Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2014
A INFLUNCIA DO TREINO TCNICO SOBRE O P NO-PREFERIDO NA
REDUO DA ASSIMETRIA FUNCIONAL DOS MEMBROS INFERIORES
EM JOVENS JOGADORES DE FUTEBOL
Orientador:
Jlio Manuel Garganta da Silva, PhD
Co-orientador:
Amndio Braga dos Santos Graa, PhD
Porto, 2014
IV
Agradecimentos
permita
continuar
conversar
para
poder
disfrutar
dos
seus
A todos os jogadores que participaram neste trabalho, cerca de 225. Sem eles
teria sido impossvel a sua concretizao.
Aos treinadores e coordenadores que permitiram que o trabalho pudesse ser
realizado nos seus clubes e equipas: Joaquim Pedro, Lus Castro, Manuel
Silva, Marisa Gomes, Mauro Silva, Nuno Real, Pedro Ferreira, Pepjin Lijnders,
Rita Santoalha, Rui Pacheco, Rui Pedro, Srgio Ferreira e outros que de forma
annima tambm tiveram uma contributo relevante.
Aos meus alunos Abel, Fbio e Marco pela preciosa ajuda em algumas tarefas.
De uma forma indireta, tambm pretendo agradecer a todos os jogadores que
tive a oportunidade de treinar, desde a formao at aos da Seleo Nacional.
Foi pelas vivncias que usufrui com eles que as ideias para este trabalho
tiveram sentido.
Em penltimo lugar quero agradecer pessoa que mais me marcou
profissionalmente, quer como professor quer como treinador. Ao Prof. Vitor
Frade, agradeo por ser a minha referncia e inspirao. Se todos ns temos
algum que nos marca profissionalmente sem dvida que, para mim, o Prof.
foi essa pessoa.
Por ltimo, mas no topo da hierarquia, agradeo minha famlia.
Ao Guilherme e Beatriz peo que me perdoem o tempo que lhes roubei.
Quando devia de estar a conversar com eles, no estava. Quando devia estar
a abra-los, no estava. Quando devia de estar a ajud-los, no estava.
Quando devia de os abraar e beijar, no estava. No entanto, quando
precisava deles eles diziam sim pai. Quando precisava de uma palavra eles
faziam-se ouvir. Quando precisava de um abrao, eles davam muitos.
Quando precisava de um beijo, eles no me largavam. Quando comeava a
ficar sem foras, eles gritavam fora pai. Sou um afortunado, mas sinto
remorsos por tudo isso!
VI
VII
ndice
Agradecimentos
ndice
ndice de Quadros
ndice de Tabelas
ndice de Figuras
Resumo
Abstract
Captulo I
Introduo
V
IX
XI
XII
XIII
XV
XVII
1
3
Captulo II
Estudo 1
Reflexo a propsito da relevncia da reduo de assimetrias funcionais
dos membros inferiores em jogadores de Futebol
11
13
Captulo III
Estudo 2
Validao de um sistema de avaliao da assimetria funcional dos
membros inferiores em Futebol (SAFALL-FOOT)
41
43
Captulo IV
Estudo 3
Influence of non-preferred foot technical training in reducing lower limbs
functional asymmetry among youth football players
73
75
Estudo 4
Effects of technical training in functional asymmetry of lower limbs in
young soccer players
95
Captulo V
Discusso Global
117
119
Captulo VI
Concluses
Sugestes para futuros estudos
137
139
140
IX
141
Captulo VII
Referncias Bibliogrficas
147
149
ndice de Quadros
Captulo I
Introduo
Quadro 1: Estrutura e contedo da Dissertao
Captulo III
Estudo 2
Quadro 1: Categorias e subcategorias do SAFALL-FOOT
51
53
57
XI
ndice de Tabelas
Captulo III
Estudo 2
Tabela 1: Coeficiente de correlao intraclasse (CCI) e respetivo
intervalo de confiana (95%)
62
63
Captulo IV
Estudo 3
Table 1: Characteristics of the sample concerning the number of players
in each team and the respective average and standard deviation of age
and years of competitive practice.
79
81
0
84
Estudo 4
Table 1: Presentation and score of the categories e subcategories
SAFALL-FOOT
101
0
105
XII
ndice de Figuras
Captulo III
Estudo 2
Figura 1: Estrutura do jogo 5x5 (Gr+4)x(4+Gr) sob a forma de losango
50
Captulo IV
Estudo 3
Figure 1: Initial and final distribution of the subjects of the different groups
and teams involved in the study and the respective exclusions.
80
0
Figure 2: Mean values and respective 95% confidence intervals for the
use of the preferred foot in the different groups throughout the study.
85
0
Figure 3: Mean values and respective 95% confidence intervals for the
use of the non-preferred foot in the different groups throughout the
study.
86
Estudo 4
Figure 1: Mean values and respective 95% confidence intervals for the
use of the preferred foot in the different groups throughout the study.
105
0
Figure 2: Mean values and respective 95% confidence intervals for the
use of the non-preferred foot in the different groups throughout the study.
106
XIII
XIV
Resumo
A presente dissertao centra-se na pertinncia do treino tcnico para a reduo das
assimetrias funcionais podais no jogador de Futebol. Inicialmente, pretendeu-se
perceber quais as caractersticas que o contexto de prtica deve evidenciar para que
seja incrementado o nvel de proficincia do p no-preferido em cenrios de jogo.
Para o efeito, foram convocadas quatro temticas: assimetrias e preferncias
funcionais podais; conceitos e caractersticas de tcnica e de habilidade motora;
modelos de aquisio de habilidades motoras; e caractersticas dos contextos de
prtica para a aprendizagem e desenvolvimento das habilidades motoras.
No sentido de poder analisar a assimetria funcional dos jogadores de Futebol em
competio, foi desenvolvido e validado um instrumento denominado de Sistema de
avaliao da assimetria funcional dos membros inferiores em Futebol SAFALLFOOT. Este instrumento permite avaliar os nveis de utilizao dos membros
inferiores em situao de jogo, possibilitando analisar o impacto que protocolos de
treino tcnico sobre a utilizao do p no-preferido tm no futebolista, em situao
de jogo. Posteriormente, foi realizado um estudo exploratrio com o propsito de
constatar se um programa de treino tcnico especfico para o p no-preferido tem
implicaes no aumento do seu ndice de utilizao durante o jogo. Os resultados
encontrados permitiram constatar que o treino tcnico sobre o p no-preferido tem
implicaes significativas no aumento do respetivo ndice de utilizao (%= +117.4%,
p<0.001). Estes dados levantaram uma nova questo que motivou o segundo estudo
exploratrio. Aps a reduo da assimetria funcional motivada pelo treino tcnico, ser
que os nveis de utilizao sofrero novas alteraes devido a uma
eventual
XV
Abstract
This dissertation discusses the relevance of technical training in the reduction of foot
functional asymmetries in football players. Initially, we sought to understand what
characteristics the practice context must afford so that the level of usage of the "nonpreferred foot" during the game increases. Therefore, four themes were studied:
functional asymmetries and foot preferences; concepts and characteristics of technique
and motor skills; models of motor skill acquisition; and characteristics of the practice
contexts for learning and development of motor skills. In order to analyse the functional
asymmetry of players in Football competition, an instrument called "system of
assessment of the functional asymmetry of the lower limbs in Football" was developed
and validated. This instrument allows the assessment of the levels of use of the lower
limbs in a game situation, enabling the analysis of the impact of technical training
protocols on the utilization rate of "non-preferred foot during the match. Subsequently,
an experimental study was conducted in order to ascertain whether a specific technical
training programme for the "non-preferred foot" has implications in the increase of the
its utilization rate during the game. The results revealed that the technical training on
the "non preferred foot" has significant implications in increasing its utilization rate
(%= +117.4%, p<0.001). These data raised a new issue, which the second
experimental study tried to answer. After the reduction of functional asymmetry,
motivated by technical training, will utilization rates of the non-preferred foot suffer new
changes due to an eventual interruption of intervention? The results from the second
study allow to ascertain that when there is interruption of the technical training for the
"non preferred foot," an evident reversibility of usage levels is obvious, with significant
values (%= -15.23, p< 0.001), increasing the levels of foot functional asymmetry.
Thus, it can be stated that systematic technical training on the "non-preferred foot"
increases its utilization rate during the game and that its disruption leads to reversibility
of the gains.
Keywords: FOOTBALL, FUNCTIONAL ASYMMETRY, NON-PREFERRED FOOT,
PREFERRED FOOT, MOTOR SKILLS, TECHNIQUE.
XVII
Captulo I
Introduo
Introduo
habilidades
especficas
so
requisitadas
em
situao
sentido,
no
presente
trabalho
pertende-se
perceber
as
ltimo,
no
VII
Captulo,
apresentam-se
as
Referncias
Bibliogrficas.
Captulo I
Captulo II
Captulo III
Captulo IV
Captulo V
Captulo VI
CaptuloVII
Captulo II
Estudo 1
Estudo 1
13
Abstract
The functional asymmetry of the lower limbs has been considered a significant issue in
the quality of performance of soccer players. The present reflection is based on the
arguments presented by four topics which the specific literature has taken into account,
i.e. (1) the relevance of asymmetry and lateral foot preference for the soccer player; (2)
the concepts of technique and motor skills as well as its main characteristics; (3)
models for the acquisition of motor skills and their peculiarities; and finally, (4) the
favourable and unfavourable characteristics which the contexts of learning and
development of specific motor skills of the soccer game displays. From the data
withdrawn from the literature, as well as the reflection made on the four previously
mentioned topics, the following notions are highlighted: (i) the specific motor skills are
the means which soccer players use during the game to answer the opportunities
which emerge within the action context and to transform it; (ii) it is advisable that the
contexts of practice learning and development of different motor skills induce the
expression of specific actions to be used during the game; iii) it is recommendable that
the level of complexity of the contexts is adapted to the proficiency levels of players;
(iv) the levels of functional asymmetry are dynamic, i.e., they increase or decrease
depending on the quality and quantity of practice that each limb is exposed to; finally,
(v) continuous training of the non-preferred foot seems to be a nuclear requirement for
the decrease of functional asymmetry, which induces the suitable perceptive, decisionmaking and action skills demanded in game situation.
14
Introduo
A proficincia do desempenho que os jogadores evidenciam ao longo de
um jogo de Futebol decorre da interao de processos e competncias
cognitivas, percetivas, decisionais e motoras
. A manifestao desses
com
as
opes
tticas.
Nesse
sentido,
so
um
dos
. Este
de
acoplamento
da
perceo-ao
esto
desse
modo
salvaguardados (40).
Porm, como referem Ericsson e colaboradores
(20)
, a percia dos
15
16
(41)
(60)
. Tais
(60, 63)
. Os fatores genticos
(59)
17
(60,
dinmico.
A multidimensionalidade est relacionada com a direo e a fora da
preferncia lateral das diferentes dimenses da lateralidade (podal, manual,
ocular e auricular), e com a consistncia da utilizao de um dos membros num
determinado mbito. O perfil dinmico caracteriza-se pelas possveis
alteraes de magnitude da lateralidade que as diferentes dimenses podem
manifestar face presso de fatores ambientais (59).
Outra particularidade relevante das assimetrias o facto de estas
poderem dever-se a questes relacionadas com a preferncia ou com a
proficincia. As primeiras esto relacionadas com a eleio do membro
preferido para executar uma tarefa unilateral ou, na eventualidade da tarefa ser
bilateral, com a escolha do membro que assume a principal funo. As
segundas reportam-se preferncia pelo membro mais hbil para a execuo
das tarefas (33, 59, 60).
Ento, para determinar os membros de preferncia e de proficincia
fundamental distinguir os critrios que presidem tarefa a observar. De facto,
um membro pode ser preferido para uma tarefa, por exemplo para a
manipulao da bola, enquanto o seu colateral passa a ser no-preferido. No
entanto, se este ltimo for o preferido para a estabilizao do corpo o primeiro,
para esta tarefa, passar a ser o no-preferido (33, 59, 60).
No que diz respeito ao Futebol, existem diversos estudos que se
debruam sobre a pertinncia da utilizao de ambos os membros inferiores,
preferido e no-preferido, na proficincia dos desempenhos dos jogadores em
competio
(14, 36)
, foi
(14)
18
assimetrias
reduzidas
dos
membros
inferiores
esto
associadas
(31)
19
(1)
(56)
para dar corpo a duas ideias distintas, embora complementares. Por um lado, a
mesma conotada com o ato ou a tarefa cuja consumao proficiente requer
um processo de aprendizagem. Por outro lado, reconhecida como um
indicador da qualidade de desempenho, isto , assume-se como o nvel de
proficincia na execuo da tarefa, o que implica que, quanto maior for a
habilidade, melhor a qualidade de proficincia na execuo da tarefa
realizada (56).
Desta forma, a habilidade motora envolve aes complexas e
intencionais que mobiliza a interao dos mecanismos sensorial, central e
20
e eficiente
.
Desta
definio
de
habilidade
motora
sobressaem
algumas
caracterstica
apela
aos
processos
cognitivos,
percetivos,
(24)
(16)
21
particularidade
importante
das
habilidades
motoras
. Esta conjuntura
(34)
22
pelos indivduos.
Recorrentemente, considera-se a existncia de trs fases na aquisio
de habilidades. Apesar de diferentes autores lhe atriburem distintas
designaes,
significativas
o
(39)
contedo
da
informao
no
(21)
apresenta
divergncias
23
24
(9)
(28)
pertinentes
percetivamente
acessveis
ao
indivduo
para
(17)
. No obstante,
25
(10)
26
conveniente
que
os
contextos
de
aprendizagem
ou
de
(11)
27
(16)
(20)
em
considerao
contextualizao
das
habilidades,
28
(20)
ter em conta.
O conceito de progresso reporta-se ideia de que se torna conveniente
um aumento gradual de complexidade dos diferentes parmetros da habilidade,
tanto na articulao vertical como horizontal dos contedos. Conforme foi
mencionado, uma habilidade aberta caracteriza-se pela flexibilidade do padro
de movimento ou pela utilizao de diferentes padres. Dessa forma, coloca-se
a necessidade de desenvolver a habilidade em duas facetas distintas: no
aumento gradual da complexidade, cumprindo os ciclos de estabilidade
instabilidade estabilidade instabilidade necessrios para a evoluo,
denominando-se de progresso vertical; e, dentro do mesmo nvel de
complexidade, permitir que os diferentes padres de movimento dessa
habilidade possam ser explorados e exercitados para que a respetiva
consistncia e flexibilidade sejam adquiridas. Este processo designado de
progresso horizontal (47).
O conceito de refinamento est relacionado com o afinar de
determinadas particularidades da habilidade, de modo a que elas possam
atingir nveis satisfatrios de preciso, consistncia e flexibilidade para os
diferentes nveis de complexidade em que se expressam. Tal conceito tanto
pode ser aplicado em nveis de complexidade baixos como em nveis de
complexidade elevados, tornando-se fundamental para o desenvolvimento da
habilidade e para se poder alcanar patamares de proficincia elevados (47).
O conceito de aplicao refere-se utilizao das habilidades em
contextos de competio, podendo ser direcionadas ou formais
(47)
contextos
originando
caracterizam-se
por
uma
grande
instabilidade,
. Estes
(47)
29
(12)
. O conceito de
reproduzido
de
forma
representar
(12)
ambiente
comportamental,
. No caso do Futebol, os
ser
considerado
representativo
se
as
condies
de
prtica
30
31
progresso,
refinamento
aplicao,
conjuntamente
com
de
Consideraes finais
A assimetria funcional uma caracterstica do ser humano que se
manifesta pela preferncia de utilizao e pela maior qualidade de desempenho
de uma das partes simtricas do corpo sobre a outra. Todavia, essa
caracterstica evidencia um comportamento dinmico. Ou seja, os nveis de
assimetria no so invariveis, podendo evoluir ou involuir consoante a
quantidade e a qualidade de exercitao a que cada membro, preferido ou nopreferido, exposto ao longo do tempo.
Como atrs foi sustentado, a proficincia com que um jogador de
Futebol utiliza ambos membros inferiores, preferido e no-preferido, tem
32
33
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4. Andrade J. (2012). Efeito do treino com o membro no preferido no
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Universidade do Porto.
5. Barfield WR (1995). Effects of selected kinematic and kinetic variables on
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7. Beek PJ, Jacobs DM, Daffertshofer A, Huys R (2003). Expert performance in
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theory. In: Starkes J. L., Ericsson K. A. (ed.). Expert Performance in Sports:
advances in research on sport expertise. Stanningley: Human Kinetics, p. 321344.
8. Benda RN, Tani G (2005). Variabilidade e processo adaptativo na aquisuo
de habilidades motoras. In: Tani G. editor. Comportamento Motor
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39
40
Captulo III
Estudo 2
Guilherme, J., Graa, A., Seabra, A., & Garganta, J. (2012). Validao de um
sistema de avaliao da assimetria funcional dos membros inferiores em
Futebol. Revista Portuguesa de Cincias do Desporto, 12(3), 77-97.
Estudo 2
Resumo
O presente estudo teve como propsito central a criao e validao de um sistema de
avaliao da assimetria funcional dos membros inferiores em situao de jogo de
Futebol (SAFALL-FOOT). A avaliao dura vinte minutos e realizada com base na
observao e registo dos comportamentos dos jogadores em situao de jogo de 5x5.
Os resultados obtidos permitem classificar as aes tcnicas realizadas por cada
jogador, de acordo com 6 categorias e 32 subcategorias que constituem o SAFALLFOOT, resultando no clculo de um ndice de utilizao do p preferido e do p no
preferido. A validade de contedo das categorias de observao foi estabelecida por
um painel de peritos, o qual incluiu treinadores com elevada experincia, ex-jogadores
profissionais e especialistas universitrios das reas do Futebol e da Aprendizagem
Motora. A validade facial foi outorgada pela avaliao de jogadores e treinadores das
equipas submetidas ao teste. A validade ecolgica resultou do reconhecimento da
congruncia entre a situao do jogo de Futebol e as tarefas do teste. A fiabilidade do
instrumento foi garantida atravs do mtodo de teste-reteste, envolvendo 80 jogadores
divididos por equipas dos sub-11 aos sub-19 (coeficientes de correlao intraclasse:
0.97 para o p preferido e 0.95 para o p no preferido). A fiabilidade intra-observador
registou elevados valores do coeficiente Kappa (>0.80) para todas as categorias do
instrumento. Em sntese, o quadro de resultados encontrado sugere que o SAFALLFOOT constitui um sistema vlido, fivel e apropriado para aferir a assimetria funcional
dos membros inferiores em situao de jogo de Futebol.
Palavras chave: futebol, tcnica, validao, assimetria funcional, p preferido e pno preferido, instrumento de medida.
43
Abstract
The main purpose of this study was the creation and validation of a system of
assessment of the functional asymmetry of the lower limbs in Football game situation
(SAFALL-FOOT). The evaluation develops throughout a 5x5 game situation, twenty
minutes long, allowing the coding of the technical actions performed by each player
into the 6 categories and 32 subcategories that compose the SAFALL-FOOT, and the
calculation of an index of utilization of the preferred and non-preferred feet. The content
validity of the observation categories was established by a panel of experts composed
of highly experienced coaches, former professional players, and university experts in
the areas of Football and Motor Learning. The face validity was established by the
evaluation of the players and coaches of the teams submitted to the test. The
ecological validity resulted from the recognition of the congruence between Football
game situation and the tasks of the test. The reliability of the instrument was ensured
by the test-retest method, involving 80 players divided into teams of under-11 to under19 (intraclass correlation coefficient: 0.97 for the preferred foot and 0.95 for the nonpreferred foot). The intra-observer reliability attained high values of Kappa coefficient
(>0.80) in all the categories of the instrument. In summary, the results suggest that
SAFALL-FOOT is a valid, reliable and appropriate system to assess the functional
asymmetry of the lower limbs in Football game situation.
Key words: football, technique, validation, functional asymmetry, preferred foot, nonpreferred foot; measurement system.
44
1. Introduo
O Futebol uma modalidade em que o contexto de prtica se
estabelece num ambiente em permanente mudana, exigindo dos seus
jogadores elevados nveis de adaptao que decorrem da interrelao de trs
tipos de capacidades: a cognitiva, a percetiva e a motora (Bate, 1996). A
capacidade cognitiva est relacionada com a competncia que os jogadores
evidenciam para perceber e compreender o que se passa no jogo (Williams,
2000; Williams et al., 1999). Isto , num contexto em permanente mudana, o
jogador, para tomar decises ajustadas, necessita de ter em conta vrios tipos
de informao, relacionados com a sua posio no campo, com a localizao
da bola, com o posicionamento dos seus colegas e dos adversrios, com as
ideias da equipa e com as suas competncias tcnicas (Williams, 2000).
A capacidade percetiva, segundo Williams (2000), uma das
caractersticas que diferenciam os jogadores que atingem o patamar de
excelncia
dos
restantes.
Esta
capacidade
est
relacionada
com
45
Sheu, & Michel, 2003; Porac & Coren, 1981; Springer & Deutsch, 1998;
Vasconcelos, 2004).
Na literatura relacionada com os fatores de rendimento no Futebol, so
diversos os estudos que salientam a importncia da utilizao de ambos os
membros inferiores, preferido e no-preferido, na proficincia do desempenho
dos jogadores de Futebol em competio (Barfield, 1995; Grouios et al., 2002;
Oliveira et al., 2003; Starosta, 1988, 1990; Starosta et al., 1993). Nesse
sentido, parece ser fundamental e necessria a criao de rotinas e tarefas de
treino capazes de promover a utilizao do membro no-preferido em situao
de jogo. No entanto, a ausncia de instrumentos que permitam avaliar essa
competncia tem dificultado a compreenso da eficcia dessas rotinas de
treino. Esta informao relevante na eventualidade de se pretender analisar a
variao das assimetrias funcionais entre os membros inferiores ao longo do
processo de formao dos jogadores ou incrementar um protocolo de treino de
desenvolvimento do p no-preferido e averiguar os seus efeitos em situao
de jogo.
Embora seja possvel localizar na literatura diversos estudos com
enfoque em sistemas de avaliao das habilidades tcnicas (Ali et al., 2008; Ali
et al., 2007; Haaland & Hoff, 2003; Hoare & Warr, 2000; McGregor et al., 1999;
McMorris et al., 1994; Northcott et al., 1999; Reilly & Holmes, 1983; Rosch et
al., 2000; Rostgaard et al., 2008; Vanderford et al., 2004; Zelenka et al., 1967),
no foi encontrado nenhum que as analisasse em situao de jogo, j que
todos se baseiam em exerccios critrio. Alis, num estudo de reviso
recentemente publicado, acerca de sistemas de avaliao do desempenho em
Futebol,
Ali
(2011)
reporta
diferentes
instrumentos
concebidos
para
46
Examinando
as
diferentes
possibilidades
47
de
delineamento
do
As organizaes, como o caso de uma equipa, evidenciam duas dimenses distintas que,
no entanto, interagem permanentemente: a dimenso estrutural e a dimenso funcional.
Denomina-se de dimenso estrutural a configurao inicial que a equipa apresenta, isto , a
distribuio posicional dos jogadores pelo espao de jogo. Atribui-se a designao de
dimenso funcional s funes que os jogadores desempenham e s interaes que
estabelecem na respetiva dimenso estrutural. Deve-se salientar que, diferentes equipas,
embora assumindo uma mesma organizao estrutural, podem evidenciar organizaes
funcionais diferentes. Contudo, essencialmente
em nveis de jogo no muito evoludos, podem
48
encontrar-se funcionalidades comuns, em consequncia dos posicionamentos e espaos
ocupados serem os mesmos. Por essa razo, s diferentes configuraes de jogo (...3x3; 4x4;
5x5;...) atribumos a denominao de estruturas funcionais.
49
50
Subcategorias
Interceo / Desarme
Receo
Passe
Conduo / Proteo
51
Remate
intervenes
dos
jogadores.
Aps
levantamento
dessas
52
Definies
Interceo / Desarme
Receo
Passe
Conduo/Proteo
Finta/drible
53
Remate
54
55
valorizar
utilizao
das
56
habilidades
na
sua
globalidade,
Subcategorias
Valorao
Intercepo /
Desarme
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
Recepo
Passe
Conduo /
Proteo
10
5
2,5
1,25
5
10
1,25
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
57
10
5
2,5
1,25
5
10
1,25
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
58
P no-preferido:
Pontuao das subcategorias positivas do p no-preferido + pontuao das
subcategorias
negativas
do
no-preferido
das
aes
realizadas
3. Validao do SAFALL-FOOT
3.1 Anlise dos Peritos
O formato e o contedo do SAFALL-FOOT foram analisados por um
painel de oito peritos, elegveis em funo de critrios relacionados com as
experincias acadmica e profissional.
Foram tidos em conta os seguintes critrios de incluso dos peritos quanto
experincia profissional: ter um tempo de atividade superior a dez anos
enquanto treinador, ter treinado escales de formao ou ter sido jogador
profissional de Futebol. No que se refere experincia acadmica, o critrio
utilizado consistiu em ser, ou ter sido, docente universitrio, especialista nas
reas de Futebol ou de Aprendizagem Motora.
59
inferiores,
num
jogo
de
Futebol;
(iii)
decidir
acerca
da
60
61
P preferido
Escales competitivos
Sub-11
Sub-13
Sub-15
Sub-17
Sub-19
Total
CCI
0,96
0,96
0,80
0,98
0,98
0,97
IC 95%
0,88-0,99
0,89-0,99
0,45-0,93
0,95-0,99
0,96-0,99
0,95-0,98
P no-preferido
CCI
0,92
0,95
0,92
0,95
0,98
0,95
IC 95%
0,78-0,97
0,85-0,98
0,76-0,97
0,86-0,98
0,96-0,99
0,95-0,98
62
Kappa (erro-padro)
Interceo / desarme
0,96 (0,07)
1,09 / 0,93
Receo
0,87 (0,04)
0,96 / 0,79
Passe
0,96 (0,04)
1,05 / 0,88
Conduo / Proteo
0,87 (0,06)
0,95 / 0,65
Finta
0,82 (0,08)
0,98 / 0,65
Remate
0,90 (0,08)
1,06 / 0,73
4 Discusso
O presente trabalho teve como propsito central a construo e a
validao de um sistema de avaliao que permita registar e identificar a
diferena de utilizao, isto , a assimetria funcional entre os membros
inferiores de um jogador durante um jogo de Futebol.
A consecuo deste objetivo afigura-se relevante para todos os
treinadores e/ou investigadores que atribuam importncia utilizao de
ambos os ps durante o jogo ou para perceber se determinado tipo de treino
direcionado especificamente para a utilizao de ambos os ps tem
consequncia nas aes realizadas durante o jogo.
Esta questo reporta-nos para a anlise das habilidades tcnicas
especficas do jogo de Futebol, uma vez que atravs destas que o jogador
com bola realiza as suas aes. Contudo, parece ser consensual que a
execuo dessas habilidades tcnicas o resultado de uma tomada de deciso
que se relaciona com a interao de capacidades cognitivas, percetivas e
motoras (Garganta, 2006; Williams, 2000; Williams et al., 1999; Williams &
Hodges, 2005).
63
as
competncias
cognitivas,
perceptivas,
motoras
com
os
64
para decidir e executar (French, Werner, Taylor, Hussey, & Jones, 1996;
Garganta, 2006). Tendo em considerao estes pressupostos, a anlise das
habilidades tcnicas do jogador em contexto de jogo torna-se um imperativo
incontornvel, justificando-se a criao de um instrumento capaz de responder
a essa pretenso.
Quando se joga, a utilizao de um membro inferior em detrimento do
outro est relacionada com processos conscientes e no conscientes que
ocorrem no nosso organismo, resultado das vivncias experienciadas ao longo
da vida (Beilock et al., 2003; Damsio, 2000; Gasaniga, 2000; Godinho,
Mendes, Melo, & Barreiros, 2002; Greenfield, 2000; Haggard, 2000; McCrone,
2002; Tenenbaum, 2003). Desta forma, o jogo parece ser o cenrio mais
fidedigno da representatividade da diferena de utilizao entre os membros
inferiores. Deve referir-se que o SAFALL-FOOT no um sistema destinado a
avaliar a qualidade tcnica dos praticantes, uma vez que, tal como j foi
referido, se sabe que esta depende da interao de vrias competncias e de
mltiplos constrangimentos contextuais (French, Werner, Taylor, et al., 1996;
Garganta, 2006).
Os motivos que contriburam para a seleo da estrutura funcional 5x5
[(Gr+4)x(4+Gr)] em detrimento de outras igualmente constitudas por um
nmero reduzido de jogadores j foram explanados. Porm, o motivo que levou
no utilizao do jogo formal como fonte de acesso informao pretendida
deve-se com dois aspetos relacionados com as limitaes de oportunidade de
resposta. O primeiro, pela quantidade reduzida de aes com bola que, em
alguns jogos, determinados jogadores esto sujeitos; o segundo, pela escassa
frequncia de utilizao de alguns jogadores em jogo.
O levantamento das categorias e das subcategorias est relacionado
com as diferentes habilidades tcnicas especficas do jogo de Futebol. Esta
seleo justifica-se pelo facto de ser a partir delas que o jogador com bola
65
assim
como
ao
levantamento
das
diferentes
categorias
66
intervenientes,
algumas
anlises
exploratrias
sugerem
5 Concluses
A validao do SAFALL-FOOT passou por diferentes procedimentos, a
saber: (i) validao do contedo de peritos; (ii) validao facial pelos
treinadores e jogadores que fizeram parte do estudo; (iii) validao ecolgica
67
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72
Captulo IV
Estudos exploratrios
Estudo 3
Guilherme, J., Garganta, J., Graa, A., Seabra A. (2014). Influence of nonpreferred foot technical training in reducing lower limbs functional asymmetry
among young football players. Journal of Sports Sciences, submetido para
publicao
Estudo 4
Guilherme, J., Garganta, J., Graa, A., Seabra A. (2014). Effects of technical
training in functional asymmetry of lower limbs in young soccer players. Revista
Brasileira de Cineantropometria e Desenvolvimento Humano, submetido para
publicao.
Estudo 3
Abstract
The functional asymmetry of the lower limbs has been regarded as one of the most
relevant factors of the performance of Football players. In this sense, the present work
had the purpose to ascertain whether a specific technical training programme for the
non-preferred foot has implications in the increasing utilization rate of the respective
member during the game. The study was held with 71 young Football players, who
were randomly divided into Experimental Group (EG) (N=35; 14.371.94 years) and
Control Group (CG) (N=36; 14.501.81 years) and developed in three stages. The first
intended to assess the index of utilization of both limbs during the game, the second
consisted of the application of a technical training program that promoted the drilling of
specific motor skills exclusively directed to the non-preferred foot during 20 minutes,
three times a week, with the duration of six months; and the third, which took place at
the end of six months, proposed to review the new rate of use of both limbs during the
game. The main findings were: (1) the use of the non-preferred foot increased
significantly with the program of technical training in the EG (= +117.4%, p<0.001),
and remained constant in the CG (=+5.97%, p>0.05), (2 ) the use of the preferred foot
decreased significantly in the EG (= -7.5% , p< 0.001), and remained similar in CG
(= +0.2%, p=0.979). Given these results, it is clear that the effective training of the
non-preferred foot in the EG had significant implications on the appropriate utilization
rate compared to the CG, which allows us to infer that a protocol of systematic and
specific training for the non-preferred foot increases its use and enables the reduction
of functional asymmetry in game situation improving the players performance.
Key words: football, functional asymmetry, preferred foot, non-preferred foot, skill
acquisition.
75
76
Introduction
The quality of a football player emerges from the interaction of complex
issues, linked with cognitive, motor and perceptive skills (Bate, 1996; Reilly et
al., 2000; Williams, 2000). The cognitive skill is related to the competence that
the players show to understand and realize what is happening in the game
context (Williams, 2000; Williams et al., 1999). The perceptive skill refers to the
ability that a player demonstrates to anticipate game events, and, consequently,
to know what and how to perform, taking into account the information that
protrudes from the context (Tavares et al., 2006; Williams, 2000; Williams et al.,
1999). The motor skill refers to the execution of specific technical and tactical
abilities, which are in turn sustained by physiological abilities (Reilly et al.,
2000).
Therefore, during a match, the performance of a specific technical skill
elapses from a decision that arises from the mentioned cognitive, perceptive
and motor skills (Garganta, 2006; Williams, 2000; Williams et al., 1999; Williams
& Hodges, 2005). Therefore, the technical quality of a player should not be
analysed separately from the game, because this is the context that holds the
constraints of adversity, randomness, variability in space and time to decide and
execute (Ali, 2011; French, Werner, Rink, et al., 1996; Garganta, 2006; Knapp,
1972). In the technical range, there are several studies concerning the skill
performance in football, which highlight the relevance of the use of both
preferred and non-preferred foot in the proficiency of players (Barfield, 1995;
Capranica et al., 1992; Carey et al., 2001; Grouios et al., 2002; Oliveira et al.,
2003; Starosta, 1988, 1990; Starosta & Bergier, 1993). This leads to the
importance of analysing the functional asymmetry of the lower limbs in football
players.
The functional asymmetry can be defined as the difference in the
performance of a human characteristic called body laterality, which is expressed
as the use of the preferred symmetric parts of the body: foot, hand, ear or eye
(Fonseca, 1988). The functional asymmetries have been increasingly
77
78
are differences in the utilization index of the non-preferred foot during a game
situation in the different age groups.
Table 1: Characteristics of the sample concerning the number of players in each team and the
respective average and standard deviation of age and years of competitive practice.
Total sample
Characteristics
No
Age
Years of
Experimental Group
Control Group
No
No
Age
practice
Total
71
Under 13
Under 15
Under 17
24
23
24
14,44
3,61
1,86
1,60
12,29
2,13
0,69
0,74
14,43
3,52
0,51
1,08
16,58
5,17
0,50
1,13
Years of
Age
practice
35
12
11
12
14,37
3,51
1,94
1,52
12,17
2,17
0,72
0,83
14,36
3,45
0,50
1,21
16,58
4,92
0,51
1,00
Years of
practice
36
12
12
12
14,50
3,69
1,81
1,69
12,42
2,08
0,67
0,67
14,50
3,58
0,52
1,00
16,58
5,42
0,51
1,24
Regarding the number of training sessions per week, under 13 and under
15 teams performed three sessions, while under 17 group held four sessions,
each one lasting 90 minutes.
79
Figure 1: Initial and final distribution of the subjects of the different groups and teams involved in
the study and the respective exclusions.
All the coaches were informed about the entire study protocol and
showed receptivity in its application. In addition, they clarified the different
players, getting their consent and interest in participating. Study participation
was voluntary; soccer players were free to withdraw at any time. The study was
approved by the ethical committee of the Faculty of Sport of the University of
Porto and by clubs authorities.
80
Instruments
In order to measure foot preference and the respective functional
asymmetry index, an instrument validated by us called "System of assessment
of functional asymmetry of the lower limbs in Football" (SAFALL-FOOT)
(Guilherme, Graa, Seabra, & Garganta, 2012) was used. SAFALL-FOOT
consists of 6 categories and 32 subcategories, with a valuation associate, which
allow the analysis of the frequency and effectiveness of all technical actions
performed with the ball, using the lower limbs during a game of five-a-side
football, which is filmed for further observation, lasting twenty minutes (Table 2).
This analysis provides a utilization index of the preferred and non-preferred foot
in the game, and consequently reflects the respective functional asymmetry
index.
Subcategories
Appreciation
Interception /
Disarm
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
Reception
Passing
81
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
5
2,5
1,25
1,25
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
5
10
10
5
2,5
1,25
5
10
1,25
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
The equation used to calculate the utilization ratio of both members is:
Preferred foot:
Score of the positive subcategories of the preferred foot + score of the negative
subcategories of the preferred foot / of the actions performed (subcategories:
preferred foot and non-preferred foot)
Non-preferred foot:
Score of the positive subcategories of the non-preferred foot + score of the negative
subcategories of the non-preferred foot / of the actions performed (subcategories:
preferred foot and non-preferred foot)
The values found range between 0 and 10. The use of the preferred foot
and non-preferred foot is lower the more the values approach zero and higher
the more they approach ten. The difference between the values of the right foot
and the left foot represents the functional asymmetry revealed by the performer.
82
Experimental Design
The study was carried out for a period of six months. The players who
took part in the study were distributed randomly into two groups: experimental
group (EG) and control group (CG). At the baseline, an evaluation of the
functional asymmetry of the lower limbs was held through the SAFALL-FOOT.
After this evaluation and for a period of six months, the EG, three times a week
in the first 20 minutes of the training session, underwent a technical training
programme that consisted of the performance of specific motor skills
categorized exclusively for the non-preferred foot, while the CG, in the same
period of training, performed exercises without any guidance or embarrassment
of using the lower limbs. In the other training periods and in the fourth training
session of the week, in under-17 team, players from both groups performed the
same exercises without any restriction or constraint on the use of the lower
limbs. At the end of six months both groups were evaluated again, using the
SAFALL-FOOT.
Statistical procedures
Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were calculated
for the two groups at the baseline and after 6 months. None of the
characteristics
deviations
from
normal
83
Results
Table 3 shows the results of the repeated measures ANOVA models
for preferred foot and non-preferred foot according to groups (EG and CG),
competition level (under-13, under-15 and under-17) and time (baseline and
6 months).
For the preferred foot a significant main effect for time (F=91.66,
p<0.001) and a significant group by time interaction (F=92.36, p<0.001) were
found. This significant interaction suggests that the time effects in the preferred
foot differed between EG and CG and can be visualized by referring to Figure 2.
Among EG, mean values of the preferred feet tended to decrease with the
follow-up; among CG players, mean values remained rather constant at followup.
Identical results were revealed for the non-preferred foot, i.e., a
significant time main effect and a significant group by time interaction. The
significant interaction indicated that non-preferred foot significantly improved in
EG with the technical training (%=+117.4, p<0.001), whereas in CG it
remained rather constant at follow-up (%=+5.97, p>0.05) (Figure 3).
Table 3: Mean values (standard deviations), percentage of change (%), F-test, and P value for
repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the variables preferred and non-preferred
foot.
Preferred foot
Non-preferred foot
Baseline
6 months
Baseline
6 months
Under-13
7.81 (0.66)
7.51 (0.51)
-3.6
0.96 (0.50)
1.41 (0.53)
+71.8
Under-15
7.45 (0.55)
7.21 (0.54)
-3.2
0.88 (0.46)
1.25 (0.57)
+56.6
Under-17
7.66 (0.65)
7.34 (0.62)
-4.0
0.83 (0.55)
1.16 (0.67)
+54.2
Experimental
7.72 (0.62)
7.13 (0.52)
-7.5
0.88 (0.49)
1.61 (0.42)
+117.4
Control
7.57 (0.64)
7.57 (0.64)
+0.2
0.90 (0.51)
0.94 (0.55)
+5.97
Competitive Level
Groups
84
91.66 (<0.001)
184.27 (<0.001)
Groups (G)
1.22 (0.273)
7.82 (0.007)
2.07 (0.134)
0.89 (0.414)
T*G
92.36 (<0.001)
145.66 (<0.001)
T*CL
0.28 (0.757)
1.58 (0.214)
G*CL
0.67 (0.517)
0.92 (0.402)
T*G*CL
0.34 (0.716)
0.41 (0.664)
Figure 2: Mean values and respective 95% confidence intervals for the use of the preferred
foot in the different groups throughout the study.
85
Figure 3: Mean values and respective 95% confidence intervals for the use of the preferred and
non-preferred foot in the different groups throughout the study
Discussion
The results show that the intervention protocol to which the EG was
subjected had an effective impact in increasing the use of the non-preferred foot
during the game, once the values of EG utilization index were significantly
higher when compared to those of CG. From such evidence, different issues
may be considered. A first remark is the acknowledgment that the training
programme, to which the EG was submitted, reflects the requirements that the
game sets to the player.
Another issue that may be withdrawn from this study regards the
confirmation of the dynamic feature that characterizes laterality (Teixeira &
Paroli, 2000; Vasconcelos, 2004). The compulsory use of the non-preferred foot
to perform actions that usually are not part of their actions leads the body to
86
create new standards of action. This feature meets the views of various authors
that highlight the multidimensional and dynamic characteristic of motor
behaviour (Martin & Porac, 2007; Teixeira & Okazaki, 2007; Zverev, 2006). The
presented results, in line with the studies of several authors (Andrade, 2012;
Cobalchini & Silva, 2008; Haaland & Hoff, 2003; Teixeira, 2001; Teixeira et al.,
2003) supports the conclusion that the functional asymmetry of the lower limbs
tends to reduce when there is an increase of systematic training on the nonpreferred limb. However, it would be interesting to find possible explanations for
the specific contexts in question, since in all the referred studies the
improvements of the non-preferred lower limb were notorious in a relatively
short timeline compared to the requests to which the preferred limb was
subjected for years. We believe that one possible explanation may be found in
the ecological perspective presented by Gibson (1966). Its principles focus on
the information originating from the properties of the contexts that are
perceptually accessible and relevant to the individual in order to perform the
task. As the non-preferred limb was less stimulated for many years, it is not
perceptibly accessible. Therefore, it is not a relevant option to make part of the
decisions and performed actions. From the moment it begins to be stimulated,
even as an obligation, the body discovers a new perceptual receiver for the
context, thus making an active part of the possible action perception coupling
(Gibson, 1979). This way, the non-preferred limb also becomes gradually part of
the triad perception, decision and action. This explanation finds support in
studies of behavioural and neurological areas. The studies of Peters & Ivanoff
(1999) and Teixeira (1999) show that the systematic practice of a non-preferred
limb yields a performance profile identical to the preferred one. With regard to
the neurological evidence, the studies of Elbert, Pantev, Wienbruch, Rockstroh
& Taub (1995) demonstrated, through topographical analysis, that the cortical
representation of the non-preferred limbs, which are subject to systematic
training, is comparatively more complex than the representation of the untrained
limbs. These findings highlight that the systematic training on a particular limb
has both behavioural and neurological effects, showing the adaptive and
87
88
that the proficiency and functional symmetry of both lower limbs leads the
Football player to a new path of superior multiplicity of actions, resulting in
larger variability, creativity and, of course, greater proficiency. This assumption
is confirmed by the studies of several authors who point out that the low level of
capacity of the non-preferred limb restricts the ability of the preferred one
(Barbieri & Gobbi, 2009; Haaland & Hoff, 2003; Teixeira et al., 2003). The
design of this study presented some initial constraints regarding to its
practicability. The need to interfere as less as possible in the dynamic
preparation of the respective teams was a requirement. Thus, the amount of
training of the EG restricted to the use of the non-preferred foot has a much
lower percentage of time compared to the training directed to the preferred foot,
which can limit the reduction of the asymmetry. However, this apparent
embarrassment became an advantage, since the study design met the
ecological requirements because there was a low contextual interference and
even so it was possible to demonstrate that a percentage of reduced drilling
time, 20 for every 90 minutes of training three times per week, enables
significant increased utilization of the non-preferred foot during the game.
In summary, the present findings suggest that a systematic and specific
technical football training for non-preferred foot promotes the reduction of
functional asymmetry between the lower limbs in football game settings. The
increased use of the non-preferred foot is transversal to all competitive levels
with no significant differences between them. Moreover, it still confirms the
dynamic characteristic of laterality when there are systematic stimuli focused on
the non-preferred limb.
References
Ali, A. (2011). Measuring soccer skill performance: a review. Scandinavian Journal of
Medicine & Science in Sports, 21, 170-183.
Andrade, J. (2012). Efeito do treino com o membro no preferido no desempenho
motor e na assimetria funcional de jovens futebolistas. Porto: Jorge Andrade.
89
90
91
92
Williams, A. M., Davids, K., & Williams, J. G. (1999). Visual Percepcion & Action in
Sport. London: E & FN Spon.
Williams, A. M., & Hodges, N. J. (2005). Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in
soccer: Challenging tradition. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(6), 637-650.
Zverev, Y. P. (2006). Cultural and environmental pressure against left-hand preference
in urban and semi-urban Malawi. Brain and Cognition, 60, 295-303.
93
94
Estudo 4
Abstract
The functional asymmetry of the lower limbs has been considered an important factor
in the performance of soccer players. In this sense, the purpose of this study is to
ascertain whether a specific technical training programme for the non-preferred foot
promotes the increase of its utilization rate during the game; and whether the
interruption of such programme influences its utilization. Young soccer players were
randomly divided into two group: G1 (n=26, 9.501.04 years) and G2 (n=24, 9.581.02
years). The study lasted eight months divided into two periods of four months. At the
beginning of the first 4 months, each players use of both feet during the game was
assessed. In the first 4 months, G1 was subjected to a specific training protocol
directed to the non-preferred foot, while G2 had no constraints on the use of both feet.
At the end of the 4th month the two groups were newly assessed. During the 4th and
8th months, G1 and G2 reversed the training protocols. At the end of 8th month the
evaluation of the utilization rate of both feet during the game was held once again. The
main conclusions of the study were: specific technical training directed to the nonpreferred foot allows significant increase in its utilization rate during the game; the
interruption of such training partially reverses the utilization rates. Thus, technical
training for the non-preferred foot should preferably be systematic and not
circumstantial.
Key words: Task Performance and Analysis; Soccer; Physical Education and Training
95
96
Introduction
There is unanimity in considering that the performance of a soccer player
is multifactorial (Bate, 1996; Reilly et al., 2000; Williams, 2000). Within the
multitude of factors which address the performance of the players, there are
several studies highlighting the importance of the use of both preferred and
non-preferred lower limbs, and its proficiency in game setting (Barfield, 1995;
Capranica et al., 1992; Carey et al., 2001; Grouios et al., 2002; Oliveira et al.,
2003; Starosta, 1988; Starosta & Bergier, 1993). This issue leads to the
analysis of the functional asymmetry of the soccer players lower limbs and the
strategies to promote its reduction.
Human beings use their limbs differently, showing preference for the use
of one of the symmetrical parts of the body (Fonseca, 1988). This is known as
functional asymmetry, which is seen as a dynamic process once it emerges
from the interaction of genetic, neurological and sociocultural factors along with
all the life experiences and persistent training in the case of sports (Teixeira &
Paroli, 2000; Vasconcelos, 2004). Nevertheless, these asymmetries may be
related to the preference or the proficiency. Thus, in order to determine the
limbs preference or proficiency, it is important to set the task to be observed.
One of the limbs may be chosen for a certain task, for example, passing the
ball, whereas the other, the non-preferred limb for this task, will assume the role
of preferred limb in keeping the balance of the body stability (Leconte & Fagard,
2006; Teixeira, 2006; Teixeira & Paroli, 2000).
The process adopted in order to increase the utilization rate of the nonpreferred foot was the implementation of an exclusive technical training
programme for this lower limb. The pedagogical theories of soccer teaching and
training have differed as to how its different dimensions have been focussed
(Guilherme, 2004; Tani et al., 2006). In fact, if some consider different
dimensions separately (tactical, technical, physical and psychological), others
favour their interaction (Guilherme, 2004). However, regardless the discussion
of the positive and negative impacts of each theory, the misunderstanding
97
concerning the concepts of technique and of motor skill has been the biggest
obstacle to soccer teaching and training (Tani et al., 2006).
This context raises questions about how the development of the motor
skills in soccer should be developed, particularly those that relate to the nonpreferred foot. This issue arises because the use of a limb at the expense of its
collateral is related to conscious and non-conscious processes, taking into
account the experiences that soccer players had throughout their lives (Beilock
et al., 2003; Damsio, 2010; Gasaniga, 2000; Godinho et al., 2002; Greenfield,
2000; Magill, 2007; Tenenbaum, 2003). In the soccer domain, the systematic
training which players are exposed to during their career influences the use of
one or both limbs, as the players decisions are influenced by the specific motor
skills proficiency (French, Werner, Taylor, et al., 1996; Garganta, 2006;
McMorris & McGillivary, 1988). Thus, if a player has not mastered a skill, for
example, if he is not able to pass the ball with the non-preferred foot, such
option will not make part of his decision-making repertoire and, therefore, does
not represent an eligible action. Consequently, the learning and development of
specific motor skills of the non-dominant limb should happen at an early stage
as an obligation so as to be soon recognized by the body as a new perceptual
receiver, becoming an active part of new couplings of action perception
(Gibson, 1979) so that it is suitably used in match context.
Taking the assumptions made into account, we think it seems relevant to
check the influence of motor skills specific training in reducing functional
asymmetry of the lower limbs of soccer players in game setting. In
consequence, it becomes pertinent to verify if there is an increased asymmetry
when stopping the practice. In this scoop, the retention tests are often used to
confirm the degree of learning in a particular task after an extended time period
without being directly exercised. Several authors (Magill, 2007; Mendes,
Godinho, Melo, et al., 2002) highlight the importance of distinguishing the
concepts of performance and learning. Performance is related to the immediate
practical effects, induced by drilling or practice of a specific task, whereas
learning relates to real effects in the subject promoted by practice, being,
98
Methods
Subjects
Fifty-three male under-12 soccer players (9.541.03 years) were
included in the study and of these 50 subjects completed the programme. Three
players were excluded due to injuries or dropouts. These fifty players were
randomly assigned in two groups: group 1 (G1; n=26; mean age 9.50 1.04
years) and group 2 (G2; n=24; mean age 9.58 1.02 years). All players were
interviewed in order to provide information concerning the number of years of
soccer practice and hours of regular training per week. Players had an average
of 2 years of soccer experience with a range from 1 to 4 years (G1, 1.96 1.04
years; G2, 2.04 1.04 years) and participated in three training sessions per
99
week (90 min) and one official match per week (60 min). A higher proportion of
soccer players use the right foot as the preferred foot (84%) compared with the
left foot (16%). The coaches of the teams were informed of the entire protocol of
the study and showed receptivity in its application, and in turn informed the
respective players, getting their interest in participating. After explaining the
study procedures and protocol to the soccer players and their parents informed,
consent was obtained. Study participation was voluntary; soccer players were
free to withdraw at any time. The study was approved by the ethical committee
of the Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto and by clubs authorities.
Experimental design
The technical soccer programme extended for 8 months. A baseline
assessment on the functional asymmetry of the lower limbs was applied
through a specific test (SAFALL-FOOT) (Guilherme et al., 2012). After this
assessment and for a period of four months, three times a week in the first
twenty minutes of the training sessions, G1 was submitted to a programme of
technical training, which consisted of exercising specific motor skills directed
exclusively to the non-preferred foot, while G2 was subjected to a programme
with no restrictions or any specific concern on the use of the lower limbs. When
the twenty minutes were over, both groups continued the training sessions
performing the same exercises without any restriction or constraints on the use
of the lower limbs. After the four-month period, the two groups were reassessed
through the SAFALL-FOOT. Between the fourth and the eighth month period,
the procedures of both groups were reversed: G2 adopted the training
programme used previously with G1, whereas G1 adopted the programme used
by G2. After eight months, both groups were newly assessed by the SAFALLFOOT, being G1 submitted to a retention test once it was not subject to a
specific training programme for the final four months. The retention tests are
used to verify the degree of learning that a particular task presents after an
extended period of time without being directly exercised (Magill, 2007).
Accordingly, the retention tests distinguish the effects of performance and the
100
effects of learning. The former are related to the immediate practical effects
caused by the drilling or practice of a specific task. The second are associated
to the mediate effects, which the practice has promoted on the subject, being
these long lasting effects.
Measurement of functional asymmetry
In order to measure foot preference and the respective functional
asymmetry index, a validated instrument called "System of assessment of
functional asymmetry of the lower limbs in Football" (SAFALL-FOOT)
(Guilherme et al., 2012) was used. SAFALL-FOOT consists of 6 categories and
32 subcategories, allowing the analysis of the quantity and effectiveness of all
technical actions performed with the ball, using the lower limbs during a game
of five-a-side football, lasting twenty minutes, which is filmed for further
observation (Table 1). This analysis yields a utilization index of the preferred
and non-preferred foot in the game, and, consequently, provides the respective
functional asymmetry index.
Subcategories
Score
Interception /
Disarm
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
Reception
Passing
101
10
2,5
10
5
2,5
1,25
5
10
1,25
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
10
5
2,5
1,25
5
10
1,25
2,5
10
2,5
10
2,5
102
The equation used to calculate the utilization ratio of both members is:
Preferred foot:
Score of the positive subcategories of the preferred foot + score of the
negative subcategories of the preferred foot / of the actions performed
(subcategories: preferred foot and non-preferred foot)
Non-preferred foot:
Score of the positive subcategories of the non-preferred foot + score of the
negative subcategories of the non-preferred foot / of the actions performed
(subcategories: preferred foot and non-preferred foot)
The final score ranges from 0 to 10. The use of the preferred foot and
non-preferred foot is lower the more the values approach zero and higher the
more they approach ten. The difference between the values of the right and the
left feet corresponds to the functional asymmetry revealed by the performer. For
more detailed analysis consult SAFALL-FOOT guidelines (Guilherme et al.,
2012).
Statistical procedures
Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were calculated
for the two groups at the baseline, 4 months and 8 months. None of the
characteristics
deviations
from
normal
103
Results
Table 2 shows the results of the repeated measures ANOVA models
for preferred and non-preferred foot according to group (G1 and G2) and
time variables (baseline, 4 months and 8 months later).
For the preferred foot a significant main effect for time (F=25.88,
p<0.001) and a significant group by time interaction (F=23.34, p<0.001) were
found. This suggests that the time effects in the preferred foot differed between
G1 and G2 (Figure 1). Mean values of the preferred feet in G1 decreased
significantly between the baseline and 4 months (%=-9.53, p<0.001), while in
G2 players mean values remained rather constant during this period
(%=+0.73, p=0.99). Between 4 and 8 months, preferred foot significantly
improved in G1 with the technical training (%=+4.51, p=0.005), whereas in G2
decreased significantly (%=-6.28, p<0.001). In addition, after 8 months, the
preferred foot decreased significantly in both groups (G1: %=-6.72, p<0.001;
G2: %=-6.21, p<0.001) compared with baseline values.
A significant main effect for time (F=95.52, p<0.001) and a significant
group by time interaction (F=63.73, p<0.001) were also observed for the nonpreferred foot. This significant interaction suggests that the time effects in the
non-preferred foot differed between G1 and G2 (Figure 1). Between the
baseline and 4 months, non-preferred foot significantly improved in G1 with the
technical training (%=+115.86, p<0.001), whereas in G2 it remained rather
constant across this period (%=-5.02, p>0.05). Between 4 and 8 months, G1
decreased significantly their values (%=-15.232, p<0.001), whereas in G2 a
significant increase was observed (%=+94.51, p<0.001). In addition, after 8
months, the non-preferred foot increased significantly in both groups
(G1: %=+32.27, p<0.001; G2: %=+44.53, p<0.001) compared with baseline
values (Figure 2).
104
Table 2: Mean values (standard deviations), F-test and P value for repeated measures analysis
of variance (ANOVA) for the preferred foot (PF) and non-preferred foot (NPF).
Groups
Preferred foot
Non-preferred
ANOVA
Time
G1
G2
Time
Groups
Time*Groups
Baseline
7.77 (0.58)
7.62 (0.56)
25.88 (<0.001)
1.15 (0.289)
23.34 (<0.001)
4 months
7.00 (0.50)
7.66 (0.48)
8 months
7.29 (0.45)
7.17 (0.40)
Baseline
0.95 (0.42)
0.98 (0.34)
95.52 (<0.001)
2.26 (0.140)
63.73 (<0.001)
4 months
1.73 (0.38)
1.01 (0.34)
8 months
1.45 (0.42)
1.75 (0.22)
foot
Figure 1: Mean values and respective 95% confidence intervals for the use of the preferred foot
in the different groups throughout the study.
105
Figure 2: Mean values and respective 95% confidence intervals for the use of the non-preferred
foot in the different groups throughout the study.
Discussion
The main results showed that a specific technical training programme for
the non-preferred foot has effective impact on its increased use during the
game, since both groups, G1 and G2, developed their utilization index
significantly after carrying out the technical training programme. Another finding
was the rate reversibility concerning the use of the non-preferred foot in the
game context after the break of the specific technical training programme, once
G1 reduced considerably the use of the non-preferred foot after the four-month
suspension of technical training. However, despite this decrease from the fourth
to the eighth month, it appears that the values found for G1 between the
baseline and the eighth month show a significant increase in the use of the nonpreferred foot.
106
107
limbs tends to reduce when there is a systematic increase in training of the nonpreferred limb, as can be confirmed in our study. However, it was also noticed
that when that systematic training is interrupted, the functional asymmetry
increases again.
Possible explanations for understanding this dynamic of asymmetry can
be found at the intersection of information arising from the effects of
performance and learning (Magill, 2007; Mendes, Godinho, Melo, et al., 2002),
skill acquisition (Fitts, 1964; Tani et al., 2006) and also from the perspective of
ecological approach by Gibson (1966). As previously mentioned, the learning
effects are those that persist after an extended period of time without the task to
be learned being directly exercised (Magill, 2007). Thus, the values found for
G1 at 4 months and G2 at 8 months are the values of performance, while the
values of G1 at eight months are those that represent the real consequences of
learning.
Fitts (1964) and Tani et al. (2006) argue that the proficiency of the motor
skills experience three stages: initial or cognitive, associative or intermediate
and final or autonomous. The initial or cognitive stage is characterized by the
subject realizing what he is doing, what the purpose of the skills are and
understanding what information should be taken into account in order to
execute and operate in the game. It is a period marked by a high number of
mistakes and in which the attention is focused on skill performance. The
intermediate or associative stage is characterized by the gradual reduction of
mistakes and consequent refinement of motor skills. At this stage, a key
element for the subsequent evolution is intrinsic and extrinsic feedback. The
intrinsic feedback emerges from the proprioceptive system, which is extremely
important as the subject becomes more conscientious about his body and its
interaction with the skill performed through the afferent systems, joint receptors,
muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs, and from the exteroceptive system,
especially vision, hearing and touch. Nevertheless, at this stage, the subject still
often requires extrinsic feedback to correct some mistakes since, although there
is recognition, he fails to detect its causes. This phase is extended in time and
108
still needs the attention to skill performance with a certain frequency. The final
or autonomous phase is achieved by continued practice and consequent gains
in proficiency. It is characterized by the execution without the cognitive
mechanisms needing to control the action and allowing them take care of other
tasks simultaneously (Tani et al., 2006). It is a phase in which specific skills are
already controlled by the subconscious while the conscious is used for tasks
such as reading the game and decision-making. According to deliberate
practice concepts by Ericsson (2004), a greater or lesser capability of
performance in soccer is dependent on the amount and quality of training with
the characteristics above mentioned. On the other hand, the principles of the
ecological approach focuses on the information from the context properties,
which are perceptually accessible and relevant to the individual to perform the
task (Gibson, 1966).
As throughout many years the non-preferred foot was not noticeably
accessible to the player, it did not make part of the decisions and actions in
soccer. From the moment it is stimulated, the body learns a new perceptual
receiver, becoming part of the possible couplings action perception (Gibson,
1966). This explanation finds support in the neurologic studies of Elbert, Pantev,
Wienbrunch, Rockstroh & Taub (1995), which demonstrate that, through
topographic analysis, the cortical representation of the non-preferred feet which
are subjected to systematic training shows a more complex cortical
representation than the unstimulated non-preferred feet.
These ideas provide the understanding of the dynamic characteristics
that asymmetry gathers and the reasons why G1, after the second four-month
period, showed reversibility of the use of the non-preferred foot. On the one
hand, there is the need to distinguish the effects of learning and the effects of
performance; on the other hand, it is important to recognize that the acquisition
of motor skills may not have acquired yet an autonomous stage, because the
amount of drilling was not large enough compared to the years of practice the
other limb was subjected to, and perceptive mechanisms, by not being
systematically stimulated, the body fails to recognize them as mechanisms of
109
110
References
Andrade, J. (2012). Efeito do treino com o membro no-preferido no
desempenho motor e na assimetria funcional de jovens futebolistas. Porto:
Jorge Andrade.
Barbieri, F. A., & Gobbi, L. T. (2009). Assimetrias laterais no movimento do
chute e rendimento no futebol e no futsal. Motricidade, 5(2), 33-47.
Barfield, W. R. (1995). Effects of selected kinematic and kinetic variables on
instep kicking with dominant and non dominant limbs. Journal of Human
Movement Studies, 29, 251-272.
Bate, D. (1996). Soccer skills practice. In T. Reilly (Ed.), Science and soccer
(pp. 80-125). London: E & FN Spon.
Beilock, S. L., Wierenga, S. A., & Carr, T. H. (2003). Memory and expertise:
what do experiencied athletes remember? In J. L. Starkes & K. A. Ericsson
(Eds.), Expert Performance in Sports: advances in research on sport expertise
(pp. 295-320). Stanningley: Human Kinetics.
Capranica, L., Cama, G., Fanton, E., Tessitore, A., & Figura, F. (1992). Force
and power of preferred and not preferred leg in young soccer players. Journal of
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Carey, D. P., Smith, G., Smith, D. T., Shepherd, J. W., Skriver, J., Ord, L., &
Rutland, A. (2001). Footedness in world soccer: an analysis of France 98.
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112
113
114
115
116
Captulo V
Discusso Global
Discusso global
quais
as
implicaes
do
treino
tcnico
especfico
no
119
entanto, tambm se reconhece que as solues que fazem parte dos cenrios
de deciso de um jogador esto relacionados com as suas capacidades,
competncias e probabilidades de xito, isto , o jogador decide em funo do
que supe ser capaz de executar (Beilock et al., 2003; Godinho et al., 2002;
McCrone, 2002; Tenenbaum, 2003). Este panorama leva a que algumas das
possveis solues, em determinado contexto, no sejam tidas em conta por
certos jogadores, porque implicam requisitos, nomeadamente do foro tcnico,
que no fazem parte das suas competncias. Assim, a panplia de eventuais
decises afigura-se condicionada pela gama dos recursos tcnicos de que o
jogador pode dispor para lidar com os eventos de jogo (French, Nevett, et al.,
1996). Por esse motivo, Tani (2008) salienta que as habilidades motoras
representam o ncleo em torno do qual o qual se fundam as opes tticas, o
que implica que elas sejam um dos fatores que determinam a maior ou menor
proficincia dos jogadores e das equipas. Neste sentido, pensamos ser
relevante perceber se o treino tcnico , de facto, uma faceta relevante no
processo de formao e de evoluo dos jogadores, ou se as exigncias que
os cenrios de jogo especficos que o treino requer para promover o
entrelaamento das capacidades cognitivas, percetivas e decisionais, so
suficientes para elevarem a proficincia das habilidades motoras especficas
at ao nvel desejado.
120
de
determinada
habilidade
motora
esto
intimamente
escala
jogo
est
relacionada
com
as
caractersticas
de
Sensibilidade
s
condies
iniciais
significa
que
qualquer
acontecimento
que
ocorra
durante
o
processo,
neste
caso
o
jogo,
tem
implicaes
nos
acontecimentos
procedentes
e
pode
modificar
e
alterar
completamente
a
lgica,
a
sequncia
e
o
resultado
do
processo
(Mandelbrot,
1991;
Stacey,
1995).
121
122
cognitivas,
percetivas
decisionais,
so
suficientes
para
123
que
sejam
configurados
aplicados
exerccios
cujos
124
125
126
127
128
Estudos Exploratrios
Foram desenvolvidos dois estudos complementares (E1 e E2) com o
propsito de perceber se um programa de treino tcnico especfico para o p
no-preferido tem implicaes no aumento do seu ndice de utilizao durante
o jogo, comparativamente com um grupo que no estava sujeito a qualquer
constrangimento na utilizao dos membros inferiores.
Os resultados encontrados em ambos os estudos do conta de um
aumento significativo de utilizao do p no-preferido em situao de jogo
aps treino tcnico especfico direcionado para esse membro, o que justifica
que sejam clarificados alguns pontos.
O primeiro que o programa de treino tcnico para o p no-preferido
ao qual os grupos foram sujeitos reflete as exigncias que o jogo solicita aos
jogadores. A complexidade, a aleatoriedade, a imprevisibilidade e a
sensibilidade s condies iniciais que caraterizam o jogo (Cunha e Silva,
1995; Dunning, 1994; Garganta, 1997; Garganta & Cunha e Silva, 2000) levam
a que as habilidades especficas evidenciem capacidade de adaptao ao
ambiente, ou seja, que os padres motores para as executar manifestem
variabilidade, de forma a poderem revelar-se eficientes e eficazes nos
diferentes cenrios que justificam a sua expresso (Magill, 2007). Se a
aprendizagem dessas habilidades no manifestar tais particularidades, no
suscetvel de evidenciar consistncia nem flexibilidade bastantes, que so as
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
Captulo VI
Concluses
Concluses
os
membros
inferiores,
preferido
no-preferido,
so
submetidos;
O treino sistemtico das habilidades motoras especficas do p nopreferido, ainda que desinserido do contexto de jogo, permite um
transfere de aprendizagem para o desempenho em competio;
139
140
141
que
caractersticas.
os
exerccios
Suponhamos
que
propostos
se
pretende
propiciem
treinar
essas
recees
escala
equipa
possibilita
evidenciar
forma
como
os
142
143
144
145
de
prtica
afigura-se
como
principal
impulsionador
do
146
Captulo VII
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