1.

CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY I

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

1.

CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.01

LIME
One of the oldest manufactured building materials used
as a mortar and plaster by all the early civilizations:

Egyptians used lime plaster before 2600 B.C.

Greeks used it extensively for mortars and plasters
Romans developed a mixture of lime putty and volcanic
ash for the first real cement.
Manufactured by the
calcination of limestone
(carbonates of calcium
and magnesium).

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

1.

CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.01

LIME
The carbonates decompose
into carbon dioxide, which is
expelled, and calcium oxide
(CaO) called quicklime.
Before quicklime can be
used, it must first be mixed
with water in the process
called slaking or hydration.

The lime has now become

calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2), known as slaked
lime or hydrated lime.

Quicklime

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

1.

CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.01

LIME
Hydrated lime mixed with water to make lime putty, is used
as an ingredient of hard-finish coat for two-and three-coat
Portland cement plasters. It is also used for mixing with
cement mortar or concrete to:
increase its workability
decrease its permeability
to water
reduce cracking due to
shrinkage
A type of lime which will
set under water is
hydraulic lime, used only
where slow underwater
setting is required.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

1.

CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.02

GYPSUM
Gypsum, like lime, was used
as a plaster by the Egyptians,
Greeks and Romans.
Plaster from the Greek
word for both the raw
material and calcined
product. In architectural
terminology the words
Plaster and gypsum are
often used interchangeably.
Gypsum rock is ground fine and heated (calcined) to between
325 F. to 340 F. when it loses about three-fourths of its
combined water.

The remaining product is Plaster of Paris if pure gypsum is

used, or hard wall plaster if 39.5 % impurities are present or
added to retard the set and improve the setting qualities. Hard
wall plaster is harder than lime plaster, sets more quickly and
thoroughly.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

1.

CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.02

GYPSUM
Gypsum plaster is rendered
more plastic by the addition of
hydrated lime.
Fiber or hair is also sometimes
added for greater cohesiveness.
The fiber may be hemp, sisal or
jute; the hair is generally
cleaned goat or cattle hair.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

1.

CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.03

CEMENT
First developed by the Romans by mixing slaked lime with
pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened under water.
With the fall of the Roman Empire the art of cement-making
was lost and for several centuries.
In 1756, Smeaton, an Englishman,
rediscovered hydraulic cement but it
was not until 1824 that Aspdin, an
English bricklayer and mason,
invented and patented Portland
cement.
Today, the word cement generally
refers to Portland cement which is the
principal type of cement in use.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

1.

CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.03

CEMENT
Portland cement is obtained
by finely pulverizing clinker
produced by calcining a
proportioned
mixture
of
argillaceous (silica, alumina)
and
calcareous
(lime)
materials with iron oxide and
small amounts of other
ingredients.
Types of Portland cement:
slow-setting cement
quick-setting
high
early
strength cement
sulfate-resisting cement for
applications where alkaline
water and soils occur
white cement (or stainless
cement which is free of iron
impurities).

Portland cement is sold in

bags of 40 kilos total weight.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

2.

STORAGE OF CEMENT

Cement should be protected at

the building site from injury
through contact with dampness.

They should be stored in shed

with a wood floor raised about
300mm (12) from the
ground.
Cement is soft and silky to the touch. If it has lumps do not readily
break, the cement has already absorbed a damaging amount of
moisture.
Cement should be used as soon as possible after delivery.
Piles should be limited to twelve sacks in height.
Warehouse set - when the cement is stored in high piles for long
periods, there is a tendency for the lower layers to harden caused
by the pressure above.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.01

DEFINITION
Concrete is:

a proportioned mixture of cement, aggregate and water.

a plastic mass which can be cast, molded or formed into
predetermined size or shape
upon hydration, becomes stone-like in strength, hardness
and durability. The hardening of concrete is called setting.
when mixed with water and a fine aggregate of less than
6mm () is known as mortar, stucco or cement plaster.
when mixed with water, fine aggregate and a large
aggregate of more than 6mm () in size produces
concrete.
when strengthened by
reinforced concrete.

embedded

steel,

is

called

when without reinforcement, is called plain or mass

concrete.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.02

QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE

Concrete should be:

Strong
Durable
of uniform quality, and
thoroughly sound.

These are obtained through:

careful selection of materials

correct proportioning
thorough mixing
careful transporting and placing
proper curing or protection of the concrete after it is
placed

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.03

MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
a.

Cement
in reinforced-concrete construction should be highgrade Portland cement conforming to the Standard
Specifications and Test for Portland Cement of the
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM).
The kind of tests usually made are:
soundness, or constancy of volume
time of setting
fineness
tensile strength

Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately

1 cu. ft. and weighs 94 lbs.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.03

MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
b.

Aggregates are:
inert mineral fillers used with cement and water in making
concrete, should be particles that are durable strong,
clean, hard and uncoated, and which are free from
injurious amount of dusts, lumps, soft and flaky particles,
shale, alkali, organic matter loam or other deleterious
substances.
Fine aggregates
(aggregates smaller than
6mm () in size) consist of
sand, stone screenings or
other inert materials of
similar characteristics.
Specs: 80 to 95% shall pass
a No. 4 wire cloth sieve and
not more than 30% nor less
than 10% shall pass a No.
50 sieve.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.03

MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
b.

Aggregates
Coarse aggregate (aggregate larger than in size)
consists of crushed stones, gravel or other inert
materials of similar characteristics.

Coarse aggregates should be well graded in size to a

size which will readily pass between all reinforcing bars
and between reinforcement and forms but not exceed
25mm (1) in size for reinforced beams, floor slabs, & thin
walls.
They may range up to 50mm (2) for less highly
reinforced parts of the structures such as footings, thick
walls, and massive work.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.03

MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
b.

Aggregates
Special aggregates, such as cinders, blast furnace
slag, expanded shale or clay, perlite, vermiculite, and
sawdust, may produce:
- lightweight, nailable concrete
- thermal insulating concrete.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.03

MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
c.

Water
- should be free from oil, acid, alkali, vegetable matter,
or other deleterious substances
- should be reasonably clear and clean.

- The use of sea or brackish water is not allowed.

- Water combines with the cement to form a paste
which coats and surrounds the inert particles of
aggregates.
- Upon hardening, it binds the entire mass together.

- The strength of the mixture therefore depends directly

upon the strength of the paste. If there be an excess
of water the paste becomes thin and weak and its
holding power is reduced.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.03

MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
c.

Water
- The water-cement ratio is the amount of water used
per bag of cement.
- This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with 6.5
gallons as average for ordinary job conditions. The
less water used in mixing, the better the quality of
concrete.
- The ideal mix is one that is plastic and workable. It
should not be too dry that it becomes too difficult to
place in the forms, nor too wet that separation of the
ingredients result.
WATER CEMENT RATIO
Assumed 28-day
Compressive strength
(lbs. per sq. inch)

Maximum water-cement ratio

U.S. gallons of water per sack
Cement of 94 lbs.

Pounds of water
per 100 lbs. of
cement

2,000
2,500
3,000
3,750

7.00
6.50
5.75
5.00

62.0
57.5
51.0
44.5

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.04

SLUMP TEST
- used for measuring the consistency of a concrete mix.
- Consistency may be defined as the state of fluidity of
the mix, and it includes the entire range of fluidity from
the wettest to the dries possible mixtures.
In this test the tendency of a mix to slump, or reduce its
height due to gravity action, is measured. The apparatus
consist of metal cone, the bottom opening being 200mm (8)
in diameter, the top opening being 100mm (4), and the
height exactly 300mm (12).

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms

3.

CONCRETE

3.04

SLUMP TEST
In making the test, the slump tester is
placed on a flat, smooth surface and is
filled with newly mixed concrete from
mixer. In filling the mold with concrete,
the latter is tamped in with a 12mm ()
rod pointed at one end and the top of
the concrete is smoothed off exactly
level. The mold is then slowly raised
vertically and the height deducted from
the original height of 300mm (12)
represents the slump.

4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

Collapsed
slump

Bucket

TOO WET

SLUMP

SUITABLE

No
slump

TOO DRY

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.04

SLUMP TEST
A harsh mix is efficient for slabs, pavements, or mass
concrete where the lowest possible water-cement ratio is
desirable.
The following table gives the permissible slump for various
types of concrete in relation to their uses:
CONSISTENCY (SLUMP)
Maximum

Minimum

and

125mm (5)

50mm (2)

and

100mm (4)

25mm (1)

Slabs, beams, thin reinforced walls &

building columns

150mm (6)

75mm (3)

Pavements and floor laid on ground

75mm (3)

25mm (1)

Heavy mass construction

75mm (3)

25mm (1)

Reinforced
footings

foundation

Plain
footings,
substructure walls

walls

caissons,

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.05

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
Briefly stated, the principles of proper proportioning are as
follows:
a.

Use good quality materials: Portland cement, water,

and aggregate.

b.

Determine the strength of the concrete using the

water-cement ratio. (The strength increases as the
water-cement ratio decreases).

c.

Determine the consistency of the mix using the

slump test using as dry a mix as practicable.

d.

Add correct proportions of aggregates to the

cement and water as will give a mix of the desired
consistency.

e.

Make a mix thats workable, not harsh.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.05

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon the
water-cement ratio.
The economy of the mix depends upon the proper
proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregates.
There are several methods of proportioning concrete:
a.
b.
c.

Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test
Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness
modulus

Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the

proportions is the oldest, the most commonly used, the most
convenient and the least scientific method.

In this method, the aggregates are measured by loose

volume, that is, its volume as it is thrown into a measuring
box. One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft. Enough water
is used to give the desired consistency.

2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.05

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
a.

Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

1 foot

Proportioning concrete by
the arbitrary selection of
the proportions is the
oldest,
the
most
commonly used, the most
convenient and the least
scientific method.
In this method, the
aggregates are measured
by loose volume, that is,
its volume as it is thrown
into a measuring box.

1 foot

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement

1 foot

One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft.

Enough water is used to give the desired consistency.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.05

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
Common mixes expressed in proportions by volumes of
cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate are as follows:
CONCRETE PROPORTIONS

Class AA

1 : 1.5 : 3

For concrete under water, retaining walls

Class A

1: 2 :4

For suspended slabs, beams, columns, arches,

stairs, walls of 100mm (4) thickness

Class B

1 : 2.5 : 5

For walls thicker than 100mm (4), footings,

steps, reinforced concrete slabs on fill.

Class C

1: 3 :6

For concrete plant boxes, and any non-critical

concrete structures.

Class D

1 : 3.5 : 7

For mass concrete works.

The proportion is to be read:

Class A : 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is to 4 parts gravel.
Each part is equivalent to one cubic foot which is the measure of
the box constructed to be 1 foot (12 inches) on each of the three
sides.
Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately one cubic foot.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.05

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
b.

Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test

There are two steps to be observed:
- Select the amount of water to be added to the cement
to give the desired strength (see Table)
- Add just enough mixed aggregate to the water and
cement to give a concrete mix the desired consistency.
It is customary to specify
- the cement in sacks
- the water in gallons per sack of cement and
- the mixed aggregate in cu. ft. per sack of cement.
Proportions of cement to fine aggregate to coarse
aggregate may be given if desired.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.05

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
c.

Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness

modulus
This method is the same as the second except that the
proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate are
determined by the fineness modulus method.
For economy, proportion the fine coarse aggregates so
that the largest quantity of mixed aggregate may be used
with a given amount of cement and water to produce a mix
of the desired consistency of slump.
Comparatively, the coarse aggregate has a lesser total
surface to be covered with cement paste and, therefore, is
more economical.
However, there must be enough fine aggregate present to
fill the voids in the coarse aggregate, or extra cement
paste will be needed for this purpose. A well-graded
aggregate contains all sizes of fine and coarse particles in
such proportions that the voids in the combined aggregate
will be a minimum.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.06

MIXING OF CONCRETE
Reinforced-concrete work should be mixed by machine
Machine-mixed concrete is usually or more uniform
quality than that mixed by hand and is generally less
expensive when in large volume.
The strength of concrete is very largely dependent upon
the thoroughness of mixing.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.06

MIXING OF CONCRETE
a.

MACHINE MIXING
In machine-mixing, the mixing of each batch should
continue not less than one minute after all the materials
are in the mixer and whenever practicable, the length of
the mixing time should be increased to 1.5 or 2 minutes.
The entire contents of the drum should be discharged
before recharging the mixer. The mixer should be
cleaned at frequent intervals while in use.

Concrete mixers may be divided into two general classes:

Batch mixers into which sufficient
materials are placed at one
time to make a convenient
size batch of concrete, the
whole amount being
discharged in one mass
after it is mixed.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.06

MIXING OF CONCRETE
a.

MACHINE MIXING

Continuous mixers into which the materials

are fed constantly and
from which the concrete
is discharged in a
steady stream.
Concrete mixers may also be
classified as:
-

drum mixers
trough mixers
gravity mixers, and
pneumatic mixers.

The drum mixers are the most

common type.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.06

MIXING OF CONCRETE
b.

HAND MIXING
- hand-mixing must be
done on a water-tight
platform.
- cement and fine
aggregate shall first
be mixed dry until the
whole is a uniform
color.
- water and coarse
aggregate shall then
be added and the
entire mass turned at
least three times, or
until a homogeneous
mixture of the
required consistency
is obtained.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.06

MIXING OF CONCRETE
b.

HAND MIXING
- since initial set of concrete takes place 1 to 3 hours
after mixing, a batch may be used anytime before
initial set takes place, provided that the mix is plastic.
- Regaging or retempering of concrete that has been
allowed to stand more than hour is not to be
permitted.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.07

TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

Fresh concrete should be transported from the
mixer as rapidly as practicable by methods that will
permit the placing of the concrete in the forms
before initial set occurs and without loss or
separation of materials.
The delivery of the
concrete from the mixer
to the forms should be
fairly continuous and
uninterrupted.
The time of
transportation should
not exceed 30 minutes.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.07

TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

The concrete may be transported by
means of barrows, buggies, buckets,
cableways, hoists, chutes, belts and
pipes.
When chutes are used, the slope
should not be more than 1 vertical to 2
horizontal or less than 1 vertical to 3
horizontal. The delivery end of the
chutes shall be as close as possible to
the point of deposit.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.07

TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

Before placing concrete, the
forms shall be cleaned and
inspected, surfaces wetted or
oiled, and reinforcement
properly secured.
Concrete should be deposited in
approximately horizontal layers
in wall, column and footing
forms. They should not be piled
up in the forms which may result
in the separation of the cement
mortar from the coarse
aggregate.
Concrete should never be
allowed to drop freely over 5 ft.
for unexposed work and over 3
ft. for exposed work.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.08

SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE & TEMPERATURE CHANGES

Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening and contraction
from temperature changes, causes cracks the size of
which depends on the extent of the mass. They cannot
be counteracted successfully but they can be minimized
by placing reinforcement so that large cracks can be
broken up to some extent to smaller ones.
In long continuous length of concrete, it is better to place
shrinkage or contraction joints. Shrinkage cracks are
likely to occur at joints where fresh concrete is joined to
concrete which has already set, and hence in placing the
concrete, construction joints should be made on
horizontal and vertical lines.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.09

CURING OF CONCRETE
Concrete must be allowed to cure or harden after it is
placed.
Hardening is a rather slow process in which the cement
and water unite to form compounds that give strength and
durability to the concrete. It continues as long as the
temperatures are favorable and moisture is present.

Three main factors that affect hardening are:

- age or time
- temperature, and
- moisture.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.09

CURING OF CONCRETE
In order that the hardening may proceed favorably, the fresh
concrete, for about 7 days after placing, should be protected
from, excessive vibration, loads, extreme heat or cold, too
rapid drying, and contact with impurities which may interfere
with the chemical action.
The strength of the concrete increases with age when the
curing conditions remains favorable.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.09

CURING OF CONCRETE
The increase in strength is rapid during the early
ages and continues more slowly as time goes on.
The compressive strength reaches about 60% of
its own maximum value at an age of 28 days and
about 80% at an age of 3 months.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.09

CURING OF CONCRETE
Curing consists primarily in keeping the concrete from drying
out too rapidly. This may be done by:
a.

Covering the concrete. Floors shall be covered with

paper sacking wetted down at the edges or with burlap,
sand or earth that is kept moist, after the concrete is
hard enough to walk on.

b.

Removal of forms at prescribed time. Forms shall not

be removed until after the time specified.

c.

Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns and walls are

sprinkled or sprayed with water as soon as the forms are
removed.

d.

Using curing compounds (see ADMIXTURES).

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.09

CURING OF CONCRETE
Parts of Structure

CURING PERIOD or TIME REQUIRED

FOR THE REMOVAL OF FORMS

FOOTINGS

a. Massive footings
b. Cantilever footings
c. Slab footings

a. 1 day (24 hours)

b. 5 days (120 hours)
c. 5 days (120 hours)

WALLS
AND
PLASTERS

a. Massive walls, 30
cms. thick or more

a. Up to 2 M. high: 1 day (24 hours). Add 1 day

(24 hours) for every additional meter or
fraction thereof.

b. Thin walls less

than 30 cms. Thick

b. Up to 2 M. high: 2 days (48 hours. Add 1-1/2

days (36 hours) for every additional meter or
fraction thereof

c. Cantilever walls,
buttresses,
counter
forts,
diaphragms.

c. Without loads, same as (b).

a. Ratio of height to
least diameter up
to 4

a. 2 days (48 hours)

COLUMNS

b. Ratio of height to
least
diameter
from 4 to 15.

b. Add to the above number 1 day (24 hours)

for every additional meter or height or
fraction there of but not more than 28 days
(672 hours).

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement

3.

CONCRETE

3.09

CURING OF CONCRETE
Parts of Structure

2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

CURING PERIOD or TIME REQUIRED

FOR THE REMOVAL OF FORMS

a. 3 to 7 ft. spans

a. 3 ft. span, 5 days (120 hours). Add day (12

hours) for every additional 1 ft. span or
fraction thereof.

b. Over 7 ft. span

b. 7 ft. span, 7 days (168 hours). Add 1 day (24

hours) for every additional 1 ft. span or
fraction thereof but not more than 28 days
(672 hours).

BEAMS
AND
GIRDERS

a. Sides

a. 3 days

b. Bottoms

b. Up to 14 ft., 14 days (336 hours). Add 1 day

for every 1 ft. additional span or fraction
thereof but not more than 28 days (672
hours).

ARCHES

a. Spandrel walls
b. Spandrel arches
c. Main arches

a. 7 days (168 hours).

b. 14 days (336 hours)
c. 21 days (504 hours)

BALUSTRADES
, COPINGS,ETC.

a. Steel & side forms

a. 1 day (24 hours)

R.C. PILES and

R.C. POSTS

a. Sides.
b. Bottom

a. 3 days (72 hours)

b. 14 days (336 hours)

SLABS

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.10

ADMIXTURES
Substances added to cements, mortars, and
concrete for the purpose of improving or imparting
particular properties, such as:
To improve workability of concrete, e.g. hydrated lime
To improve durability by entertainment of air
To accelerate setting or hardening (accelerators) e.g.
calcium chloride
To retard setting (retarders).
To improve wear resistance
To impart water-repellant or water-proofing qualities e.g.
hydrated lime, KAOLINE, CELITE
To impart water-repellant or waterproofing qualities, e.g.,
hydrated lime, waterproofing compounds, KAOLINE,
CELITE.
To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES, COLORCON,
METALICHROME.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.10

ADMIXTURES
Admixtures may be grouped into three categories:
those for mixing into concrete
those for mixing into mortar
those for surface application or finish.
Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid form, and
are usually patented and sold under trademark names.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.10

ADMIXTURES
Concrete admixtures include:
a.

Accelerators - to speed up setting time, to develop

earlier strength, and to reduce length of time for
protection. Principal ingredients are calcium chloride.
Maximum amount added is 2 lbs. per bag of cement.
Disadvantages: they increase the expansion and
contraction of concrete, reduce resistance to sulfate
attack, and increases efflorescence and corrosion of
high tension steels.

b.

Retarders - to slow down the hydration of the cement

during very hot weather. Principal ingredients include
zinc oxide, calcium lignosulfonate, derivatives of adipic
acid.
Disadvantages: may cause some loss of early strength
and will therefore require careful control and more
frequent slump tests, also reduces the expansion and
contraction of concrete.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.10

ADMIXTURES
c.

Air-entraining agents - introduce minute air bubbles to

greatly increase the resistance of concrete to freezing
and thawing, increase plasticity and reduce bleeding.
Addition of air-entraining admixtures is usually in the
proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume of concrete. They
are manufactured from such ingredients as rosin, beef
tallow, stereates, foaming agents (soap).
Disadvantages: These require careful control and more
frequent slump tests. They may also cause some loss of
strength.

d.

Inert, finely divided powders such as powdered

glass , silica sand, stone dust, hydrated lime - are
added to improve workability, used as per
manufacturers directions. Hydrated lime is usually in the
proportion of 10 to 15% of the cement by volume.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.10

ADMIXTURES
e.

Waterproofing (permeability-reducing) compounds

- reduce the capillary attraction of the voids in the
concrete or mortar, but while it may decrease water
absorption of the concrete or mortar, it does not render
concrete waterproof. They are manufactured from
stearic acid or its compounds, mainly calcium
steareate, and include asphalt emulsions. They are
introduced usually in the amounts of 0.1 to 4.0% of the
weight of cement.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.10

ADMIXTURES
f.

Colored pigments are mainly to used to give color to

concrete floors. There are two types:
Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for surface
coloring. They are dusted on, usually in two coats,
after all surface water has disappeared. The surface
is then finished with a steel trowel .
Integral colors, for body coloring. Integral color
pigments are incorporated in the mortar topping.
They are mixed dry with the cement and aggregate
before water is added. Amount of color pigment
required is not more than 10% of the cement by
weight, generally 3 to 6 lbs. per bag of cement .

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.10

ADMIXTURES
Admixtures for mixing into mortar include:

Accelerators

plasticizing agents (correctly called water-reducing

agents) to lower water cement ratio and make the mix
more workable

waterproofing agents, and

color pigments
Surface application finishes for concrete consist of:

hardeners

color pigments

special aggregates

sealers

abrasive materials

waterproofing agents, and

fillers and patchers.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.11

FORMS
a.

LUMBER FORMS
Lumber used in form
construction should only
be partially seasoned.
Kiln-dried lumber has a
tendency to swell when
soaked by the concrete,
and this swelling causes
bulging and distortion of
the forms.
Green lumber, on the other hand, dries out and shrinks if
allowed to stand too long before the concrete is placed.
This tendency of green lumber to check and warp may,
however, be prevented to some extent by keeping the
boards thoroughly saturated with water.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.11

FORMS
a.

LUMBER FORMS

When using natural,

well seasoned lumber,
care should be taken
not to drive the work up
too close, since forms
should always be left in
a position to experience
some slight swelling
without any undesirable
results.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.11

FORMS
a.

LUMBER FORMS

Sheathing lumber dressed at least one side and

both edges even are used where the removal and
cleaning of the forms are necessary for re-use .
Sheathing lumber dressed on all four sides shall
be used in face work, where smooth and true surface
is important.
Tongue-and-groove lumber will achieve tight joints
between boards in floor and wall panel construction.
Simply dressing the lumber true to edge form
square of butt joints in the forms for columns, beams,
and girders.
Sizes of lumber frequently used :

2-inch thick for columns, beams and girder bottoms

1-inch thick for floor panels and beam and girder sides
2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and uprights
1 or 2-inch thick for cleats

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.11

FORMS
a.

LUMBER FORMS

Use nails sparingly in

the construction of
forms because
unnecessary nailing
not only adds to the
labor of wrecking but
also renders the
lumber unfit for
continued use. Where
nails must be used,
leave the head
protruding so that
they may be
withdrawn without
injury to the lumber.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.11

FORMS
a.

LUMBER FORMS

All forms for concrete require a coating of some lubricant

to prevent concrete from adhering to the wood and thus
make a rough, unpleasant appearance. Crude oil and
petroline preserve the forms against damage by
alternate wetting and drying. The forms should
preferably be oiled before they are set in place. Oil
should not be used, however, on forms against surfaces
which are to be plastered, as oil prevents adhesion of
the plaster. In such cases, wetting with water will be
sufficient.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.11

FORMS
a.

LUMBER FORMS
The inside of forms which have been used once and
are to be used again shall be coated an approved
soap or other approved material, or thoroughly wetted
before concreting. No application of soap or other
material should be made to forms after the
reinforcements are in place.
The forms should be durable and rigid, and should be
well braced so that bulging or twisting cannot occur.
The joints should be made tight enough to prevent
leakage of the mortar.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

3.

CONCRETE

3.11

FORMS
b.

PLYWOOD FORMS
Works best where a smooth surface is required. The
plywood should be waterproof, Grade A and at least
12mm () thick.

c.

STEEL FORMS
Steel forms may be in the form of pans for concrete joist
construction or steel decking or corrugated steel for
concrete slabs and slab-and-joist construction. .

d.

PLASTIC FORMS
Polystyrene forms are now
available for concrete work.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE

a.

AEROCRETE
This is a lightweight, expanded structural concrete
produced by adding a small amount of metallic
aluminum powder to the mixture of Portland cement
and sand of cinders.
On the addition of water, a gas is generated which
expands the wet mix and forms small air cells
throughout the material.
It is used for structural floor and roof slabs, partition
blocks for sound proofing, wall insulation, in rooms of
refrigerator plants, lightweight fill on top of structural
floor and roof slabs.
In addition to its light weight, it has excellent fireresistive qualities.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE

b.

GUNITE

This is the mixture of sand and cement deposited under

high pneumatic pressure with a machine manufactured
under the trade name CEMENT GUN, to which the
required supply of water is added just before the dry
constituents emerge from nozzle.
GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel, when
reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and curtain walls. Ideal
for swimming pool construction.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE

c.

PORETE

A Portland cement concrete to which a chemical foam

is added to generate gases in the process of
deposition, resulting in light weight precast or shopmade unit in both hollow and solid forms. It is
manufactured in solid slabs for short spans roofs and
siding of industrial buildings.
d.

HAYDITE
This is processed concrete added with lightweight
aggregate .

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

Lightweight aggregates have the following advantages:

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms

Reduction of dead loads saves structural steel, reduces

bearing on foundation and cuts cost of concrete forms

4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

High insulating value is provided by numerous dead air

spaces .
Rough texture of surfaces have good acoustical properties
.

Lightweight allows easier handling of precast slabs and

blocks
Lightweight plaster has less tendency to crack and its heat
resistance makes it a good material for fireproofing
structural steel

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

The major disadvantages of lightweight aggregates
are a result paradoxically of the physical qualities
which make them weight saving and good insulators
:
Porosity requires changes in the usual formulas for
water and slump, and closer supervision of mixing.
Very light aggregates tend to float out of the mortar
and some coarse aggregate concrete mixtures
require the addition of a fine aggregate like sand to
prevent harsh working and serious bleeding.
As aggregates become lighter they become
structurally weaker so the strength of the matrix
must be modified by adding more cement. More
cement is needed, also to wet the greater
aggregate surface area, due to the irregularity of the
particles .

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

The cost of raw aggregates is higher than for gravel,
rock, and sand because of small production facilities
and the additional processing that is sometimes
necessary .

Concrete using lightweight aggregate should not weigh

more than 75% of ordinary concrete. Since the
aggregates compromise about 50 percent of the usual
mixes, its weight should not be more than 50 percent of
that of rock or gravel aggregates for the same volume.
Grade rock, gravel aggregates weigh a little less than
100 lbs. per cu. ft. thus a good lightweight aggregate
should weigh less than 50 lbs. per cubic foot.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four general
classifications :
a.

Aggregates of volcanic origin

Pumice, weighing from 25
to 60 lbs.per cu. ft. is well
qualified as a lightweight
aggregate when dry and
well graded. It is hard to be
handled and mixed without
excessive breakdown.
Undesirable feature,
however, is its water
absorption. This can be
mitigated by wetting the
aggregate before it is
mixed with cement .

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

a.

Aggregates of volcanic origin

Perlite is composed of stable silicates, and is inert
and thus durable for use as a lightweight aggregate
or for insulation. Its disadvantages are its friability,
small particle size, and extreme lightness. The small
particle size requires more cement, while its
lightness, from 8 to 16 lbs. per cu. ft. increases the
tendency to float out of the mortar.
Perlite is useful where
maximum strength is not
required, as in precast
slabs and blocks and in
floor fill, fireproofing and
plaster .

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

b.

Micaceous minerals
Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral which expands on
application of heat to as much as 30 times its original
volume.

Dried ground ore is subjected to about 1,800 degrees

heat for 4 to 8 seconds, after which it weighs only 6 to
12 lbs. per cubic ft.
It is used as an aggregate in concrete fireproofing
steel, for floor and roof fill, and for acoustic and
fireproof plaster.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

c.

Expanded shales and clays

Lightweight aggregates from shales and clays
require heating the material in a kiln to a
temperature near its fusion point. The material
softens and coalesces to a sticky mass; escaping
gases are trapped, forming cellular structures and
expanding the volume of the material about 50%.
The crushing and firing operations are varied with
different processes. In some, the material is fired to
a clinker, then crushed and sized; the process is
often reversed with crushing operation first.
Examples of clay, shale aggregates are AIROX,
ROCKLITE, Diatomite, HAYDITE. .

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

d.

By-product Aggregates
Expanded Slag or foamed slags are made by treating
molten blast furnace slag with controlled quantities of water
or steam. Some slags are expanded are expanded in pits in
the ground; others are made in machines. Close control of
steam is very important because too much granulates the
slag, yielding soft, friable particles; too little gives a heavy
aggregate.

Foamed slag has been used for precast blocks, cast-inplace walls of houses and for panel filling of steel-framed
buildings.

Cinders are composed of the ash components of the coal

along with the various quantities of unburned or partially
burned combustible matter. Cinders containing a minimum
amount of combustible material are satisfactory for use in
concrete but are not particularly weight saving. Lightweight
cinders often have unsound physical and chemical
properties.

1. CEMENTING
MATERIALS
1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
1.03 Cement
2. STORAGE OF
CEMENT

3. CONCRETE
3.01 Definition
3.02 Qualities
of Good
Concrete
3.03 Materials of
Concrete
3.04 Slump Test
3.05 Proportioning
3.06 Mixing
3.07 Transporting
and Placing
3.08 Shrinkage
3.09 Curing
3.10 Admixtures
3.11 Forms
4. PROCESSED
CONCRETE
4.01 Types of
Processed
Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for
Light-weight
Conc.

4.

PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

WEIGHT OF AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE BY
TYPE OF AGGREGATE
TYPE OF AGGREGATE

Gravel
Sand
Crushed Stone
Crushed Bank Slag
Haydite (Expanded Clay, shale)
Foamed Slag
Cinders
Pumice
Diatomite
Perlite
Vermiculite

Aggregate
Weight per
Cubic Foot
(Lbs.)

Weight per Cubic

Foot of Concrete
Using Aggregate
(Lbs.)

120
90-100
100
80
40-60
40-60
40-50
30-60
28-40
6-16
6-10

150
150
145
110-130
100-120
90-100
110-115
60-90
55-70
40-65
25-50

End of
Div 03 CONCRETE