Innovations in

Dairy
D A I R Y

I N D U S T R Y

April 1998

T E C H N O L O G Y

R E V I E W

Extending Shelf Life in Dairy Foods

Executive Summary
The dairy industrys desire to extend the shelf life of its
inherently perishable product line is driven by the economics
of todays geographically expanding marketplace. Pasteurization,
in conjunction with other preservation methods, including
temperature control and packaging, is the primary means
by which the quality, and subsequently the shelf life, of dairy
foods is ensured. In recent years, various shelf life-extending
technologies have been identified and transferred to the dairy
industry, e.g. aseptic processing and modified-atmosphere
packaging. In addition, some biological manipulations such
as bacteriocin production by lactic acid bacteria are being
incorporated in fermented dairy foods. Other technologies,
both physical and biological, are still in experimental stages
and may have future applications in extending the shelf life
of dairy foods.

rom the moment milk leaves a cows udder until it

is processed, packaged, distributed and eventually
consumed, it can become contaminated with spoilage
microorganisms that reduce its shelf life.
Product shelf life is the controlling factor in the distribution
of dairy foods, which are highly perishable by nature. Shelf life
dictates the total elapsed time allowed from production to
consumption. The shorter the shelf life, the smaller the product
inventories maintained at distribution centers. This translates
to added distribution and inventory costs for dairy processors,
as well as financial losses related to out-of-date product.
Shelf life depends on the care taken and the type of treatment
administered during processing, as well as on the treatment of
the product while in distribution. There are a variety of control
measures and processes to prevent microbial contamination,
some of which are even capable of extending shelf life past
current limits. For example, when carbon dioxide is injected
into the cream in cottage cheese, its shelf life can extend
from about three weeks to eight weeks.

The drive to extend shelf life stems from increased distribution

center demands due to consolidation of manufacturing facilities,
product returns from code expirations, and interest in opening
up new distribution channels and in expanding geographically.
This technical bulletin focuses on technologies to extend the
shelf life of dairy foods, which include common heat processes
such as pasteurization, as well as more recently defined techniques
such as the use of carbon dioxide gas, bacteriocin production,
high-pressure, pulsed electric fields and irradiation. In addition,
there are several nonimmunological proteins in milk that have
antimicrobial properties, i.e. lactoperoxidase, lactoferrin and
xanthine oxidase. Some of these methods are currently employed
in the commercial production of dairy foods while others are
still in the experimental stage, and may someday provide dairy
processors with another option for extending shelf life.

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Basic Practices for Ensuring Shelf Life

Microbial activity is the first and most dangerous limitation
of a foods shelf life. In the dairy industry today, heat processing,
specifically high-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization,
is the most prevalent method of preserving quality and subsequently, the shelf life of highly perishable dairy foods.
HTST pasteurization destroys all the harmful microorganisms
present in milk along with many, but not all of the vegetative
microorganisms. Its primary objective is to kill all pathogenic
microorganisms. Other preservation methods are typically
used in conjunction with HTST pasteurization. These include
refrigeration, chemical additives that result in an undesirable
environment for microbial growth (i.e. sugar in sweetened
condensed milk or salt in sour cream dips), packaging (i.e.
aerosol can for processed cheese spread), and fermentation
with desirable microorganisms (i.e. lactic acid bacteria in
natural cheese).
Proper handling after heating is critical to avoid introducing
microbial hazards. This includes Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMPs), a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
system, hygiene and sanitation. Also, storage temperatures and
times must be established and carefully monitored in order to
ensure shelf life.

UHT Processing/Aseptic Packaging

The most common method of extending the shelf life of
dairy foods in the United States, beyond what can be obtained
by conventional pasteurization, is a commercial sterilization
process referred to as ultra-high temperature (UHT) processing.
The length of time shelf life is extended is determined by
the filling process and type of packaging. For example, when
UHT-processed milk is coupled with aseptic packaging, which
is referred to as aseptic processing, shelf life can be extended
from milks typical refrigerated 19 days to six or more months
without refrigeration. Other UHT filling and packaging methods
result in refrigerated extended shelf lives of up to 90 days.
UHT processing uses very high temperatures to destroy
all viable microorganisms. Aseptic processing includes
environmental modifications that prevent the growth of
surviving, dormant, nonpathogenic microorganisms under
normal, unopened, non-refrigerated storage and distribution.
Environmental modifications include packaging the commercially
sterile dairy food in a hermetically (gas-tight) sealed container
to prevent recontamination. Since low oxygen levels are purposely
achieved in such containers, microorganisms that require
oxygen (obligate aerobes) are unable to grow sufficiently to
pose spoilage or health problems. The low oxygen levels are
necessary for extending shelf life because the spores of most
obligate aerobes are more heat resistant than spores of other
organisms capable of growing under anaerobic conditions
(facultative or obligate anaerobes).

The primary downfall with UHT processing is that milk often

has a cooked taste. Also, many protease and lipase enzymes
survive ultra-high temperatures, thus limiting shelf life.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging and Processing

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), or the flushing
of food packaging with antimicrobial gases just before sealing,
is primarily used to extend the shelf life of solid dairy foods
such as shredded cheese. For semi-liquid or liquid foods like
cottage cheese or milk, a more effective method of using
antimicrobial gases is called modified atmosphere processing.
This refers to the process of adding, for example, carbon
dioxide gas directly into the cream dressing during cottage
cheese manufacture.
Carbon dioxide gas, a natural antimicrobial agent, has
been shown to inhibit the growth of some psychrotrophic
organisms, which contribute to the deterioration of refrigerated
dairy foods. Milk freshly expressed from cows contains a
significant amount of dissolved carbon dioxide, ranging
from 40 to 1,100 ppm. Unfortunately, it quickly dissipates
during modern processing.
Cornell Universitys Dr. Joseph Hotchkiss spearheaded
research on the antimicrobial effect of carbon dioxide in
dairy foods. Hotchkiss has shown that direct addition of
carbon dioxide gas, combined with high-barrier packaging,
can extend the shelf life of fresh dairy foods like cottage
cheese, fluid milk, yogurt, ice cream mix and sour cream.
The actual mechanism by which carbon dioxide operates
is unknown; however, one theory is that it enters microbial
cells, lowering the pH so that microbes can no longer grow.
Carbon dioxide can reduce the level of enzyme activity
in raw, untreated milk. This minimizes the development of
off-flavors during transportation and storage. It has also been
shown to extend the shelf life of HTST pasteurized milk
from 19 to 45 days, depending on packaging material used.
Direct injection of carbon dioxide requires only simple
modifications to the manufacturing process but the injection
point changes with the product. When properly mixed into the
dairy food, there is no altering of taste, appearance or aroma.
Currently, carbon dioxide is used in more than 15 commercial
cottage cheese operations around the country. To apply this
technology to a cottage cheese manufacturing process, 600 to
1,100 ppm of carbon dioxide are directly injected in the cream
line. Carbonated cream enters the cream/curd mixer and the
product is barrier packaged. The increase in shelf life depends on
the amount of carbon dioxide initially dissolved in the product
and the barrier properties of the package system during storage.
Commercially produced cottage cheese packaged in
high-barrier tubs and secured with a foil/polyolefin laminant
seal has a final carbon dioxide content of about 400 ppm.
This is enough carbon dioxide to severely restrict the
growth of typical Gram-negative spoilage microorganisms,

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i.e., Enterobacter and Pseudomonas, as well as yeast and mold.

As a result, refrigerated shelf life is extended to eight weeks
or longer, as compared to the norm of three weeks.
Dairy mixes such as ice cream and frozen yogurt, which
are produced in one plant for further processing in another,
also can benefit from the addition of carbon dioxide. This
is particularly desirable in situations where uncontrollable
temperature fluctuations associated with transportation
and storage result in inferior frozen product. Levels of up
to 1,000 ppm of carbon dioxide can increase the shelf life
of ice cream mix by 75% to 125%. Because the ice cream
mix is further processed at the second plant, there are no
concerns about carbon dioxide affecting mouthfeel.
Adding carbon dioxide to dairy foods in order to extend
shelf life is a rather inexpensive process. The amount of gas
used is minimal, and the equipment used to store and add
the gas is a one-time cost. The largest cost is the barrier
packaging and machinery.
Carbon dioxide gas, which is naturally present in milk, is
generally regarded as safe and does not need to be declared
on the ingredient legend.

Shelf Life Extension of Cottage Cheese with CO2 Injection

Bacteriocins Produced by Lactic Acid Bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria can preserve dairy foods by producing
a number of organic compounds that are antagonistic to other
microorganisms. These compounds, i.e. lactate, acetate,
hydrogen peroxide and proteinaceous bacteriocins, create
an environment within the dairy food that strongly inhibits
the growth of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms.
Bacteriocins have been found among both Gram-positive
and Gram-negative species, and generally exert a bactericidal
effect only toward closely related species of bacteria. However,
some of the bacteriocins produced by Gram-positive bacteria,
which include microorganisms used for dairy fermentations,
exhibit a much broader spectrum of antagonism. These
antimicrobial molecules may act not only against related
species but also against unrelated pathogenic and spoilage

bacteria and even fungi. Every genus of lactic acid bacteria,

as well as some propionibacteria, has demonstrated
bacteriocin production.
The most obvious way to incorporate bacteriocins into a
food formulation is to isolate the natural active antimicrobial,
purify it and use the resulting ingredient as a direct additive.
Even though bacteriocins come from natural sources, they
require FDA approval for use as a food additive. As a result,
to date, there are few FDA-approved bacteriocins, and even
fewer applications.
One bacteriocin approved for use in preventing mold
growth on the surface of cheese is natamycin. Natamycin is
produced by a strain of Streptomyces natalensis, and displays
an antimycotic effect against yeast and molds.
The most common bacteriocin is nisin, a peptide secreted
by some Lactococcus lactis ssp. Lactis strains. Often described
as an antibiotic, nisin is bactericidal toward a wide variety
of Gram-positive bacteria including Clostridium botulinum
and Listeria monocytogenes. Nisin functions by interacting
with the phospholipids in the cytoplasmic membrane of
bacteria, thus disrupting membrane function. With spores,
nisin prevents outgrowth by inhibiting the swelling process
of germination. Nisin is stable to acid and shows greatest
activity as the pH decreases. High pH and high temperature
generally degrade nisin.
FDA has approved the addition of commercially prepared
nisin to pasteurized cheese and processed cheese spreads.
Other potential dairy applications include natural cheese,
cheese powder, milk, yogurt and refrigerated desserts.
Because there are limited bacteriocin preparations
approved for use as additives in dairy foods, researchers
are devising ways to add bacteriocins indirectly. For example,
if a microorganism used in the manufacture of a fermented
dairy food possesses the capability to synthesize a bacteriocin,
the dairy food has its own built-in food preservation system;
one that does not require any FDA approval or label declarations.
This is actually the basis for fermented foods and their
longer shelf lives.
Using bacteria for their antimicrobial metabolites fits
with the general tendency in todays food industry to
decrease the use of chemical additives and return to more
natural ways of processing and preserving foods. Because
of their proteinaceous nature, bacteriocins are degraded
by stomach enzymes when consumed as part of a dairy food.
University of Minnesotas Dr. Sita Tatini has shown
that nisin-producing lactic acid starter cultures provide
additional safety in dairy foods by killing Listeria and other
pathogens. This is true for low pH fermented systems as
well as non-fermented dairy foods with high pH.
When using this technology, it is important to look at the
formula for known inhibitors such as salt level, water activity,
further heat processing and packaging environment.

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Fate of L. Monocytogenes in Camembert Cheese

10
Surface, non-nisin starter
Log CFU/gram

8
Core, non-nisin starter

6
4

Surface, nisin starter

2
Core, nisin starter
0
0
3
Hours

12

15

18

24

1
2
Weeks

High-Pressure Processing
High-pressure processing has been shown to inactivate
vegetative microbes in milk at room temperature, thus
extending shelf life. This happens because high pressure
breaks only hydrogen bonds, not covalent bonds, which
results in protein denaturation and subsequent inactivation of bacteria.
High-pressure processing is usually paired with
some form of heat treatment because the pressure
causes a rise in temperature itself. The use of heat
as the first hurdle to inactivate microbial cells means
that slightly lower pressures and less time is needed
to finish the job.
Oregon State Universitys Dr. Dan Farkas has shown
that acid foods can be made commercially sterile at
pressures around 60,000 psi at room temperature,
suggesting that extended shelf life yogurt, or even
shelf-stable yogurt can be produced. Such yogurts
are currently available in Japan.
Capital costs to include high-pressure processing
in a dairy manufacturing plant can be expensive. The
limiting factor is the cycling time. Farkas estimates added
costs of 20 to 30 cents per pound. Also, foods preserved
by pressure require packaging to be compressible by
10 - 15 percent due to the compressibility of water at
these pressures. Headspace must be at a minimum.
More research is required on high-pressure
processing before it is approved by FDA for use
in the United States.

Pulsed Electric Fields

Pulsed electric field (PEF) technology is a nonthermal
alternative to conventional thermal pasteurization. It
involves the application of a short burst of high voltage

6
Source: S.R. Tatini

through fluid foods placed or flowing between two

electrodes. The process inactivates microorganisms
by rupturing the cell membrane. The treatment is
conducted at ambient or refrigerated temperatures
for microseconds, minimizing heat generation due
to energy transfer.
Swanson (1997) has shown that nonthermal PEF
processed foods retain fresh-like physical, chemical
and nutritional characteristics while exhibiting an
extended shelf life. PEF has been shown to be effective
in the pasteurization of skim milk; however, additional
research is necessary before the technology has any
commercial application.

Irradiation
Though not approved for use in dairy manufacturing,
irradiation can effectively eliminate pathogens and
reduce spoilage microorganisms while maintaining
the wholesomeness and fresh quality of dairy foods.
There are no major chemical, physical or sensory
changes in foods that have been irradiated.
Irradiation is the exposure of food to a source
of ionizing (creating positive and negative charges)
radiation energy. It disrupts the genetic material of
living cells, destroying food-borne pathogens such as
Salmonella, as well as reducing the number of spoilage
microorganisms.

Milks Inherent Antimicrobial System

Some of the nonimmunological proteins in milk
that have antimicrobial properties are lactoperoxidase,
lactoferrin and xanthine oxidase. These proteins are
involved in complex systems that cause microorganisms
to become inactivated.

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Structure of the Cell Wall of

Gram-positive and Gram-negative Bacteria

Lactoperoxidase, which is naturally present in cows

milk, forms an antimicrobial system with hydrogen
peroxide and thiocyanate. There is little hydrogen
peroxide in milk, but it can be produced by lactic
acid bacteria in milk or in the presence of free oxygen.
Thiocyanate is present in milk in varying concentrations
related primarily to the diet of the cow; however, it
usually needs to be added in order to activate the
lactoperoxidase system.
The mode of bacterial action of the lactoperoxidase
system involves a catastrophic change in the cytoplasmic
membrane of spoilage microorganisms. Gram-negative
bacteria such as Escherichia coli are more readily killed
and lysed by the lactoperoxidase system than Grampositive bacteria, which is probably due to cell wall
composition and thickness.
Use of the lactoperoxidase system to destroy pathogens
in milk and subsequently extend its shelf life, as well as
the dairy foods made from it, has been researched in
recent years.
Reiter (1981) showed that Pseudomonas fluorescens
growth can be slowed by about 200 hours at 39F (4C)
and 20 hours at 86F (30C) by the activation of the
lactoperoxidase system in refrigerated raw milk.
A study on pasteurized milk by Martinez et al. (1988)
showed that when the lactoperoxidase system was activated
every 48 hours in both raw and pasteurized milk by
maintaining concentrations of thiocyanate and hydrogen
peroxide, shelf lives were extended at 4, 8 and 16 C
by three to six days. Generally, standard pasteurization
temperatures (161F, 72C) do not inactivate the
lactoperoxidase system; however, temperatures >176F
(80C) destroy activity. These studies and others confirm
that activation of the lactoperoxidase system can extend
the refrigerated keeping quality of milk.
Most of the U.S. food-borne disease outbreaks related
to cheese products have been with high-moisture cheeses.
Bangalore and Henning (1997) have researched the use
of the lactoperoxidase natural antimicrobial system
in overcoming post-pasteurization contamination by
Gram-negative food-borne pathogens.

Research showed significant destruction of E. coli in

raw milk when the lactoperoxidase system was activated.
However, once the milk was pasteurized and made into
high-moisture cheese (Queso Fresco), the lactoperoxidase
enzyme was inactivated, enabling the surviving E. coli
to grow. As a result, Henning doesnt believe that the
lactoperoxidase system could be relied upon to insure
food safety in such cheeses.
The lactoperoxidase system is not approved for
use in the United States primarily because its activation
requires the addition of a thiocyanide compound,
a compound recognized as unsafe for infants and
children. However, according to Henning, the level
of thiocyanide required would be much less than that
which we naturally get from many dietary sources.
The lactoperoxidase system has been recommended
for use in under-developed countries that do not have
sufficient refrigeration to protect raw milk during
transportation from farm to processing plant.
Lactoferrin, an iron-binding protein in milk, inhibits
the growth of bacteria with high iron requirements such
as coliforms, but has no effect on bacteria requiring
low amounts of irons.
Xanthine oxidase is an enzyme associated with
the fat globule membrane in cows milk. It produces
hydrogen peroxide, which is bactericidal by itself or
can be used to activate the lactoperoxidase system.

Conclusion
Research in the area of extending shelf life of
dairy foods is very aggressive. Many dairies are
converting to UHT pasteurization systems in order
to extend fluid milk shelf life from 19 days to 90
days under refrigeration. When UHT pasteurization
is coupled with aseptic packaging, processors are
able to extend shelf life to six months or more
without refrigeration.
Technologies such as the use of carbon dioxide
gas are being included in various dairy processes
with particular success in commercial cottage cheese.
Research indicates that other dairy products are capable
of experiencing the same shelf life extension when
carbon dioxide is added.
Nisin-producing starter cultures have been shown
to control the growth of pathogenic microorganisms
in cheese. This technology has potential for use in
raw milk cheesemaking as well as in preventing postpasteurization contamination.
Other technologies discussed in this bulletin,
which are still in experimental stages, may have future
application in extending the shelf life of dairy foods.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Broadbent, J.T. and Kondo, J.K. Biotechnology of Dairy Starter Cultures, Dairy Science and
Technology Handbook. Hui, Y.H. Vol. 3. New York, NY: VCH Publishers Inc.; 1993.
Farkas, D.F. Preservation of foods by ultra-high hydrostatic pressure. Journal of Dairy Science.
1996;79 (Supplement 1):102.
Hotchkiss, J.H., and Chen, J.H. Microbiological effects of the direct addition of CO2 to
pasteurized milk. Journal of Dairy Science. 1996;79 (Supplement 1):87.
Karel, M., Fennema, O.R. and Lund, D.B. Principles of Food Science, Part II, Physical Principles of
Food Preservation. Fennema, O.R. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc.; 1975.
Martinez, C.E., Mendoza, P.G., Alacron, F.J. and Garcia, H.S. Reactivation of the lactoperoxidase
system during raw milk storage and its effect on the characteristics of pasteurized milk. Journal
of Food Protection. 1988;51:558-561.
Reiter, B. The impact of the lactoperoxidase system on the psychrotrophic microflora in milk.
Psychrotrophic Microorganisms in Spoilage and Pathogenicity, Roberts, T.A., et al. New York, NY:
Academic Press; 1981.
Stauffer, J.E. Quality Assurance and Dairy Processing. Dairy Science and Technology Handbook.
Hui, Y.H. Vol. 3. New York, NY: VCH Publishers Inc; 1993.
Swanson, B.G. and Barbosa-Canovas, G.V. Pulsed electric field inactivation of
food-borne pathogens. IFT Annual Meeting: Book of Abstracts. Chicago, IL: Institute
of Food Technologists; 1997.
Tatini, S.R., Maisnier-Patin, S., Deschamps, N. and Richard, J. Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes
in Camembert cheese made with a nisin-producing starter. Lait. 1992;72:249-263.
Vasavada, P.C. Dairy Microbiology and Safety. Dairy Science and Technology Handbook. Hui, Y.H. Vol.
2. New York, NY: VCH Publishers Inc.; 1993.
Weber, G.H. and Broich, W.A. Shelf-life extension of cultured dairy foods. Cultured Dairy Products
Journal. 1986;21:19-21, 23.

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and ask to speak with the technical support department.

AMERICAN DAIRY ASSOCIATION NATIONAL DAIRY COUNCIL U.S. DAIRY EXPORT COUNCIL

1998 Dairy Management Inc.

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