other,
irrespective of the double slit pattern? For example, how is the major single-slit antinode affected by
the presence of the other single-slit so close by? A second slit doubles the overall intensity of the
single-slit pattern without shifting it much (recall the slits separation is in the order of 100s of
nanometers whereas the interference pattern spreads over centimeters).
4. Light of wavelength 589 nm illuminates a single slit 0.75 mm in width.
a) At what distance from the slit should a screen be located if the first minimum in the diffraction pattern
is to be 0.80 mm from the center of the screen? L=ya/ =1.02 m
b) What is the linear and angular width of the central maximum? Measuring from N1 to N-1, y=1.6 mm
and =1.57 x 10-3 rad (0.090).
c) Whats the linear distance between the first and second minima in the pattern?... between the first and
third minima? y12=0.80 mm; y13=1.6 mm.
d) Compare the width of the central antinode to the other antinodes in the single-slit pattern. The central
max is 2x larger than the secondary maxima (only within the small angle region). This is different
from the double slit pattern where all the maxima are of equal width, including the central one.
e) If a second slit of the same width were added 5 m from the first, how many orders of the double slit
pattern would be visible within the large central antinode? d/a=8.49, this means 8 orders plus m=0
(17 maxima visible).
5.A single-slit diffraction pattern is formed on a screen 6.0 m away from a 0.35-mm-wide slit.
Monochromatic 546-nm light is used.
a) What is the angular position () of a point on the screen 4.8 mm from the principal maximum?
sin=4.8/6000=0.80 x 10-3 rad (0.046)~.
b) What is the phase difference () between the edges of the beam at this point? Make sure you
understand the difference between and . Why is it important that be measured in radians?
=2asin/=3.2 rad. Angle is the angular position (a real angle in space) of the point in question
relative to Ao; angle is the phase difference (an angle in a phase diagram) between the edges of the
beam that interfere at that point.
It is important that be measured in radians because the intensity formula was derived using the
radian definition of .
c) Calculate the fractional intensity I/Io at this point on the screen. Formula plug: I/Io = 0.385
d) Where is the nearest minimum to this point located on the screen? The angular location of the point is
less than the angular location of the first node (sinN1=/a=1.56 x 10-3 rad), so N1 is the nearest
minimum.
e) Repeat this problem assuming that the screen is only 2.0 m away from the slits. Answers: sin=2.4 x
10-3 rad~; =3.1 rad; I/Io = 0.042; this point is between N1 and N2.
6. Compare the intensity of the first two secondary antinodes to the central antinode intensity in the

single-slit pattern. That is, find IA1/Io and IA2/Io. In reality our simplified analysis underestimates the
intensities of these antinodes.
r
/2
sin/2
I/Io
Note how much less intense the
secondary maxima are.
A1
-1
0.045 (4.5%)
3/2
3/2
A2
+1
0.016 (1.6%)
5/2
5/2
Resolution of two objects:
7. Diffraction makes it hard to visually distinguish (or resolve) two light sources or objects that are
close together.
a) Explain how the Rayleigh criterion is derived and how it is used. The Rayleigh criterion states that the
limit of resolution of two distant objects occurs when the angular separation between them equals the
angular size of the first node produced by the light from the objects passing through an opening. That is,
sinR=/a. When the slit is circular the Rayleigh criterion becomes sinR=1.22/D, where D is the
diameter of the aperture. Proof of this later statement is beyond the scope of this course. The smaller the
resolution angle, the greater the ability (or power) to resolve to objects; that is, resolving power is
inversely proportional to R.
b) You use a lens of diameter D, and light of wavelength and frequency f to form an image of two
closely spaced and distant objects. Which of the following will increase the resolving power? (i) a smaller
diameter lens, (ii) higher frequency light, (iii) longer wavelength light? Justify your answers. Decreasing
R increases the resolving power of the lens, so: (i) decreases; (ii) increases( f=c/); (iii) decreases.
8. A helium-neon laser emits light that has a wavelength of 632.8 nm. The circular aperture through which
the beam emerges has a diameter of 0.50 cm. Estimate the diameter of the beam 1.0 km from the laser.
Using sinR=1.22/D=1.22(0.6328 m/0.5 cm)=1.54 x10-4 rad~R.
Diameter of the beam at 1 km is approx. equal to an arclength of radius 1km, D~ s=RR=0.154 m=15 cm
9. The Moon is approximately 4 x 105 km from the Earth. Can a telescope on the Earth resolve two lunar
craters 50 km apart, if the telescope mirror has a diameter of l5 cm? Can craters 1.0 km apart be resolved?
Take the wavelength to be 700 nm, and justify your answers with approximate calculations.
Rayleigh criterion: sinR=1.22.7 m/15 cm)=5.7 x10-6 rad~R.
The angular separation between the two craters is approx. =50/4 x 105 =1.25 x10-4 rad, which is larger
than R, so they will be resolved.
For a 1 km separation, =1/4 x 105 =2.5 x10-6 rad, which is smaller than R, so they will not be resolved.
10. Suppose you are standing on a straight highway watching a car moving away from you at 30 m/s. The
air is perfectly clear, and after 10 min you see only one tail-light. If the diameter of your pupil is 7.0 mm
and the index of refraction of your eye is 1.33, estimate the approximate width of the car from the taillight separation. Remember red light is ~700 nm in wavelength.
At the moment the taillights blend into one, your eye has reached the Rayleigh limit. To apply the
Rayleigh criterion to the eye, you need the wavelength in the eye ( =700 nm/1.33) then
sinR=1.22nm/1.33x7 mm)=92 x10-6 rad ~R. The separation between the tail-lights is approx. an
arc with a radius equal to the distance to the car. So s=R R =92 x10-6 (30x600)=1.6 m
Multiple-slit interference
11. Describe how the interference pattern changes when more slits of the same size and the same
separation are added. How do we explain the narrowing of the antinodes? In the chart below compare
some features of the 2-slit, the 3-slit, and (if you have the stamina) the 4-slit interference pattern.
The antinodes (maxima) of the interference pattern become narrower. The nodal regions (minima)
become wider and have faint secondary maxima within them that fade to zero intensity as the number
of slits increases. The reason for the broader nodal regions is that, with more slits, there are more
destructive interference opportunities than constructive interference opportunities. Thus maxima
become narrower and more intense while the minima widen.

* Given the time constraints at this point in the course I will not be covering this material in any formal
way. But you should have a general idea of what happens as more slits are brought into play.
Below is a chart summarizing comparing 2, 3, and 4 slits. You will NOT be tested on the fine points of the
theory.
N
Primary maxima
Minima
Secondary maxima
I/Io
Isec/Ipri
r=dsin
r=dsin
r=dsin

2
2m
2(m+)
x
x
x
m
(m+)
[cos(/2)]2
1
1
3
2m
2(m /3)
2(m+)
1/9
m
(m1/3)
(m+)
/9[1+2cos]2
4

2m

(m)
(m+)

2(m);
2(m+)

(m1/3)

2(m1/3)

/4[cos(3/2)+
cos(/2)]2

1/16

The diffraction grating

12. Answer the following questions about the diffraction grating.
a) How is the diffraction grating different from a small number of slits? What advantages does it have?
The maxima are extremely narrow and secondary maxima are completely negligible. The sharpness of
the maxima make it possible to resolve different wavelengths in a spectrum of light.
b) What is the diffraction grating primarily used for? To separate the wavelengths (colors) in a light
spectrum to they can be analyzed
c) The minimum resolving power R needed to distinguish two close wavelengths (where ~) is
defined by R=(/It can also be proven that a gratings resolving power is given by Rgrating=Nm,
where N is the number of lines and m is the order. Explain why this last expression for R makes
conceptual sense. The larger the no. of slits (N), the narrower the maxima which makes them more
distinct. The larger the order (m), the bigger the separation between different wavelength maxima.
Both these factors make it easier to resolve wavelengths with a grating.
d) What is the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum? Which one is
generated by an incandescent light-bulb?... a fluorescent light-bulb? A continuous spectrum
contains the full range of colors in white light. A line-spectrum contains a few separate lines of
color. The glowing wire of an incandescent bulb generates a continuous spectrum. The fluorescent
bulb uses mercury gas which generates a line-spectrum. If fact, all glowing elemental gases
(helium, hydrogen, sodium, mercury etc) generate line spectra unique to each element, a sort of
elemental fingerprint.
e) How is the diffraction grating similar to a prism? Both disperse light, creating a rainbow effect.
13. A grating with 250 lines/mm is used with an incandescent light source. Assume the visible spectrum
ranges in wavelength from 400 to 700 nm. In how many orders (ms) can one see (a) the entire visible
spectrum and (b) the short-wavelength region only? The separation d= 1mm/250= 4 m.
Max order for red: mred=d/=4/.7=5.7; max order for violet: mviol=d/=4/.4=10The entire spectrum
exists in 5 orders, the short-wavelength region in ~9 orders.
14. Light of wavelength 500 nm is incident normally on a diffraction grating. The third-order (m=3)
maxima of the diffraction pattern is observed at an angle of 37, determine the following
a) The line separation and the number of rulings per centimeter for the grating. Since sin = m/d
sin37=3(500 nm)/d d=2.5 m # lines/cm=1/d=4000/cm
b) The total number of primary maxima that can be observed in this situation. The largest possible m is
given by: sin90= ml/d m=2.5/.5=5 So observable m=05 (11 maxima).
15. A grating is illuminated by a sodium discharge tube. The lines in the grating are uniformly spaced at
775 nm. The grating has enough lines to resolve the two wavelengths forming the sodium doublet
(1=589.0 nm and 2=589.6 nm).
a) Calculate the angular separation in the first-order spectrum between the doublet wavelengths.
1=arcsin(589/775)=49.464 and 2=arcsin(589.6/775)=49.532=0.068 =0.0012 rad
b) What is the angular separation in the second order spectrum?
This is a trick question; no second order spectra is possible.

c) What minimum resolving power R is required here? R=(/

d) What minimum number of slits do you need for the required resolving power R in (a) and in (b)?
R=Nm At m=1, N=R=982 At m=2, N=R/2=491, but there is no m=2 possible in this problem.
16. It is possible to prove that, for two close wavelength and (+where << the angular
separation between the mth-order spectra is given by the formula =[(d/m)2-2]-1/2 where d is the slit
separation and m is the order number.
a) Apply this formula to the problem above and show that you get pretty much the same answer for .
Just plug-in and note that answer is in radians: = (0.6)[(775/1)2-589.32] - =0.0012 rad
b) Derive the expression given in the stem of this problem for .
Since =dsin/mTake the derivative , =dcos/m=(d/m)(1-sin2)1/2 ~ =(d/m)[1(m/d)2] 1/2=[(d/m)2- 2] 1/2etc
17. Suppose that there is a single slit 6.0 cm wide in front of a microwave source operating at 7.5 GHz
(109 Hz). (a) Calculate the angle subtended by the first minimum in the diffraction pattern. (b) What is the
relative intensity I/Io at = 15? (c) Consider the case when there are two such sources, separated laterally
by 20 cm, behind the slit. What is the maximum distance between the plane of the sources and the slit to
be able to resolve the diffraction patterns? (Note that in this case, the approximation sin~tan is not valid
because of the relatively small value of a/.
a) Wavelength here is =c/f=(3 x 108)/(7.5 x 109)=0.04 m; and sin=/a=4/6=0.67=42.
b) The intensity depends on /2= asin/ =(6)sin 15/4=1.22 rads I/Io=[sin1.22rad/1.22] 2=0.59
c) Applying the Rayleigh criterion, R =arcsin (/a) =42.
20
L
42
d) Since we cant use the small angle approximation, we apply
cm
trig to right triangle in diagram, 10/L=tan 21L=26 cm
Review of polarization and scattering of light (this material was covered in Ch. 33)
18. Explain what polarization is and how Polaroid filters work. Explain how reflection and scattering
partially polarize light. Discussed in class and in the textbook.
a) How does polarization prove that light is a transverse wave and not longitudinal? Only transverse
waves can be polarized. Since light can be polarized, it must be a transverse wave.
b) Certain sunglasses use a polarizing material to reduce the intensity of light reflected from shiny
surfaces. Why does this work? What orientation of polarization should the material have to be most
effective? Reflection partially polarizes light, increasing its electric field parallel to the reflecting
surface and reducing the other component. Most of the annoying reflections that reach our eyes come
from horizontal surfaces; so Polaroid filters with a vertical axis will reduce a lot of the reflected light.
c) Is light from the sky polarized? Why is it that clouds seen through Polaroid glasses stand out in bold
contrast to the sky? Sky-light must be partially polarized since Polaroids filter out some of the bright
sky-light and make clouds stand out.
d) With a more advanced analysis it can be shown that the amount of light scattering around us is
proportional to the frequency of the light to the 4th power. How does this fact help explain the
blueness of the sky, the whiteness of the clouds, and the color of the sunset? Blue light has a higher
frequency so it is more effectively scattered by atmospheric particles, making the sky appear blue.
When looking at the sun, the light you see is more direct and has a deficit of blue-frequencies from
scattering, so it appears yellow or even red at sunset. Light going through clouds encounter a great
number of water molecules and most wavelengths, not just the blue, end up scattered, so the clouds
appear white. The textbook has a good discussion of this.
19. What is the polarizing angle? Also called the Brewster angle, its the angle of incidence that
generates totally polarized reflected light. The reflected is polarized parallel to the reflecting surface. At
this angle the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other, so that Snells law gives n1
sinp=n2 sin (90- p )= n2 cosp tan p=n2 /n1
a) If a light beam is incident on heavy flint glass (1.65) at the polarizing angle. Calculate the angle of

refraction for the transmitted ray. p=arctan(1.65)= 59.8 Refraction angle=90-59.8=31.2

b) For a particular transparent medium surrounded by air, show that the critical angle for internal
reflection and the polarizing angle are related by cot p =sinc. Recall sin c= n1 /n2
20. Three polarizing disks whose planes are parallel are centered
on a common axis. The direction of the transmission axis in each
Io
1
2
case is shown in the illustration relative to the common vertical
3
direction. An unpolarized beam of light with intensity Io =10 units
(arbitrary) is incident from the left on the first disk. Calculate the
transmitted intensity after going through three Polaroid filters, when
a) 1= 20, 2= 40, and 3= 60. I=Io()cos2(40-20) cos2(60-40)=0.39Io
b) 1= 0, 2= 30, and 3= 90. I=Io()cos2(30-0) cos2(90-30)=0.094Io
c) How would the final intensity change if the middle filter is removed? Ia=Io()cos2(60-20)=0. 29Io;
Ib=Io()cos2(90-0)=0
d) Repeat the problem assuming that the incoming beam is initially plane-polarized with Eo parallel to the
vertical reference direction. Ia =Io cos2(20-0) cos2(40-20) cos2(60-40)=0.69Io; Ib =Io cos2(30-0)
cos2(90-30)=0.19Io
Some Challenge problems
to Ao

21. If the light strikes the single slit at an angle of from the perpendicular

direction, show that the condition for destructive interference, must be modified
to read sin = m(/a) sin.
The proof requires a careful drawing of the light going though the slit. Generally m=asin, but here the
central antinode is along the direction (not the 0 direction), so m=asin asin. The sign in the
expression depends on which side of the direction of the beam youre looking at in the pattern.
22. The left and right polarizing disks in problem 18 have their transmission axes fixed perpendicular to
each other (ie. 1= 0 and 3= 90). Assume that the center disk is rotating on the common axis with an
angular speed .
a) Show that, if unpolarized light is incident on the left disk with an intensity Io, the intensity of the beam
emerging from the right disk is I=Io(1-cos 4t)/16. Hint: You will need the trigonometric identity,
sin2 = (1- cos2) /2, and recall that =t.
The intensity of the emerging is given by I =Io()cos2(t)cos2(90-t)= Io()cos2(t)sin2(t)=
Io()[sin(2t)] 2
b) How many times a rotating period will the intensity of the emerging beam be 0? The solution
indicates that the intensity frequency is 4 times the rotating filter frequency, so 4 times.
c) If the middle filter is rotating at a rate of 100 Hz, find the pulsing frequency of the emerging light.
400Hz (see b)
23. Show that the resolving power of a diffraction grating, defined as R= is also equal to Nm, where
m is spectrum order and N the number of lines in the diffraction grating. This proof is pretty sophisticated
and if youre interested, the Young & Friedman text has a detailed derivation in page 1383. But be aware
that the textbook uses for the phase angle, while Ive been using .
1

24. Light strikes a water surface at the polarizing angle. The part of the

beam refracted into the water strikes a submerged glass slab (n=1.5) as
2
shown. A minimum amount of light is reflected from the upper surface
of the slab, find the angle between water surface and glass slab.
The fact that a minimum of light is reflected from the glass slab suggests that the ray also
strikes the glass at the polarizing angle in the water-glass transition. The reasoning is that most of the
parallel field component has already been extracted from the beam in the first polarizing reflection
between the air and the water and there is little left for the second polarizing reflection. The polarizing
angles are: 1=arctan (1.33/1)=53, and 2=arctan (1.50/1.33)=42. Geometry gives =11