Professional Documents
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521
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STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
APPLIED METALLURGY
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to its high strength, its good machineability and its high economic efficiency, steel is
one of the most important construction materials. By changes in the chemical composition
and in the production conditions, it is possible to vary steel properties over a wide range
and the steel manufacturer is able to adapt the properties to the specific requirements of
users (Appendix 1) [1].
As well as chemical and mechanical properties, internal soundness, surface quality, form
and geometrical dimensions can be important criteria for steel product users.
The steels used for structural applications are mainly hot rolled in the form of sections,
plates, strip, wide flats, bars and hollow sections. Such products may have undergone cold
forming operations after hot rolling. Cast and forged material is also sometimes used.
In order to facilitate production, ordering and use of steel products, steel grades and
qualities are listed in quality standards and specifications, giving chemical composition,
mechanical and technological properties.
This lecture deals with the classification of steel grades and gives an overview of the main
grades used for structural steelwork.
2. DEFINITION OF STEEL
According to European standard EN 10 020 [2], steel is a material which contains by
weight more iron than any other single element, having a carbon content generally less
than 2% and containing other elements (Figure 1). A limited number of chromium steels
may contain more than 2% of carbon, but 2% is the usual dividing line between steel and
cast iron.
Chemical composition
Mechanical properties
Heat treatment
Cleanness in terms of non-metallic inclusions
Particular quality requirements, e.g. suitability for cold forming, cold drawing, etc.
Physical properties
Application
Normalized (N).
It should be noted that quenched and tempered steels are not discussed in this lecture.
The definitions for thermomechanical treatment of steels are given in Appendix 3.
The supply condition of the product is very important with respect to the application of the
steel. This condition should, therefore, be clearly stated in the order. Particular attention
must be paid to normalized (N), or normalizing formed (N) products and
minimum value
Tensile strength Rm
Elongation
minimum value
The required values depend on the material thickness. Yield strength and tensile strength
decrease with increasing thickness, which can be explained by the fact that for thicker
material the grain refinement during rolling is smaller.
4.2.4.2 Notch toughness properties (impact test)
The test temperature and the minimum absorbed energy are specified.
4.2.4.3 Sampling direction
The mechanical properties can be specified for the longitudinal and/or for the transverse
direction. Longitudinal means parallel to the rolling direction; transverse is perpendicular
to the principal rolling direction. During the hot rolling of long products the deformation
takes place mainly in one direction creating an anisotropy which results in different
mechanical properties in the longitudinal and the transverse directions. The difference is
most marked in ductility (elongation, notch toughness).
Weldability, which is a very important property of structural steels, is judged on the basis
of:
a. tendency to cold cracking
b. toughness of the heat affected zone
Structural steels are suitable for hot and cold forming. It should be noted that
thermomechanically treated steels should not be used for hot forming (see also Delivery
Conditions in Section 4.2.2).
Cold formability includes flangeability, roll forming and drawing of bars. Cold formability
is evaluated by bend tests. The specified inside bending radius increases with increasing
material thickness and tensile strength. The bend test samples can be taken in the
longitudinal or transverse direction.
4.2.6 Surface finish
The steel product should be free from such defects as would preclude its use for the
purpose for which it is intended.
4.2.7 Inspection and testing
The quality standards specify:
4.2.8 Marking
Steel products shall be marked by painting, stamping or durable adhesive labels with the
following information:
Steel grade.
Heat number.
Manufacturers name or trademark.
Example: Steel with a specified minimum tensile strength at ambient temperature of 510
N/mm2, quality grade J0 and with no requirements for deoxidation and suitable for cold
flanging (designation C) is given by:
Steel EN 10 025
S355
JO
Grade
Impact @ 0 C
Steel
grade
Yield
strength
min.
[N/mm2] 1)
Quality
S235
235
JR
+20
optional FU,FN
J0
FN
J2
-20
FF
JR
+20
FN
J0
FN
J2
-20
FF
JR
+20
FN
J0
FN
J2
-20
FF
K2
-20
FF
S275
S355
275
355
1)
2)
FU = rimming steel
Type of
deoxidation 2)
Example: Steel with a specified minimum yield strength at ambient temperature of 355
N/mm2, thermo-mechanically formed, which is appropriate for the application at -50C:
S355
Standard
Grade
Supply condition
Quality
Impact test
temperature [C]
S275
M or N
275
-20
ML or NL
S355
M or N
-50
355
ML or NL
-50
Steel
grade
Quality
Impact test
temperature [C]
S420
M or N
420
-20
ML or NL
S460
M or N
-50
460
ML or NL
1)
-20
-20
-50
It should be noted that for the impact test, values are specified for the longitudinal and for
the transverse direction, whereas for EN 10 025 [4] only values in the longitudinal
direction are required. Minimum values are also quoted for higher test temperatures but,
unless specified at the time of the enquiry and order, the impact value shall be verified
with longitudinal test pieces tested at either -20C or -50C according to quality.
In order to obtain a combination of all these properties, considerable progress has had to
be made in steelmaking and in rolling.
A European standard for offshore steel grades does not exist at present. These grades are
specified in material specifications established mainly by the oil companies. As each oil
company has its own specifications, the requirements for a particular offshore steel grade
may differ from one company to another.
The requirements for offshore steels are much more severe than for all other structural
applications. To demonstrate this point, the requirements for chemical composition and
toughness of the following four structural steel grades each with a minimum yield strength
of 355 N/mm2 are compared in Appendix 4:
It can be seen in Appendix 4 that with the increasing toughness requirements the
maximum carbon content is reduced and is very low (0,12% maximum) for the offshore
steel grade. Note that the loss of strength due to the reduced carbon content is mainly
balanced by the use of microalloys and/or by thermomechanical rolling.
Furthermore offshore steel specifications require very low phosphorus and sulphur
contents.
As weldability is one of the most important properties of an offshore steel grade, a
maximum carbon equivalent is specified for these steels (as is the case for most structural
steels).
In order to guarantee high resistance against brittle fracture, the toughness requirements
for offshore steel grades are extremely high. For this type of steel, the requirements for the
transverse direction are even higher than those for the longitudinal direction of the other
structural steel grades, see Figure 4.
In general, rolled steels have ductility properties in the thickness (Z-direction) which are
inferior to those in the rolling direction. The main reason for low through-thickness
ductility is non-metallic inclusions, mainly of manganese sulphide and manganese silicate
which are elongated in the direction of rolling.
Z15
15 (minimum)
Z25
25 (minimum)
Z35
35 (minimum)
Steel grade 2)
S 235J0W
Alloying
Minimum
Yield strength
N/mm2 1)
Impact test
temperature (C)
Cu-Cr
235
S 235J2W
S 355J0WP
-20
Cu-Cr-P-(Ni)
355
S 355J2WP
S 355J0W
0
-20
Cu-Cr-(Ni)-(Mo)-(Zr)
S 355J2W
355
0
-20
1)
for thicknesses 16 mm
2)
3)
P is for the class with the greater phosphorus content (only in the case of grade S355)
Recent investigations have shown that the action of silicon is favoured by phosphorus.
These aspects must be taken into consideration by the steel users and the galvanizers when
choosing the chemical composition of material ordered for galvanizing.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
A wide range of steels is available for structural applications. This range allows
designers and constructors to optimize steel structures in relation to cost saving,
weight saving, safety, machinability, and thus overall economic efficiency.
Strong competition between steel producers and the manufacturers of alternative
materials has accelerated the development of advanced technologies for further
general improvement of both the quality and the economics of steel.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Stahlsorten und ihre Eigenschaften J. Degenkolbe
Sthle fr den Stahlbau, Eigenschaften, Verarbeitung und Anwendung
Berichtsband Stahl Eisen
Herausgeber: Verein Deutscher Eisenhttenleute (VDEh)
[2] EN 10 020 Definition and classification of grades of steel, November 1988.
[3] Euronorm 18-79 Sampling and preparation of samples for steel products.
[4] EN 10 025 Hot rolled products in non-alloy steels for general structural applications,
March 1990 (+ A1, August 1993).
[5] EN 10 113 Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels, March 1993.
[6] EN 10 155 Weathering steels, June 1993.
[7] EN 10 164 Steel products with improved deformation properties perpendicular to the
surface of the product, June 1993.
Deformation resistance
Fatigue resistance
Toughness
Ductility
Resistance to brittle fracture
Weldability
Corrosion resistance
Homogeneity
Specified element
Limit
Value (%
by weight)
Al
Aluminium
Boron
Bi
Bismuth
0,10
Co
Cobalt
0,10
Cr
Chromium(1)
0,30
Cu
Copper(1)
0,40
La
Lanthanides (each)
0,05
Mn
Manganese
Mo
Molybdenum
0,08
Nb
Niobium(2)
0,06
Ni
Nickel(1)
0,30
Pb
Lead
0,40
Se
Selenium
0,10
Si
Silicon
0,50
Te
Tellurium
0,10
Ti
Titanium(2)
0,05
Vanadium(2)
0,10
Tungsten
0,10
Zr
Zirconium(2)
0,05
0,05
(1)
Where elements are specified in combinations of two, three or four and have
individual alloy contents less than those given in the table, the limit value to be
applied for classification is that the sum of their total contents must be less than
70% of the sum of the individual limit values.
(2)
(3)
Where manganese is specified only as a maximum, the limit value is 1,80% and
the 70% rule does not apply.
0,10
0,0008
1,65(3)
For both terms, "Normalizing forming" and "Thermomechanical forming" the term
"controlled rolling" is common. In view of the use of the different steel grades, it is
necessary to distinguish the conditions of delivery by special terms.
S 355K2G3
according to
EN10025 [4]
S 355N
according to EN
10113-2 [5]
S 355M
according to EN
10113-3 [5]
Offshore
Grade 355
C max
0,20
0,20
0,14
0,12
Mn max
1,60
1,65
1,60
1,60
Si max
0,55
0,50
0,50
0,50
P max
0,035
0,035
0,030
0,015
S max
0,035
0,030
0,025
0,008
Cu max
0,35
Ni max
0,50
Cr max
0,30
Mo max
0,10
0,20
0,08
V max
0,12
0,10
0,08
Nb max
0,060
0,050
0,04
Ti max
0,03
0,050
0,05
Al
0,20
0,020
0,06
N max
min
min
max
Sb max
0,020
0,020
0,009
0,30
0,40
0,20
Pb max
0,010
Sn max
0,003
B max
0,020
Ca max
0,002
CEV 1) max
1)
0,30
Carbon equivalent =
0,43
0,39
0,39