Helena Faustine

Properties of Chemical Bonds

Experiment 1: Electrical Conductivity
Aim: To investigate the type of chemical bonds of four unknown compounds,
through its electrical conductivity (measured by the rate of charge at one point
of a circuit (A))
Hypothesis: there are three types of chemical bonds: ionic, metallic and
covalent. Each bond has a different set of properties based on the strength of
van der Waal attraction between elements. Covalent bonds have weak
intermolecular forces. Molecular substances (covalent bonds), do not conduct
electricity as, there is no sufficient contact between molecules to allow
electrons to move through the chosen medium (which in this case is, water).
Covalent compounds do not contain electrolytes (charged particles) in them;
hence they become insulators in a solution. Ionic compounds have stronger
intermolecular force between its elements. Although they are insulators in
solid form, ionic compounds are free to move when diluted in aqueous
solutions. As a result they can carry current, or in other words are conductors
as solutions. Lastly metallic bonding, described to instead have metallic
positively charged particles surrounded by a sea of electrons. In this case, the
valence electrons are free and mobile thus are able to carry charges. Whether
it is in solid form, or when diluted in a solution, metallic bonds should be able
to carry electric charges.
In the case of the experiment, if the unknown compound can conduct
electricity, then the compound can be declared of either ionic or metallic
bonding. Whilst, if the unknown compound fail to conduct electricity, then it is
a molecular substance (covalent bond).
Bibliography:
1. UC Davis. Unknown year. Metallic bonding (unknown date of update).
Available at:
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Theoretical_Chemistry/Chemical_Bonding/
General_Principles/Metallic_Bonding (16th March 2015)
2. BBC. 2014. Metal Structure and Properties (unknown date of update).
Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/p
eriodic_table/metalsrev2.shtml (16th March 2015).
Variables:
Independent Variable:
Chemical Bonds of four different unknown compounds (Compound A, B, C, K)
Dependent Variable:
The electrical conductivity of the four unknown compounds (Measured by the
rate of charge flow it allows (A))
Control Variable:
1. Same electrode used throughout the experiment (Graphite)
2. Dimensions of electrode are kept the same throughout (Length: 5.5 cm,
Radius: 0.35 cm)
3. Same amount of water used (100ml)

Helena Faustine

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Same amount of time taken before measurement (5 seconds)

Same power supply used throughout the experiment
Same input voltage induced (9 volts)
The same stopwatch is used throughout
Same amount of compound used for experiment (5g)

Table 1: Apparatus and Equipment

No Equipment
Quantity
.
1.
Unknown Compound
5 gram

2.

Water

3.
4.

Graphite
Digital Scale

2000ml (= 100ml x 4
variables x 5 trials)
2
1

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Beaker
Power Supply
Stopwatch
Ampere meter
Alligator Clip
Stirring Rod

1
1
1
1
3
1

Note/Size
Compound A
Compound B
Compound C
Compound D
Measures mass in
grams
150ml
Gives 9V option
-

Procedure:
1. Prepare all Apparatus
2. Assemble the circuit:
1. Plug in the power supply to the power source
2. Attach one end of both alligator clips to the two slots located in the
DC section of the power supply
3. Attach the other end of one alligator clip to the graphite
4. Attach the other end of the second alligator clip to the black slot of
the ampere meter
5. Attach an extra alligator clip to the red slot of the ampere meter
and attach the other side on another graphite
3. Fill the beaker in with 100ml water
4. Weigh 5 grams of compound A on the digital scale
5. Put in 5 grams of compound A into the beaker. Stir the mixture with a
stirring rod until compound A is completely dissolved in water.
6. Put in both pieces of graphite into the water; note that one should not
touch the other.
7. Set the power supply to 9V
8. Turn on the power supply
9. As you turn on the power supply, start the stopwatch.
10. Wait for five seconds and record the number displayed on the ampere
meter.
11. Turn off the power supply and throw away the used sample solution
12. Repeat steps 3-11 for four more trials

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13. Repeat steps 3- 12 for compounds B, C and K

Diagram of Set-up Equipment:

Table 2: Experiment Data Table

Compound Current produced (A) by solution consisting different compounds
type
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
Trial 5
A
0.48
0.47
0.46
0.45
0.46
B
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
C
2.11
2.09
2.12
2.11
2.10
K
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Table 3: Average data
Type of compound
A
B
C
K
Calculation:
Formula used:
s
A=
n

Average current produced (A)

0.464
0.026
2.106
0.000
Unit:
A: Average (result)
s: total value of individual values that
are being averaged
n: number of terms

Helena Faustine

Example calculation (Average current calculation for compound A):

0.48+0.47+0.46+ 0.45+0.46
A=
5
2.32
A=
5
A= 0.464
Thus, the average current produced when the solution consists of compound
A is 0.464 Ampere

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Graph 1. Average current (A) produced by solutions with different compounds as solute
2.5

2.11

2
1.5
Average current (A) produced

1
0.5

0.46
0.03

0
A

B0

Type of Compound

Helena Faustine

Discussion:
It can be seen from the graph that the strongest current that is allowed
to flow is 2.106 Amperes. This strength of current is the rate of charge when
graphite pieces are submerged in compound C solution. The smallest current
exerted is 0.000 Amperes. No current flows when graphite pieces are
submerged in compound K, in other words compound K is not an electrical
conductor, whereas compound A, B and C are conducts electricity when they
are diluted in aqueous solutions.
Compound A showed a moderate amount of electrical conductivity, letting flow
a current of 0.464 Amperes. Compound B allows very little electrical current to
flow thus it is not a good electrical conductor. Compound K proves to be a
good conductor for electricity.
The experiment data is accurate and reliable. The experiment is
conducted five times for each variable using separate samples to ensure that
the collected data has no errors. The highest percentage of error is shown in
compound B where the percentage is 21.066%. Even then, there is only 0.01Ampere difference between the trials, proving that trials were handled with
great degree of accuracy. Despite the fact that, collected data are closely
spaced, the percentage is still quite high thus proving that there were some
humane weaknesses made in this experiment.
Although the time taken before measurement has been decided before
hand, there is always a possibility of slipping up a few microseconds later or
earlier before stopping the stopwatch, or when starting the stopwatch. This
has to do with the human reaction time, and thus cannot be avoided. The
amount of time before measurement plays an important part in the current
exerted in the circuit, thus why it is kept constant (As shown by the formula
charge = current x time, time and current are inversely proportional. Thus
current decreases as time goes. This shows how time and current influences
one another thus influencing the data collected.). This human mistake may be
fatal for the collected data as some trial results may be the result of additional
microseconds to the designated measurement time.
To overcome this problem, it is required that the experiment be
conducted with the help of technological aids. In this case, video cameras.
Video cameras displays both time and visuals of what is happening in the
present. Instead of recording based on the human reaction time, a video
camera can be used as a more reliable source of time. Video cameras can be
fast forwarded to adjust to the measurement time, thus giving out more
accurate data.
Experiment 2: Melting Point
Aim:
To investigate type of chemical bonds of four different unknown compounds
through its melting point (how long it takes to melt the compound)
Hypothesis: There are three types of chemical bonds; ionic, metallic and
covalent bonds. The melting or boiling point of these three bonds depends on
the strength of intermolecular forces (or forces of attraction between
elements). Ionic compounds have higher melting points because they have
strong van der waal attraction and thus requires strong forces (heat) before

Helena Faustine

elements are freed from the lattice. On the other hand, molecular substances
(covalent compounds) have relatively weak force of attraction. Thus the bonds
do not have to be broken in order to melt. Metallic bonds have bonds even
stronger than that of ionic bonds, and thus a lot of energy is needed to break
through those bonds.
In relation to the experiment, the unknown compounds have to be of either
one of these three chemical bonds. If the compound is shown to have higher
melting points (takes more time to melt completely) then it is of ionic or
metallic bonding. On the other hand, if the unknown compound have low
melting points then it is a compound with covalent bonds.
Bibliography: BBC, 2014. Metal structure and Properties (unknown date of
update) Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/periodic
_table/metalsrev1.shtml (16th March 2015)
Variables:
Independent variables:
Chemical bonds of four different unknown compounds (Compound A, B, C, K)
Dependent variables:
The melting point of these unknown compounds (measured by time taken to
melt them (seconds))
Control Variables:
1. Same amount of compound used throughout the experiment (5 gr)
2. The same stopwatch is used throughout
3. The same size of aluminum foil used for each trial (12x12 cm)
4. Same tripod used throughout the experiment (12 cm in diameter)
5. Same Bunsen burner used throughout the experiment
6. Same distance between one compound to the other during an
experiment trial (4 cm)
7. Same vertical distance between Bunsen burner and aluminum foil (1
inch)
8. Same room temperature of 28 o C
9. Same digital scale used throughout experiment
Table 1: Apparatus and Equipment
No Equipment
Quantity
.
1.
Unknown Compound
5 gram

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Tripod
Bunsen burner
Lighter
Aluminum foil
Digital scale

1
1
1
10 pieces
1

7.
8.

Ruler
Stopwatch

1
1

Note/Size
Compound A
Compound B
Compound C
Compound D
Diameter: 12 cm
12x12 cm
Measures mass in
grams
30cm
-

Helena Faustine

9.

Scissor

Procedure:
1. Prepare the apparatus
2. Place the Bunsen burner below the tripod
3. Use ruler to measure the vertical distance between the Bunsen burner
and the tripod. Adjust the tripod to make sure the vertical distance is 1inch
4. Measure 5 grams of compound A and B separately on the digital scale
5. Take a piece of 12x12cm sized aluminum foil and fold it to form four
equal parts. This will allow you to find its center.
6. Place compound A, 2cm from the center.
7. Place compound B, 2cm from the center in the direction opposite
compound A
8. Place the aluminum foil on the tripod
9. Light the Bunsen burner using a lighter
10. As the Bunsen burner is ignited, start the stopwatch
11. Stop the stopwatch when the compound is completely melted
12. Record the time displayed on the stopwatch
13. Enclose the wick (of Bunsen burner) to kill the flame
14. Repeat steps 4-13 for four more trials
15. Repeat steps 4-14 for compound C and K
Diagram of Set-Up Equipment:

Table 2. Experiment Data Table

Compound Average time taken for different compounds to melt (seconds)
type
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
Trial 5
A
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

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B
C
K

10.0
5.7
8.0

Table 3: Average data

Type of compound
A
B
C
K
Calculation:
Formula used:
s
A=
n

9.3
4.8
9.5

8.8
5.2
8.2

9.1
5.1
7.8

9.5
5.5
9.0

Average time taken for compounds to

melt (seconds)
0.00
9.34
5.26
8.50
Unit:
A: Average (result)
s: total value of individual values that
are being averaged
n: number of terms

Example calculation
(Average current calculation for compound B):
10.0+ 9.3+8.8+9.1+ 9.5
A=
5
46.7
A=
5
A= 9.34

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Thus the average time taken for compound B to melt is 9.34 seconds

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Graph 1. Average time taken for different compound types to melt (secs)
10

9.34

8.5

8
6

5.26

time taken for compounds to melt (s) 4

2
0

A0 B C K
Compound type

Discussion:
It can be seen from the graph that it takes the longest to melt
compound B, in other words compound B has the highest melting point. It
took 9.34 seconds for compound B to be fully melted on the aluminum foil.
Compound C took the shortest time to melt, taking only 5.26 seconds in
average before melting completely. Compound K proved to have a melting
point somewhere in between that of compounds B and C, whilst compound A
did not melt. This suggests that compound A has an extremely high melting
point as it takes very long amounts of time to melt compound A completely.

Helena Faustine

The data taken is extremely accurate. Again, 5 trials are done to

ensure that the results are of close intervals. For this experiment, the highest
percentage of error 8.47% for compounds K. this percentage is relatively low
thus proving that this experiment is accurate.
However, this experiment is not with no mistakes. There was an error
in the experiment condition, while doing the experiment; the air conditioner
was on thus affecting the direction of the Bunsen burners flame. Thus the
heat produced by the Bunsen burner is not always equally spread on the
aluminum causing one substance to perhaps melt faster or slower than it
should. This is the reason why the intervals of data between trials were
unequally spaced. If I were to do this experiment again next time, the
experiment room condition should be more isolated. The room should not
experience change in air humidity, temperature or artificial winds. Thus the
heat would be spread more equally on the aluminum foil. To do this, air
conditioning should be turned off so that the air around stays constant as is.
Evaluation and Discussion:
From this experiment, the unknown compounds are divided into two
categories, those who can conduct electricity when dissolved in water, and
those that cannot conduct electricity. From the melting point experiment we
discover two categories as well, those that have low melting points or in other
words take less time to melt, and those with high melting points.
Chemical bonds that can conduct electricity have either metallic bonds
or ionic bonds. Metallic bonds are bonds between two or more metallic
elements. Such substances would have closely packed atoms. With metallic
bonds, electrons in the valence shell overlap with those of neighboring atoms
thus moves from one atom to another perpetually. In other words, valence
electrons are not associated with any particular atom, thus resulting on
delocalized electrons meaning that, electrons move freely throughout the
crystal (also known as the solid structure). This is known as non-directional
bonding. The system of sea of electron or delocalized and mobile electrons
creates strong bonds between metal ions within the lattice.
Properties of metal owe its properties to van der Waal attraction of the
substance, for instance: its electrical conductivity. The valence electrons are
still relatively free when electrical fields are applied, when potential difference
is applied, electrons would move to the opposing direction conducting
electrical current to the other side. Corresponding to strong van der Waal
attraction between ion particles of metal, it automatically takes more energy to
break through bonds than other chemical bond types. This causes metal to
have higher melting points, as it needs higher temperature (more heat) to
break its bonds and melt. When it comes to electrical conductivity, the more
electrons in its valence shell, the better it conducts electricity. This is because
more electrons allow electrical current to flow from one point to another point
of the lattice. Whilst when it comes to melting points, metallic bonds and its
electron sea, attracts more cations (positively charged ions) thus creating a
stronger structure. In cases where metals have high amount of protons in its
nucleus, it would attract more delocalized electrons thus strengthening its
interaction, in which case bond would also be stronger and the metal would
have higher melting points.

Helena Faustine

Similarly, ionic compounds can conduct electricity in aqueous solutions

and has a relatively high melting point, although ionic compounds do not take
electrical conductivity and melting points to an extreme level. Ionic
compounds are what is known as non-directional, in other words they pack
according to their relative sizes. Ionic substances are also always have local
charge neutrality (positive and negative ions producing neutral states, like the
structure of NaCl). In ionic bonds there are always electrostatic attractions
from ions of opposing charges, thus why it has a relatively strong bond. Bonds
in ionic compounds are formed when electrons from an atoms valence shell is
transferred to another atom (balancing atoms). What happens then is the
atom that gains becomes negatively charged, whilst the atom that lost
becomes positively charged (cation). Afterwards, these two atoms become
attracted to one another as they are of opposing charges. Ionic bonds are
formed between non-metals and alkali earth metals. Repulsion and attraction
of ionic bonds causes ionic substances to be arranged in such way so that
positive and negative charges balance one another to produce neutrally
charged substances. Ionic compounds do not have mobile electrons and thus
cannot conduct electricity in its solid form. However, when diluted in aqueous
solutions, ionic compounds can conduct electricity well. This is because;
aqueous solutions disassociate ions and thus will carry charge through the
solution. In ionic compound, the intermolecular attraction is relatively strong,
thus there is still a need for large amounts of energy to overcome the bonds,
as a result, ionic compounds have high melting points.
Distinctly different from properties of the other two chemical bonds are
covalent substances also known as, molecular substances. Molecular
substances have low melting points and are unable to conduct electricity in
solid form or when diluted in aqueous solutions. In molecular substances, it is
its interatomic linkage that bonds to atoms together. In covalent bonds the
binding of atoms are formed due to electrostatic forces between an electron
and their two (or more) nuclei. Covalent substances are mostly insoluble.
However there are rare cases in which they do, however do not form solutions
as a chemical reaction takes place instead. This makes the solution consist of
materials that differ from the original solute. Unlike ionic compounds, covalent
compounds do not dissociate when dissolved in water, thus they do not
conduct electricity. There is also insufficient amount of contact between ions
of covalent compounds, and thus does not conduct the flow of electricity in
solid or liquid form. Covalent molecules have relatively weak bonds, and thus
requires small amount of energy to overcome its bonds and melt it. Thus why
covalent molecules are usually in liquid or gas form. Out of three chemical
bonds, covalent molecules are the easiest to melt.
Besides its electrical conductivity, solubility can help determine which
types of chemical bonds are present in a compound. Ionic compounds are the
only soluble one in this case. Metallic compounds do not dissolve when mixed
with water. Whilst molecular substances do not as well, however when it
comes to covalent bonds there are special cases in which they do. In these
special cases, the substances do not form solutions with the solvent, instead
a chemical reaction takes place with hydrogen and thus produces a
substance that is not the same to the original solute.
Metallic

Ionic compounds

Molecular

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Electrical
conductivity
Melting point
Solubility

compounds

High

substances

High

Low
Molecular
substances are
soluble however
do not form a
solution.

Conclusion:
Now is the time to draw conclusions on whether or not these unknown
compounds are of, metallic, ionic or covalent bonds. However, as it has been
revealed that non of these are of metallic bonding, it leaves two possible
choices choices for the unknown compounds chemical bond type: ionic and
covalent.
Compound A: compound A allowed electrical current of 0.464
Amperes to flow through when it is diluted in aqueous solutions.
Although the current exerted is relatively weak, compound A is still a
conductor. Correspondingly, compound A prove to be very difficult to
melt, in fact, during this experiment we failed to melt compound A.
owing to the fact that it has an extremely high melting point, and it
conducts electricity, compound A has ionic bonds.
Compound B: compound B allowed electrical current of 0.026
Amperes, which is very low for a current. This showcases how
compound B is a very bad conductor if not an insulator; moreover it
took compound B an average of 9.34 seconds to begin to melt. This is
a relatively short time. Thus proving that compound B has covalent
bonds.
Compound C: Compound C allowed an electrical current of 2.106
Amperes, which is very high compared to the electrical current exerted
when the electrical circuit goes through solutions consisting of other
unknown compounds. However, compound C prove to have the lowest
melting point, which in this case is 5.26 seconds. However since, it
shows a relatively high electrical current, it is safe to assume that
compound C has ionic bonds.
Compound K: Compound K proves to not be a conductor, conducting
0 current for all trials. It also has a low melting point of 8.5 seconds.
Thus shows how compound K has covalent bonds.
This experiment proved my hypothesis true, I found out that metallic
compounds have the strongest bonds and thus conducts electricity in solid
form as well as liquid form. Ionic compounds have a relatively strong bond,
and thus they also have high melting points however does not exceed that of
metallic compounds. Lastly, covalent compounds have the weakest bonds
and thus have lower melting points and cannot conduct electricity due to
insufficient amount of contact between particles. My data corresponds to my
hypothesis as well, in which compounds with ionic bonds like C and A can
conduct electricity and have higher melting points. On the other hand,
compounds with covalent bonds like B and K have lower melting points and

Helena Faustine

cannot conduct electricity (or are bad conductors of electricity). The fact that
the hypothesis corresponds with the research done also proves that it is true.
In conclusion, each chemical bond has its own specific set of properties
that corresponds with its structure. Metallic bonds have an electron sea and
thus there are many mobile electrons that help it conduct electricity. Metallic
bonds also have very strong bonds that are harder to break and thus has high
melting points. Ionic compounds whose bonds depend on electrostatic forces
between atoms, and thus its bonds are relatively strong. This makes ionic
compounds electrical conductors (only when dissolved in water) as it does not
have enough free electrons in solid form. Its relatively strong bonds also make
it have high melting points. Lastly, covalent bonds whose structure depends
on a shared electron between two atom nuclei. They have relatively weak
bonds due to that, and thus, covalent bonds cannot conduct electricity and
have lower melting points. In this experiment there were no compounds with
chemical bonds. Compound A and C showed to have ionic bonds whilst
compound B and K have covalent bonds.

Bibliography:
1. UC Davis. Unknown year. Metallic bonding (unknown date of update).
Available at:
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Theoretical_Chemistry/Chemical_Bonding/
General_Principles/Metallic_Bonding (16th March 2015)
2. UC Davis. Unknown year. Covalent Bonds vs Ionic Bonds (unknown
date of update). Available at:
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Theoretical_Chemistry/Chemical_Bonding/
Covalent_Bonds_vs_Ionic_Bonds (16th March 2015)
3. BBC. 2014. Metal Structure and Properties (unknown date of update).
Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/p
eriodic_table/metalsrev2.shtml (16th March 2015).
4. Senese. Fred, 2010. What Properties distinguish Ionic compounds
from Covalent compounds? (15th February 2010). Available at:
http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/compounds/faq/propertie
s-ionic-vs-covalent.shtml (16th March 2015)
5. IB Chemistry. 2011. Bonding (SL) (unknown date of update). Available
at: http://ibchem.com/IB/ibnotes/bon-sl.htm (17th March 2015)