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OldTestament
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheOldTestamentisthefirstsectionoftheChristianBible,basedprimarilyupontheHebrewBible,a
collectionofreligiouswritingsbyancientIsraelites.[1]ItisthecounterparttotheNewTestament,the
ChristianBible'ssecondsection.TheOldTestamentcanonvariesbetweenChristiandenominations
ProtestantsacceptonlythebooksfoundinthecanonoftheHebrewBible,dividingtheminto39books,
whileCatholic,EasternOrthodox,andOrientalOrthodoxchurchesacceptsomewhatlargercollectionsof
writings.[2]
TheOldTestamentconsistsofmanydistinctbookswritten,compiled,andeditedbyvariousauthors[3]over
aperiodofcenturies.ItisnotentirelyclearatwhatpointtheparametersoftheHebrewBible,thebasisfor
theChristianOldTestament,werefixed.SomescholarshaveopinedthatthecanonoftheHebrewBible
wasestablishedalreadybyaboutthe3rdcenturyBC.[4][5]Thedevelopmentofthevariousformsofthe
ChristianOldTestament,atanyrate,continuedforcenturies.
ThebooksoftheOldTestamentcanbebroadlydividedintoseveralsections:1)thefirstfivebooksor
Pentateuch(Torah)2)thehistorybookstellingthehistoryoftheIsraelites,fromtheirconquestofCanaan
totheirdefeatandexileinBabylon3)thepoeticand"Wisdom"booksdealing,invariousforms,with
questionsofgoodandevilintheworld4)andthebooksofthebiblicalprophets,warningofthe
consequencesofturningawayfromGod.

Contents
1Content
1.1Table
2Composition
3Themes
4Fromscripturetocanon:formationoftheOldTestament
4.1Greek,LatinandProtestantOldTestaments
4.1.1GreekBible
4.1.2LatinBible
4.2Otherversions
5Literaryevaluations
6ChristiantheologyandtheOldTestament
7Seealso
8Notes
9References
10Bibliography
11Furtherreading
12Externallinks

Content
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TheOldTestamentcontains39(Protestant)or46(Catholic)ormore(Orthodoxandother)books,divided,
verybroadly,intothePentateuch(Torah),thehistoricalbooks,the"wisdom"booksandtheprophets.[6]

Table
ThetableusesthespellingsandnamespresentinmoderneditionsoftheBible,suchastheNewAmerican
BibleRevisedEdition,RevisedStandardVersionandEnglishStandardVersion.Thespellingandnamesin
boththe160910DouayOldTestament(andinthe1582RheimsNewTestament)andthe1749revisionby
BishopChalloner(theeditioncurrentlyinprintusedbymanyCatholics,andthesourceoftraditional
CatholicspellingsinEnglish)andintheSeptuagintdifferfromthosespellingsandnamesusedinmodern
editionswhicharederivedfromtheHebrewMasoretictext.[a]
FortheOrthodoxcanon,Septuaginttitlesareprovidedinparentheseswhenthesedifferfromthoseeditions.
FortheCatholiccanon,theDouaictitlesareprovidedinparentheseswhenthesedifferfromthoseeditions.
Likewise,theKingJamesVersionreferencessomeofthesebooksbythetraditionalspellingwhenreferring
tothemintheNewTestament,suchas"Esaias"(forIsaiah).
InthespiritofecumenismmorerecentCatholictranslations(e.g.theNewAmericanBible,Jerusalem
Bible,andecumenicaltranslationsusedbyCatholics,suchastheRevisedStandardVersionCatholic
Edition)usethesame"standardized"(KingJamesVersion)spellingsandnamesasProtestantBibles(e.g.1
ChroniclesasopposedtotheDouaic1Paralipomenon,12Samueland12Kingsinsteadof14Kings)in
thosebookswhichareuniversallyconsideredcanonical,theprotocanonicals.
TheTalmud(theJewishcommentaryonthescriptures)inBavaBatra14bgivesadifferentorderforthe
booksinNevi'imandKetuvim.ThisorderisalsocitedinMishnehTorahHilchotSeferTorah7:15.The
orderofthebooksoftheTorahareuniversalthroughalldenominationsofJudaismandChristianity.
Thedisputedbooks,includedinonecanonbutnotinothers,areoftencalledtheBiblicalapocrypha,aterm
thatissometimesusedspecificallytodescribethebooksintheCatholicandOrthodoxcanonsthatare
absentfromtheJewishMasoreticTextandmostmodernProtestantBibles.Catholics,followingtheCanon
ofTrent(1546),describethesebooksasdeuterocanonical,whileGreekOrthodoxChristians,followingthe
SynodofJerusalem(1672),usethetraditionalnameofanagignoskomena,meaning"thatwhichistobe
read."TheyarepresentinafewhistoricProtestantversionstheGermanLutherBibleincludedsuchbooks,
asdidtheEnglish1611KingJamesVersion.[b]
Emptytablecellsindicatethatabookisabsentfromthatcanon.
Tanakh
(HebrewBible)
(24books)[c]
Booksinboldarepart
oftheKetuvim

Protestant
Old
Testament
(39books)

Torah

Catholic
OldTestament
(46books)

EasternOrthodox
OldTestament
(51books)

Original
language

PentateuchortheFiveBooksofMoses

Bereishit

Genesis

Genesis

Genesis

Hebrew

Shemot

Exodus

Exodus

Exodus

Hebrew

Vayikra

Leviticus

Leviticus

Leviticus

Hebrew

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Bamidbar

Numbers

Numbers

Numbers

Hebrew

Devarim

Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy

Hebrew

Nevi'im(Prophets)

Historicalbooks

Yehoshua

Joshua

Joshua(Josue)

Joshua(Iesous)

Hebrew

Shofetim

Judges

Judges

Judges

Hebrew

Rut(Ruth)[d]

Ruth

Ruth

Ruth

Hebrew

1Samuel

1Samuel(1Kings)[e]

1Samuel(1
Kingdoms)[f]

Hebrew

2Samuel

2Samuel(2Kings)[e]

2Samuel(2
Kingdoms)[f]

Hebrew

1Kings

1Kings(3Kings)[e]

1Kings(3
Kingdoms)[f]

Hebrew

2Kings

2Kings(4Kings)[e]

2Kings(4
Kingdoms)[f]

Hebrew

1Chronicles

1Chronicles(1
Paralipomenon)

1Chronicles(1
Paralipomenon)

Hebrew

2Chronicles

2Chronicles(2
Paralipomenon)

2Chronicles(2
Paralipomenon)

Hebrew

1Esdras

Hebrew

Shemuel

Melakhim

DivreiHayamim
(Chronicles)[d]

Ezra

Ezra(1Esdras)

Ezra(2Esdras)[f][g]

Hebrewand
Aramaic

Nehemiah

Nehemiah(2Esdras)

Nehemiah(2
Esdras)[f][g]

Hebrew

Tobit(Tobias)

Tobit(Tobias)

Aramaic(and
Hebrew?)

Judith

Judith

Hebrew

Esther[h]

Esther[h]

Hebrew

1Maccabees(1
Machabees)[i]

1Maccabees

Hebrew

2Maccabees(2
Machabees)[i]

2Maccabees

Greek

3Maccabees

Greek

4Maccabees[j]

Greek

EzraNehemiah[d]

Esther[d]

Esther

Ketuvim(Writings)

Wisdombooks

Iyov(Job)[d]

Job

Job

Job

Hebrew

Tehillim(Psalms)[d]

Psalms

Psalms

Psalms[k]

Hebrew

PrayerofManasseh

Greek

Proverbs

Hebrew

Mishlei(Proverbs)[d]
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Proverbs

Proverbs

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Qoheleth
(Ecclesiastes)[d]

Ecclesiastes

Ecclesiastes

Ecclesiastes

Hebrew

ShirHashirim(Songof
Songs)[d]

Songof
Solomon

SongofSongs(Canticle
ofCanticles)

SongofSongs
(AismaAismaton)

Hebrew

Wisdom

Wisdom

Greek

Sirach(Ecclesiasticus)

Sirach

Hebrew

Nevi'im(LatterProphets)

Majorprophets

Yeshayahu

Isaiah

Isaiah(Isaias)

Isaiah

Hebrew

Yirmeyahu

Jeremiah

Jeremiah(Jeremias)

Jeremiah

Hebrewand
Aramaic

Eikhah
(Lamentations)[d]

Lamentations

Lamentations

Lamentations

Hebrew

Baruch[l]

Hebrew[8]

LetterofJeremiah[m]

Greek
(majority
view)[n]

Baruch[l]
Yekhezqel

Ezekiel

Ezekiel(Ezechiel)

Ezekiel

Hebrew

Daniel[d]

Daniel

Daniel[o]

Daniel[o]

Hebrewand
Aramaic

TwelveMinorProphets

TheTwelve
or
TreiAsar

Hosea

Hosea(Osee)

Hosea

Hebrew

Joel

Joel

Joel

Hebrew

Amos

Amos

Amos

Hebrew

Obadiah

Obadiah(Abdias)

Obadiah

Hebrew

Jonah

Jonah(Jonas)

Jonah

Hebrew

Micah

Micah(Micheas)

Micah

Hebrew

Nahum

Nahum

Nahum

Hebrew

Habakkuk

Habakkuk(Habacuc)

Habakkuk

Hebrew

Zephaniah

Zephaniah(Sophonias)

Zephaniah

Hebrew

Haggai

Haggai(Aggeus)

Haggai

Hebrew

Zechariah

Zechariah(Zacharias)

Zechariah

Hebrew

Malachi

Malachi(Malachias)

Malachi

Hebrew

SeveralofthebooksintheEasternOrthodoxcanonarealsofoundintheappendixtotheLatinVulgate,
formerlytheofficialBibleoftheRomanCatholicChurch.

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BooksintheAppendixtotheVulgateBible
NameinVulgate

NameinEasternOrthodoxuse

3Esdras

1Esdras

4Esdras
PrayerofManasseh

PrayerofManasseh

PsalmofDavidwhenheslewGoliath(Psalm151)

Psalm151

Composition
ThefirstfivebooksGenesis,Exodus,Leviticus,bookofNumbersandDeuteronomycomprisethe
Torah,thestoryofIsraelfromtheGenesiscreationnarrativetothedeathofMoses.Fewscholarstoday
doubtthatitreacheditspresentforminthePersianperiod(538332BC),andthatitsauthorsweretheelite
ofexilicreturneeswhocontrolledtheTempleatthattime.[9]
ThebooksofJoshua,Judges,SamuelandKingsfollow,formingahistoryofIsraelfromtheConquestof
CanaantotheSiegeofJerusalemc.587BC.Thereisabroadconsensusamongscholarsthatthese
originatedasasinglework(thesocalled"Deuteronomistichistory")duringtheBabylonianexileofthe6th
centuryBC.[10]ThetwoBooksofChroniclescovermuchthesamematerialasthePentateuchand
Deuteronomistichistoryandprobablydatefromthe4thcenturyBC.[11]
ChronicleslinkswiththebooksofEzraandNehemiah,whichwereprobablyfinishedduringthe3rd
centuryBC.[12]CatholicandOrthodoxOldTestamentscontaintwo(CatholicOldTestament)tofour
(Orthodox)BooksofMaccabees,writteninthe2ndand1stcenturiesBC.
ThehistorybooksmakeuparoundhalfthetotalcontentoftheOldTestament.Oftheremainder,thebooks
ofthevariousprophetsIsaiah,Jeremiah,Ezekiel,Danielandthetwelve"minorprophets"werewritten
betweenthe8thand6thcenturiesBC,withtheexceptionsofJonahandDaniel,whichwerewrittenmuch
later.[13]The"wisdom"andotherbooksJob,Proverbsandsoondatefrombetweenthe5thcenturyBC
andthe2ndor1stBC,withtheexceptionofsomeofthePsalms.[14]

Themes
Godisconsistentlydepictedastheonewhocreatedorputintoorder[15]theworldandguidesitshistory.
Althoughheisnotconsistentlypresentedastheonlygodwhoexists,heisalwaysdepictedastheonlygod
whomIsraelistoworship,andbothJewsandChristianshavealwaysinterpretedthebibleasanaffirmation
oftheonenessofGod.[16]
TheOldTestamentstressesthespecialrelationshipbetweenGodandhischosenpeople,Israel,butincludes
instructionsforproselytesaswell.Thisrelationshipisexpressedinthebiblicalcovenant(contract)between
thetwo,receivedbyMoses.ThelawcodesinbookssuchasExodusandespeciallyDeuteronomyarethe
termsofthecontract:IsraelswearsfaithfulnesstoYahweh,andGodswearstobeIsrael'sspecialprotector
andsupporter.[16]

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FurtherthemesintheOldTestamentincludesalvation,redemption,divinejudgment,obedienceand
disobedience,faithandfaithfulness,amongothers.Throughoutthereisastrongemphasisonethicsand
ritualpurity,bothofwhichGoddemands,althoughsomeoftheprophetsandwisdomwritersseemto
questionthis,arguingthatGoddemandssocialjusticeabovepurity,andperhapsdoesnotevencareabout
purityatall.TheOldTestament'smoralcodeenjoinsfairness,interventiononbehalfofthevulnerable,and
thedutyofthoseinpowertoadministerjusticerighteously.Itforbidsmurder,briberyandcorruption,
deceitfultrading,andmanysexualmisdemeanors.AllmoralityistracedbacktoGod,whoisthesourceof
allgoodness.[17]
TheproblemofevilplaysalargepartintheOldTestament.TheproblemtheOldTestamentauthorsfaced
wasthatagoodGodmusthavehadjustreasonforbringingdisaster(meaningnotably,butnotonly,the
Babylonianexile)uponhispeople.Thethemeisplayedout,withmanyvariations,inbooksasdifferentas
thehistoriesofKingsandChronicles,theprophetslikeEzekielandJeremiah,andinthewisdombookslike
JobandEcclesiastes.[17]

Fromscripturetocanon:formationoftheOldTestament
Greek,Latinand
ProtestantOld
Testaments
Theprocessbywhichscriptures
becamecanonsandBibleswasa
longone,anditscomplexities
accountforthemanydifferent
OldTestamentswhichexist
today.TimothyH.Lim,a
professorofHebrewBibleand
SecondTempleJudaismatthe
UniversityofEdinburgh,
identifiestheOldTestamentas
Theinterrelationshipbetweenvarioussignificantancientmanuscriptsofthe
"acollectionofauthoritative
OldTestament,accordingtotheEncyclopaediaBiblica(1903).Some
textsofapparentlydivineorigin
manuscriptsareidentifiedbytheirsiglum.LXXheredenotestheoriginal
thatwentthroughahuman
Septuagint.
processofwritingand
[3]
editing." Hestatesthatitis
notamagicalbook,norwasitliterallywrittenbyGodandpassedtomankind.Byaboutthe5thcenturyBC
JewssawthefivebooksoftheTorah(theOldTestamentPentateuch)ashavingauthoritativestatusbythe
2ndcenturyBCtheProphetshadasimilarstatus,althoughwithoutquitethesamelevelofrespectasthe
Torahbeyondthat,theJewishscriptureswerefluid,withdifferentgroupsseeingauthorityindifferent
books.[18]
GreekBible

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ThescriptureswerefirsttranslatedintoGreekinAlexandriabetweenabout280130BC.[19]Theseearly
GreektranslationssupposedlycommissionedbyPtolemyPhiladelphuswerecalledtheSeptuagint
(Latin:"Seventy")fromthesupposednumberoftranslatorsinvolved(henceitsabbreviation"LXX").This
SeptuagintremainsthebasisoftheOldTestamentintheEasternOrthodoxChurch.[20]
ItvariesinmanyplacesfromtheMasoreticTextandincludesnumerousbooksnolongerconsidered
canonicalinothertraditions:1stand2ndEsdras,Judith,Tobit,3rdand4thMaccabees,theBookof
Wisdom,Sirach,andBaruch.[21]EarlymodernBiblicalcriticismtypicallyexplainedthesevariationsas
intentionalorignorantcorruptionsbytheAlexandrianscholars,butmostrecentscholarshipholdsitis
simplybasedonearlysourcetextsdifferingfromthoselaterusedbytheMasoretesintheirwork.
TheSeptuagintwasoriginallyusedbyJewssothoroughlyHellenizedthattheirknowledgeofGreekwas
betterthantheirHebrew.TheeverincreasingnumberofgentileconvertstoChristianitycreatedagrowing
needfortranslationsoftheHebrewScripturesintoGreekandLatin.Thethreemostacclaimedearly
interpreterswereAquilaofSinope,SymmachustheEbionite,andTheodotioninhisHexapla,Origen
placedhiseditionoftheHebrewtextbesideitstranscriptioninGreeklettersandfourparalleltranslations:
Aquila's,Symmachus's,theSeptuagint's,andTheodotion's.Thesocalled"fifth"and"sixtheditions"were
twootherGreektranslationssupposedlymiraculouslydiscoveredbystudentsoutsidethetownsofJericho
andNicopolis:thesewereaddedtoOrigen'sOctapla.[22]
In331,ConstantineIcommissionedEusebiustodeliverfiftyBiblesfortheChurchofConstantinople.
Athanasius[23]recordedAlexandrianscribesaround340preparingBiblesforConstans.Littleelseisknown,
thoughthereisplentyofspeculation.Forexample,itisspeculatedthatthismayhaveprovidedmotivation
forcanonlists,andthatCodexVaticanusandCodexSinaiticusareexamplesoftheseBibles.Togetherwith
thePeshittaandCodexAlexandrinus,thesearetheearliestextantChristianBibles.[24]Thereisnoevidence
amongthecanonsoftheFirstCouncilofNicaeaofanydeterminationonthecanon,however,Jerome(347
420),inhisProloguetoJudith,makestheclaimthattheBookofJudithwas"foundbytheNiceneCouncil
tohavebeencountedamongthenumberoftheSacredScriptures".[25]
LatinBible
InWesternChristianityorChristianityintheWesternhalfoftheRomanEmpire,LatinhaddisplacedGreek
asthecommonlanguageoftheearlyChristians,andabout400ADPopeDamasusIcommissionedJerome,
theleadingscholaroftheday,toproduceanupdatedLatinbibletoreplacetheVetusLatina.Sometimein
thecenturiesaftertheSeptuagint(exactlywhenisdisputed)theRabbis(Jewishreligiousscholarsand
teachers)definedtheJewishcanon,whichisamuchshortercanonofonly24books,andJeromeusedit
(commonlycalledtheHebrewBible)insteadoftheGreekOldTestamentasthebasisforhistranslation,
citing"HebraicaVeritas"(Latin:TruthoftheHebrew).HisVulgate(i.e.commonlanguage)OldTestament
becamethestandardbibleusedintheWesternChurch,specificallyastheSixtoClementineVulgate,while
theChurchesintheEastcontinued,andstillcontinue,tousetheSeptuagint.[26]
JeromehadwantedtodropallthebooksthatdidnotappearintheHebrewBible,butStAugustine,a
bishopandanothergreatscholaroftheday,opposedhimandwontheargument,notablyattheCouncilof
Carthageon28August397.Inthe16thcenturytheProtestantreformersreopenedthedebate,andsided
withJerome,butonlyfortheirowncongregations:yetalthoughProtestantBiblesnowhaveonlythose
booksthatappearintheJewishBible,theyhavethemintheorderoftheGreekBible.[27]
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Rome,largelyinreactiontothisattackontradition,officiallyadoptedacanon,theCanonofTrent,which
canbeseenasfollowingAugustine'sCarthaginianCouncilsortheCouncilofRome,[p]andincludesmost,
butnotall,oftheSeptuagint(3Ezraand3and4Maccabeesareexcluded)[28]theAnglicansafterthe
EnglishCivilWaradoptedacompromiseposition,restoringthe39Articlesandkeepingtheextrabooks
thatwereexcludedbytheWestminsterConfessionofFaith,butonlyforprivatestudyandforreadingin
churches,whileLutheranskeptthemforprivatestudy,gatheredinanappendixasBiblicalApocrypha.[27]

Otherversions
WhiletheHebrew,GreekandLatinversionsoftheHebrewBiblearethebestknownOldTestaments,there
wereothers.AtmuchthesametimeastheSeptuagintwasbeingproduced,translationswerebeingmade
intoAramaic,thelanguageofJewslivinginPalestineandtheNearEastandlikelythelanguageofJesus:
thesearecalledtheAramaicTargums,fromawordmeaning"translation",andwereusedtohelpJewish
congregationsunderstandtheirscriptures.[29]
ForAramaicChristianstherewasaSyriactranslationoftheHebrewBiblecalledthePeshitta,aswellas
versionsinCoptic(theeverydaylanguageofEgyptinthefirstChristiancenturies,descendedfromancient
Egyptian),Ethiopic(foruseintheEthiopianchurch,oneoftheoldestChristianchurches),Armenian
(ArmeniawasthefirsttoadoptChristianityasitsofficialreligion),andArabic.[29]

Literaryevaluations
TheOldTestamentisconsideredoneofthemostimportantandinfluentialworksofliteratureinworld
literature,andhasprovidedinspirationforwriters(bothreligiousandsecular)throughoutsubsequent
history.In1886,FriedrichNietzschewrote:"IntheJewishOldTestament,therearemen,thingsand
speechesinsograndastylethatGreekandIndianliteraturehavenothingtocomparetoit.Onestandswith
aweandreverencebeforethesetremendousremnantsofwhatmanoncewas...ThetastefortheOld
Testamentisatouchstoneof"greatness"and"smallness".TohavegluedthisNewTestament,akindof
rococooftasteineveryrespect,totheOldTestamenttoformonebook...thatisperhapsthegreatest
audacityandsinagainstthespiritthatEuropehasonitsconscience.[30]

ChristiantheologyandtheOldTestament
ChristianityisbasedontheclaimthatthehistoricalJesusisalsotheChrist,asintheConfessionofPeter.
ThisclaimisinturnbasedonJewishunderstandingsofthemeaningoftheHebrewtermmessiah,which,
liketheGreek"Christ",means"anointed".IntheHebrewScripturesitdescribesakinganointedwithoilon
hisaccessiontothethrone:hebecomes"TheLORD'sanointed"orYahweh'sAnointed.Bythetimeof
Jesus,someJewsexpectedthatafleshandblooddescendantofDavid(the"SonofDavid")wouldcometo
establisharealJewishkingdominJerusalem,insteadoftheRomanprovince.[31]
OthersstressedtheSonofMan,adistinctlyotherworldlyfigurewhowouldappearasajudgeattheendof
timeandsomeharmonisedthetwobyexpectingathisworldlymessianickingdomwhichwouldlastfora
setperiodandbefollowedbytheotherworldlyageorWorldtoCome.SomethoughttheMessiahwas
alreadypresent,butunrecognisedduetoIsrael'ssinssomethoughtthattheMessiahwouldbeannounced
byaforerunner,probablyElijah(aspromisedbytheprophetMalachi,whosebooknowendstheOld
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TestamentandprecedesMark'saccountofJohntheBaptist).NonepredictedaMessiahwhosuffersand
diesforthesinsofallthepeople.[31]ThestoryofJesus'deaththereforeinvolvedaprofoundshiftin
meaningfromthetraditionoftheOldTestament.[32]
Thename"OldTestament"reflectsChristianity'sunderstandingofitselfasthefulfillmentofJeremiah's
prophesyofaNewCovenant(whichissimilarto"testament"andoftenconflated)toreplacetheexisting
covenantbetweenGodandIsrael(Jeremiah31:31).[1]Theemphasis,however,hasshiftedfromJudaism's
understandingofthecovenantasaneternalcontractbetweenGodandIsraeltoonebetweenGodandthose
whoare"inChrist".[33]

Seealso
AbrogationofOldCovenantlaws
BiblicalnarrativesandtheQuran
BookofJobinByzantineilluminatedmanuscripts
BooksoftheBible
Covenant(biblical)
ExpoundingoftheLaw
HebrewBible:Timeline
LawandGospel
Listofancientlegalcodes
ListofHebrewBiblemanuscripts
NoncanonicalbooksreferencedintheBible
QuotationsfromtheHebrewBibleintheNewTestament
Supersessionism

Notes
a. GenerallyduetoderivationfromtransliterationsofnamesusedintheLatinVulgateinthecaseofCatholicism,
andfromtransliterationsoftheGreekSeptuagintinthecaseoftheOrthodox(asopposedtoderivationof
translations,insteadoftransliterations,ofHebrewtitles)suchEcclesiasticus(DRC)insteadofSirach(LXX)or
BenSira(Hebrew),Paralipomenon(Greek,meaning"thingsomitted")insteadofChronicles,Sophoniasinstead
ofZephaniah,NoeinsteadofNoah,HenochinsteadofEnoch,MessiasinsteadofMessiah,SioninsteadofZion,
etc.
b. ThefoundationalThirtyNineArticlesofAnglicanism,inArticleVI,assertsthesedisputedbooksarenotused
"toestablishanydoctrine,"but"readforexampleoflife."AlthoughtheBiblicalapocryphaarestillusedin
AnglicanLiturgy,[7]themoderntrendistonotevenprinttheOldTestamentapocryphaineditionsofAnglican
usedBibles.
c. The24booksoftheHebrewBiblearethesameasthe39booksoftheProtestantOldTestament,onlydivided
andordereddifferently:thebooksoftheMinorProphetsareinChristianBiblestwelvedifferentbooks,andin
HebrewBibles,onebookcalled"TheTwelve".Likewise,ChristianBiblesdividetheBooksofKingdomsinto
fourbooks,either12Samueland12Kingsor14Kings:JewishBiblesdividetheseintotwobooks.TheJews
likewisekeep12Chronicles/Paralipomenonasonebook.EzraandNehemiaharelikewisecombinedinthe
JewishBible,astheyareinmanyOrthodoxBibles,insteadofdividedintotwobooks,aspertheCatholicand
Protestanttradition.
d. ThisbookispartoftheKetuvim,thethirdsectionoftheJewishcanon.TheyhaveadifferentorderinJewish
canonthaninChristiancanon.
e. ThebooksofSamuelandKingsareoftencalledFirstthroughFourthKingsintheCatholictradition,muchlike
theOrthodox.
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f. NamesinparenthesesaretheSeptuagintnamesandareoftenusedbytheOrthodoxChristians.
g. SomeEasternOrthodoxchurchesfollowtheSeptuagintandtheHebrewbiblesbyconsideringthebooksofEzra
andNehemiahasonebook.
h. TheCatholicandOrthodoxBookofEstherincludes103versesnotintheProtestantBookofEsther.
i. TheLatinVulgate,DouayRheims,andRevisedStandardVersionCatholicEditionplaceFirstandSecond
MaccabeesafterMalachiotherCatholictranslationsplacethemafterEsther.
j. InGreekBibles,4Maccabeesisfoundintheappendix.
k. EasternOrthodoxchurchesincludePsalm151andthePrayerofManasseh,notpresentinallcanons.
l. InCatholicBibles,BaruchincludesasixthchaptercalledtheLetterofJeremiah.BaruchisnotintheProtestant
BibleortheTanakh.
m. EasternOrthodoxBibleshavethebooksofBaruchandtheLetterofJeremiahseparate.
n. Hebrew(minorityview)seeLetterofJeremiahfordetails.
o. InCatholicandOrthodoxBibles,DanielincludesthreesectionsnotincludedinProtestantBibles.ThePrayerof
AzariahandSongoftheThreeHolyChildrenareincludedbetweenDaniel3:2324.SusannaisincludedasDaniel
13.BelandtheDragonisincludedasDaniel14.ThesearenotintheProtestantOldTestament.
p. Augustine's"2ofEsdras"couldbe1EsdrasandEzraNehemiahasintheSeptuagintandOrthodoxcanonor
EzraandNehemiahasintheVulgateandCatholiccanon.

References
1. Jones2001,p.215.
2. Barton2001,p.3.
3. Lim,TimothyH.(2005).TheDeadSeaScrolls:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
p.41.
4. Riches,John(2000).TheBible:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.p.37.ISBN978
0192853431.
5. PhilipR.DaviesinTheCanonDebate,page50:"Withmanyotherscholars,Iconcludethatthefixingofa
canonicallistwasalmostcertainlytheachievementoftheHasmoneandynasty."
6. Boadt1984,pp.11,1516.
7. TheApocrypha,BridgeoftheTestaments(http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf)(PDF),Orthodox
Anglican,"TwoofthehymnsusedintheAmericanPrayerBookofficeofMorningPrayer,theBenedictusesand
Benedicite,aretakenfromtheApocrypha.OneoftheoffertorysentencesinHolyCommunioncomesfroman
apocryphalbook(Tob.4:89).LessonsfromtheApocryphaareregularlyappointedtobereadinthedaily,
Sunday,andspecialservicesofMorningandEveningPrayer.Therearealtogether111suchlessonsinthelatest
revisedAmericanPrayerBookLectionary[Booksusedare:IIEsdras,Tobit,Wisdom,Ecclesiasticus,Baruch,
ThreeHolyChildren,andIMaccabees.]"
8. Britannica,1911
9. Blenkinsopp1998,p.184.
10. Rogerson2003,pp.15354.
11. Coggins2003,p.282.
12. Grabbe2003,pp.21314.
13. Miller1987,pp.1011.
14. Crenshaw2010,p.5.
15. Thereisamajordiscussioninthefieldoftheologyaboutthemeaningoftheword"bara",thesecondwordof
Genesis.Someinterpretitas"created"(outofnothing),butothersargueitwas"remodelled/ordered"(something
existingbefore)
16. Barton2001,p.9.
17. Barton2001,p.10.
18. Brettler2005,p.274.
19. Gentry2008,p.302.
20. Wrthwein1995.
21. Jones2001,p.216.
22. Cave,William.Acompletehistoryofthelives,acts,andmartyrdomsoftheholyapostles,andthetwo
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament
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22. Cave,William.Acompletehistoryofthelives,acts,andmartyrdomsoftheholyapostles,andthetwo
evangelists,St.MarkandLuke(http://books.google.no/books?id=L5UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA406),Vol.II.Wiatt
(Philadelphia),1810.Accessed6Feb2013.
23. Apol.Const.4
24. TheCanonDebate,pp.41415,fortheentireparagraph
25. "BookofJudith".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany.1913.Canonicity:"..."the
SynodofNicaeaissaidtohaveaccounteditasSacredScripture"(Praef.inLib.).Itistruethatnosuch
declarationistobefoundintheCanonsofNicaea,anditisuncertainwhetherSt.Jeromeisreferringtotheuse
madeofthebookinthediscussionsofthecouncil,orwhetherhewasmisledbysomespuriouscanonsattributed
tothatcouncil".
26. Wrthwein1995,pp.9199.
27. Barton1997,pp.8081.
28. Soggin1987,p.19.
29. Wrthwein1995,pp.7990,1004.
30. BeyondGoodandEvil,translatedbyWalterKaufmann,NewYork:RandomHouse,1966reprintedinVintage
Books,andaspartofBasicWritingsofNietzsche,NewYork:ModernLibrary,2000,1886(52)
31. Farmer1991,pp.57071.
32. Juel2000,pp.23639.
33. Herion2000,pp.29192.

Bibliography
Bandstra,BarryL(2004),ReadingtheOldTestament:anintroductiontotheHebrewBible
(http://books.google.com/?
id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&pg=PA489&lpg=PA489&dq=Bandstra,+Barry+L+%282004%29.+Reading+t
he+Old+Testament:+an+introduction+to+the+Hebrew+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false),Wadsworth,
ISBN9780495391050
Barton,John(1997),HowtheBiblecametobe(http://books.google.com/?
id=UfU4_9M4N2YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+came+to+be+Barton#v=onepage&
q&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN9780664257859
(2001),"IntroductiontotheOldTestament",inMuddiman,JohnBarton,John,Bible
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Blenkinsopp,Joseph(1998),"ThePentateuch",inBarton,John,TheCambridgecompanionto
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Boadt,Lawrence(1984),ReadingtheOldTestament:anintroduction(http://books.google.com/?
id=LGQNT6G_do8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction#v=
onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809126316
Brettler,MarcZvi(2005),HowtoreadtheBible(http://books.google.com/?
id=39nQafdJ_ssC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Brettler+how+to+read+the+bible#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e),JewishPublicationSociety,ISBN9780827610019
Bultman,Christoph(2001),"Deuteronomy",inBarton,JohnMuddiman,John,OxfordBible
Commentary(http://books.google.com/?
id=3surkLVdw3UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Oxford+Bible+commentary#v=onepage&q=Deu
teronomy&f=false),OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198755005
Coggins,RichardJ(2003),"1and2Chronicles",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,
CommentaryontheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=2Vo
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11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Chronicles+Richard+J+Coggins#v=onepage&q=Deutero
nomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110
Crenshaw,JamesL(2010),OldTestamentwisdom:anintroduction(http://books.google.com/?
id=tKpWNrkO8dEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+wisdom:+an+introduction++By+Ja
mes+L.+Crenshaw#v=onepage&q&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN978066423459
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Davies,GI(1998),"IntroductiontothePentateuch",inBarton,John,OxfordBibleCommentary
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id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA12&dq=Oxford+Bible+Commentary+Introduction+to+the+Pentateuch#
v=onepage&q=Oxford%20Bible%20Commentary%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Pentateuch&f=
false),OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198755005
Dines,JenniferM(2004),TheSeptuagint(http://books.google.com/?
id=Qv8Riv3QIbQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dines+Septuagint#v=onepage&q&f=false),
Continuum,ISBN9780567084644
Farmer,Ron(1991),"Messiah/Christ",inMills,WatsonEBullard,RogerAubrey,Mercer
dictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.com/?
id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA570#v=onepage&q&f=false),MercerUniversityPress,ISBN9780
865543737
Gentry,PeterR(2008),"OldGreekandLaterRevisors",inSollamo,RaijaVoitila,AnssiJokiranta,
Jutta,Scriptureintransition(http://books.google.com/?
id=NoCJKyxEujEC&pg=PA301&dq=Old+Greek+and+Later+Revisors:+Can+we+always+distinguis
h+them#v=onepage&q=Old%20Greek%20and%20Later%20Revisors%3A%20Can%20we%20alwa
ys%20distinguish%20them%3F&f=false),Brill,ISBN9789004165823
Grabbe,LesterL(2003),"Ezra",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,Commentaryonthe
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11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuter
onomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110
Hasel,GerhardF(1991),OldTestamenttheology:basicissuesinthecurrentdebate
(http://books.google.com/?
id=yJJ6bE0kt1YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+theology#v=onepage&q&f=false),
Eerdmans,ISBN9780802805379
Herion,GaryA(2000),"Covenant",inFreedman,DavidNoel,DictionaryoftheBible
(http://books.google.ca/books?
id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false),Eerdmans,
ISBN9789053565032
Jobes,KarenHSilva,Moises(2005),InvitationtotheSeptuagint,BakerAcademic
Jones,BarryA(2000),"CanonoftheOldTestament",inFreedman,DavidNoel,Dictionaryofthe
Bible(http://books.google.ca/books?
id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false),WilliamB
Eerdmans,ISBN9789053565032
Juel,Donald(2000),"Christ",inFreedman,DavidNoel,DictionaryoftheBible
(http://books.google.com/?
id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible#v=onepage&q&
f=false),WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN9789053565032
Lim,TimothyH.(2005).TheDeadSeaScrolls:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress.
McLay,Tim(2003),TheuseoftheSeptuagintinNewTestamentresearch(http://books.google.com/?
id=41rx
TDIF9gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Use+of+the+Septuagint+in+New+Testament+Research#v
=onepage&q&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802860910
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Miller,JohnW(2004),HowtheBiblecametobe(http://books.google.com/?id=a4VnOt
jstoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809141838
Miller,JohnW(1987),Meettheprophets:abeginner'sguidetothebooksofthebiblicalprophets
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gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Meet+the+prophets:+a+beginner%27s+guide+to+the+books+of+the+b
iblical+prophets#v=onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809128990
Rogerson,JohnW(2003),"Deuteronomy",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,
CommentaryontheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=2Vo
11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuter
onomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110
Schniedewind,WilliamM(2004),HowtheBibleBecameaBook(http://books.google.com/?
id=tCTVc8_2vVQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+Became+a+Book#v=onepage&q&f
=false),Cambridge,ISBN9780521536226
Soggin,J.Alberto(1987),IntroductiontotheOldTestament(http://books.google.com/?
id=mqSNsKXnHQgC&pg=PA40&dq=Soggin+Hebrew+bible#v=onepage&q=Soggin%20Hebrew%
20bible&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN9780664221560
Wrthwein,Ernst(1995),ThetextoftheOldTestament:anintroductiontotheBibliaHebraica
(http://books.google.com/?
id=FSNKSBObCYwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=W%C3%BCrthwein+The+Text+of+the+Old+Testa
ment#v=onepage&q&f=false),WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN9780802807885

Furtherreading
Anderson,Bernhard.UnderstandingtheOldTestament.ISBN0139483993
Bahnsen,Greg,etal.,FiveViewsonLawandGospel(GrandRapids:Zondervan,1993).
Berkowitz,ArielBerkowitz,D'vorah(2004),TorahRediscovered(4thed.),Shoreshim,ISBN0
975291408.
Dever,WilliamG.(2003),WhoWeretheEarlyIsraelites?,GrandRapids,MI:WilliamBEerdmans,
ISBN0802809758.
vonRad,Gerhard(1982/1984),TheologiedesAltenTestaments[TheologyoftheOldTestament](in
German),Band12,Munich:AuflageCheckdatevaluesin:|date=(help).
Hill,AndrewWalton,John(2000),ASurveyoftheOldTestament(2nded.),GrandRapids:
Zondervan,ISBN0310229030.
Kuntz,JohnKenneth(1974),ThePeopleofAncientIsrael:anintroductiontoOldTestament
Literature,History,andThought,Harper&Row,ISBN0060438223.
Lancaster,DThomas(2005),Restoration:ReturningtheTorahofGodtotheDisciplesofJesus,
Littleton\publisher=FirstFruitsofZion.
PapadakiOekland,Stella,ByzantineIlluminatedManuscriptsoftheBookofJob,ISBN9782503
532325.
Rouvire,JeanMarc(2006),BrvesmditationssurlaCrationdumonde[Briefmeditationsonthe
creationoftheWorld](inFrench),Paris:L'Harmattan.
Salibi,Kamal(1985),TheBibleCamefromArabia,London:JonathanCape,ISBN0224028308.
Schmid,Konrad(2012),TheOldTestament:ALiteraryHistory,Minneapolis:Fortress,ISBN9780
800697754.
Silberman,NeilAetal.(2003),TheBibleUnearthed(HARDBACK),NewYork:Simon&Schuster,
ISBN0684869128,ISBN0684869136(paperback).
Sprinkle,JosephJoeM(2006),BiblicalLawandItsRelevance:AChristianUnderstandingand
EthicalApplicationforTodayoftheMosaicRegulations(CLOTHBOUND),Lanham,MD:University
PressofAmerica,ISBN0761833714andISBN0761833722(paperback).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament

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Externallinks
"TheOldTestamentCanon",Scripture&tradition(http://www.churchfathers.org/category/scripture
andtradition/oldtestamentcanon/),ChurchFathers.
Biblegateway(http://www.biblegateway.com/).FulltextsoftheOld(andNew)Testaments
includingthefullRomanandOrthodoxCatholiccanons.
"OldTestament",critures(http://www.lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm),Lafeuille
dOlivier.ProtestantOldTestamentonasinglepage.
"OldTestament",ReadingRoom(http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/readingrooms/oldt),
CA:TyndaleSeminary.ExtensiveonlineOTresources(incl.commentaries).
"OldTestament",Religiousstudies(http://oyc.yale.edu/religiousstudies)(VIDEO)(lectures),Yale
University,20111130.
Bible(http://www.bible.x10host.com/),X10host:OldTestamentstoriesandcommentary.
OldTestamentTimeline(http://www.lds.org/gospellibrary/materials/OT_Timeline_000.pdf)(PDF),
LDS.
TanakhML(http://www.tanakhml.org/)(parallelBible)BibliaHebraicaStuttgartensiaandtheKing
JamesVersion.
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