2

, 29-30 2014

.

.

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 (
:

:

( )
:


.

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:
(, :
, Fermat,
Descartes, Huygens,
Newton.)

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: Isaac Newton,
Grantham, Lincolnshire, 1665

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 :
, , , ,
.
:
R.
:
.
.

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NEWTON

I R, f , g : I R, a, a + h I .
f (a + h) f (a)
h f (a)
:=
.
h g (a)
g (a + h) g (a)

f g
a

f (a) g (a).
.

h f (a)/h (a).

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:
,
, ,
.

a ,
V (a)
S(a) ,

V (a) = a3 , S(a) = 6a2 .

.

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h V (a)
(a + h)3 a3
3a2 + 3ah + h2
=
=
.
h S(a)
6(a + h)2 6a2
6(2a + h)
(h = a),
7a
h V (a) = h S(a).
18

(h = a( 2 1),)

3a2 + 3ah + h2
h V (a) =
h S(a) u 1.8V (a)
6(2a + h)
V (a + h) u 2.8V (a).
.

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, ,
(h u 0.26a),
h V (a)
a3
h S(a) = h V (a)/
= 3a2 +3ah+h2 u 3.52a2
h S(a)
6(2a+h)
.

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: USB
stick PowerBook G4,
, :

;
.

30 2014

 t0 , T
,
+ 1 .

1 = 1, 1 V ( ) = 0, 6572 0, 4347 = 0, 2225 GB.

, () , () .

V ( ) V (t0 )
V V ( )
1 V ( )
GB
=
=
= 0, 2225
.
t0
t0 + T
1
min
.

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V (t1 )
0, 4347
t0 =
=
= 1.95 u 2
0, 2225 0, 2225

V V ( ) 3, 3253
t0 +T =
=
= 14, 9 u 15
0, 2225
0, 2225
, :

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 ,
,
. [

.]

.
[] Cavalieri (1598-1647), (indivisibles). Geometria indivisibilibus (1635).
= .
.

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 :

.



,

.
.

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Descartes (1596-1650):

.
Fermat (1601-1665):

y = f (x)
a,
f (a + h) u f (a),
h.
a, , , h = 0.
.

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:
f (x) = 3x 3 2x 2 + 1.
f (a + h) u f (a)
9a2 + 9ah + 3h2 4a 2h u 0.
h = 0,
9a2 4a = 0.
a = 0 a = 4/9 f
. , ,
,
, .
.

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 Fermat
h = 0.
,
,
, h 0,
:
:
f (x) = x + sin x. f (a + h) u f (a)
h + sin(x + h) u sin x,
.

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h/2
h
.
cos(x + ) u
2
sin(h/2)

-1 h 0.

cos x = 1,

+ 2k, k Z,
.
.

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Newton (1642-1727):
.
Barrow (1630-1677):

P,
.

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Leibniz (1646-1716): . f 0 (a)

f x a:

df (x) 
h f (a)
(a)
= limh0 f (a+h)f
=: f 0 (a).
dx  = limh0
h
h
a

h 0,
f (a + h) f (a)
h


P := (a, f (a)).
.

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(325-265 ..), (287-212 ..), ( ) (262-190 ..) ..
Bhaskara (1114-1185) ()
Rolle.
Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (1135-1213) ()


3 .
.

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 .
f 0 (a) f : R,
a ,

P := (a, f (a)).
P

y = mP (x a) + f (a),
mP = f 0 (a).
.

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 ;
(;):
P,
P.
P
.


.
.

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 P
.
P
( )
.
P
.
P

.
.

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 :
PQ ,
Q P.

M,
M.

y = f (x) x = a,
(a, f (a)) f 0 (a).

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 :



P
P
P
P.
P.
()
()

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 (
) (, ) .

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(1731-1800)

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 ,
, .
.

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 I. C. Bivens (What a tangent line is when it isnt a limit,

Mathematical Association of America, (1986) 133-143.)

f : R ,
. y = M(x) = mx + b
y = f (x)
P = (a, f (a)) R,
y = K (x) = kx + c, P,
> 0,

 


 

f (x) M(x) f (x) K (x)
x (a , a + ).
.

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: ,
.
: L1 (x),
L2 (x), > 0,

 

f (x) L1 (x) = f (x) L2 (x), x (a , a + ).


f (x) = 21 L1 (x) + L2 (x) , x (a , a + ),
a, f
. (a, f (a)).
.

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:
P := (a, f (a)), m
, k, > 0:
 f (x) f (a)
  f (x) f (a)


 

m 
k ,

x a
x a
x (a , a + ).
:
P = (a, f (a)),
f 0 (a) .
.

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f : R, (
,)
x = a ,

Y (h) = mP h, h R,
mP = f 0 (a).
f (a + h) f (a) mP h =: a (h) 2 .
.

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 Leibniz,

df (a)(h) = f 0 (a)h.
(1)
g (x) = x, g 0 (x) = 1,
dx(h) = dg (x)(h) = 1h = h.
(1)
df (a)(h) = f 0 (a)dx(h), h R,

df (a) = f 0 (a)dx.
.

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 -
f : (, +] a , > 0
k R
f (x) f (a) k(x a), x (a , a + ).
f a
Df (a) k.

f (a) := {Y = kh, h R, k Df (a)}
f a.
.

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(
(x 1)2 cos(x 1), < x < 1
f (x) :=
(x 1) cos(x 1) + 1, 1 x < +.

Df (x), x R
.

f (x), x R

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1
f (x) := |x |+1, x R
2

f (x), x R
Df (x), x R
.

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f (x) :=

0,

x [1, 1]
|x| 1, x [2, 1) (1, 2]
+, x (, 2) (2, +).

Df (x) =

{0}, x (1, 1),

[1, 0], x = 1,

[0, 1], x = 1,

f (x) = x sin x1 , x R
Df (0) = ,

{1}, x (2, 1),

{1}, x (1, 2),

Df (x) = {sin x1 x1 cos x1 }, x 6= 0.

(, 1], x = 2,

[1, +), x = 2,

, x (, 2) (2, +).

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: 1. f
a, 0 Df (a).
2. f Df (x) 6= ,
x , .
3. (Rockafellar) f1 , f2 : R ,

D(f1 + f2 )(a) = Df1 (a) + Df2 (a).

4. f a
f (a) , f 0 (a)
f (a) = {Y = f 0 (a)h : h R}.
.

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: ,
y = f (x), x (a , a + )
Graph(f ) = P = (a, f (a))
.
y = mx + b
P,
f (x) mx b = 0
a 2.
.

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 :
f , n,
y = mx + b

P,

f (x) mx b
(x a)2

n 2.
.

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:
f (x) = x 3 + 3x 5
P = (1, f (1)) = (1, 1).
y = mx + b.
f (x) (mx + b)
(x 1)2 .
f (x) (mx + b)
(6 m)x (7 + b)
=
x
+
2
+
.
(x 1)2
x 2 2x + 1
m = 6 b = 7.
.

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: f (x) = 3x 4 6x 2 + 3x + 1
P = (1, f (1)) = (1, 5).

f (x) (mx + b)
=
(x (1))2
3x 4 6x 2 + 3x + 1 mx b
=
=
(x + 1)2
(3 m)x 2 b
,
(x + 1)2
m = 3 b = 2.
= 3x 2 6x + 3 +

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 DESCARTES:
Descartes
, (, ,
,)
.

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 Kh ( x 0 x,)


P := (a, f (a))
Ph := (a + h, f (a + h)). (
f (a) = 0, f (x) + 1
f (x),
f (a) 6= 0.)
K = limh0 Kh .
. PK ,
m = 1/.
.

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:
f (x) = 3x 2 2x + 1
P = (1, f (1)) = (1, 2).
h 6= 0

Ph = (1 + h, f (1 + h)) =
= (1 + h, 2 + 4h + 3h2 ).

Kh = (kh , 0),

P, Ph .
.

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 |Kh P| =
1/2

1/2 
2
2
2
= kh 2kh + 5
= (1 kh ) + 2

2 2

|Kh Ph | = 1 + h kh ) + (2 + 4h + 3h )

= (1 kh )2 + h2 + 2h(1 kh )+
1/2
2 2
2
,
+(4h + 3h ) + 4(4h + 3h )

1/2

,
h + 2(1 kh ) + h(4 + 3h)2 + 4(4 + 3h) = 0.
.

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 kh = 1 +

h+h(4+3h)2 +4(4+3h)
,
2

16
k = limh0 kh = 1 +
= 9.
2

=(9,0)


P := (1, 2). KP
14 . ,
m = 4,

y = 4x 2.
.

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:
f (x) = sin(x).

2
P = ( , sin( )) = ( ,
).
4
4
4 2
h 6= 0,

Ph = ( + h, f ( + h)) = ( + h, sin( + h)
4
4
4
4

2
= ( + h,
(sin(h) + cos(h)).
4
2
K (h) = (kh , 0)
P, Ph .
.

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2
2 2
2
(kh ) +( ) = (kh h)2 +( (sin(h)+cos(h)))2 .
4
2
4
2

h 1 sin(2h)
kh = + +
2 4 2 2h

1 +2
k := lim kh = + =
.
h0
4 2
4
KP, K = (k, 0),

2 +2
:= [
]/[
] = 2.
2
4
4
.

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1
2
m= =
,
2
2

2
2

y
=
(x ),
2
2
4

2
2(4 )
x+
.
y=
2
8
.

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 LEIBNIZ:
f
P = (x, f (x)),
An = (x + hn , f (x + hn )),
n = 1, 2, ,

lim hn = 0.
n = 1, 2, ,
PAn
mn =

f (x + hn ) f (x)
.
hn

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PAn , n = 1, 2,
(
)
.


P,
(hn ).
.

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, m = lim mn ,

f (x + hn ) f (x)
m = lim
.
hn
, . , ,
f (x + h) f (x)
.
h0
h

m = lim

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:
f (x) = 4x 5 3x sin(x) + 1
P = (a, f (a)), a R. h 6= 0
f (a + h) f (a)
=
h
= 4[(a + h)4 + (a + h)3 a + (a + h)2 a2 + (a + h)a3 +
4

+ a ] 3a

sin( h2 )
h
2

h
cos(a + ) 3 sin(a + h),
2

m = 20a4 3a cos(a) 3 sin(a).
.

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 a = 4 ,

5 4 3 2( + 4)
m=

,
64
8
y = mx + b


P,
b = 4a5 3a sin(a)+1ma

4 5 3 2 2
=
+
+ 1.
256
32
.

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: [
.]
(zoom)
.
:

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: 3.000 .
.

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: 1.000.000 .
.

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: : 100.000.000 .

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h

h
f (x) = x tan cos ln1/3

h
 x 3 3x 2 + x ii
x2 + 1 i
+ x sin2 |2x 5 3x 4 | + exp
2 + cos(x)
sin(x 4 + 1)

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: 5.000.000.000

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: 2 10111 =200.000.000.000 10100 =

200.000.000.000 Googols .

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