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Consider a system with two phases (vapor and liquid) at given values of pressure
and temperature.
T
V
L
yi
Pyi P Pi sat xi
Pi sat x i
P
Pi sat xi
P
xi
P
x
1
i
/ Pi sat
Pyi
Pi sat
yi Pi sat
f ( P, T )
xi
P
zi Ki 1
0
i 1)
1 V (K
T, P, and feed compositions (zis) are know. A trial and error for V must be
done (fraction to vapor stream). See Sec. 10.6 for the derivation.
According to Raoults law, the relative volatility (defined below) is just the
ratio of component vapor pressures.
Relative volatility:
ij
yi / xi Ki Pi sat
y j / x j K j Pjsat
y i Pi sat i
f T , P, xi ' s
xi
P
K i K i P, T
Dew-point calculations:
1
1
K x
/ Ki
dG t V t dP S t dT
G t
Vt
T
t
S t
Note that only the 1st and 2nd laws are involved in deriving this property relation,
plus the definition of G (G = H-TS).
If the system can exchange mass with its surroundings (another phase), then it
becomes an open system. The fundamental property relationship must be
modified, because the total Gibbs free energy will depend on the amount of each
substance present in the system (phase of interest). Thus, the number of moles of
each component become independent variables, in addition to P and T:
N
dG t V t dP S t dT i dni
i 1
ni
t
nG
ni
T , P ,n j ' s
T , P ,n j ' s
This new defined property is called the chemical potential for component i in a
mixture.
At equilibrium, the temperature and pressure must be the same in all phases, for
thermal and mechanical equilibrium considerations (i.e., no driving forces to cause
fluxes of heat or fluid movement).
Consider a system containing two phases (vapor and liquid, V and L) at
temperature T and pressure P. Each phase is an open system, because it can
exchange energy and mass with the other phase. The entire system is considered
to be isolated from the surroundings.
In the vapor and liquid phases we can write the following fundamental property
relations
d G
dP S
d Gt
Vt
dP S t
dT Vi dniV
dT iL dniL
We can add these to get the total change in Gibbs free energy for the entire system
dG t V t dP S t dT Vi dniV iL dniL
But, since this is a closed system, the last two terms must sum to zero. Also, any
mass leaving one phase must enter the other.
V
i
dniV iL dniL 0
dniV dniL
V
i
iL dniV 0
Vi iL
i 1,2,3,...., N
i i .... i
i 1,2,...., N
Thus, we have derived the phase equilibrium relations without any new concepts
being introduced, in addition to the 1st and 2nd laws.
Fugacities
Our problem with chemical potentials is that we have no real feelings about how
they behave.
Thus, it is traditional to throw them away, in favor of another defined property,
fugacity.
i io RT ln
fi
f o
i
fi Pyi
as
P0
The hat over the symbol for fugacity means for a component (i) in a mixture. For
pure fluids, the hat is left off. In this expression, both chemical potentials are at the
same temperature (T), thus, so are the fugacities. The superscript o means in
some arbitrarily defined standard state.
For an ideal gas mixture, fugacity is equal to partial pressure. This is at least some
progress! We know about ideal gases, and both P and yi are measurable
properties.
In terms of fugacities, the phase equilibrium relations do not change:
fi fi ...... fi
i 1,2,...., N
Py
H y H
S y S R y ln y
G y G RT y ln y
P
Ideal solutions
V xiVi
H xi H i
S xi S i R xi ln xi
G xi Gi RT xi ln xi
i Gi RT ln xi
f f x
i
ni
Mi
T , P ,n j
Thus, the partial molar Gibbs free energy is the chemical potential:
nG
ni
Gi
T , P ,n j
M E M M id
where the ideal solution value is at the same T , P, and composition as the
actual mixture.
Thus, the volume and enthalpy of a real mixture can be calculated from the
excess volume and excess enthalpy by the following:
V V id V E xiVi V E
H H id H E xi H i H E
The coefficient on the RHS is the fugacity of the pure liquid at the same
T and P as the actual liquid mixture.
Below, we will find that it is closely approximated by the vapor pressure of
component i at temperature T.
The above relation is called the Lewis/Randall rule (see p. 401 in text).
P0
ln i
n Z 1
ni
P ,T ,n j
dP
P
Vi L ( P Pi sat )
RT
This can be taken as the ideal dilute solution (Henry's law), and corrected
with a different activity coefficient:
fi L k i xi i HL
i HL
i
i
The liquid-phase activity coefficients can be related to the excess Gibbs free
energy
Gi Gi
id
i
Gi E RT ln
id
fi L
RT ln L
RT ln
f i xi
x d ln
i
at
const . T , P
The first of these equations is used to calculate excess Gibbs energies from
VLE data.
Margules:
ln
x A
2
1
21
2 A12 A21
x
2
Note that the constants are equal to the limiting values of the logrithms of the
activity coefficients for the Margules equations.
Redlich-Kister:
GE
x1 x 2 A B x1 x 2
RT
ln 1 ?
ln 2 ?
A21 A B
A12 A B
***********************************************************
Discuss the VLE data for MEK(1)+Toluene(2) -- Table 12.1, Figs. 12.2-3,
pp. 417-8. Draw a picture of the system. This system exhibits positive deviations
from Raoult's law.
Class exercise: Determine A12 and A21 from these data.
Class exercise: Derive the activity coefficient expressions for these data.
Discuss the VLE data for Chloroform(1)+1,4-dioxane(2) -- Table 12.3, Figs. 12.6,
pp. 425-6. This system exhibits negative deviations from Raoult's law.
i 1,2,...., N
Pyi f i x i
L
Assume that the effect of pressure is negligible on the pure liquid fugacity, so that
it can be evaluated at the vapor pressure for component i rather than at P.
f i L P, T f i L Pi sat , T
Since we are assuming that the gas phase behaves like an ideal gas, and since the
mole fraction of component i is unity
If the assumption of ideal liquid solutions is relaxed, but all other assumptions
remain, then the Modified Raoults law is obtained:
Pyi Pi sat xi i
Vi L P Pi sat
yi
P sat isat i
i
exp
xi
RT
P Vi
Ki Ki P , T , y , x
Ki
Vi L P Pi sat
yi
P sat sat
i Vi exp
xi
RT
P i
Ki Ki P , T
Ki
The same equation of state is used to evaluate the two fugacity coefficients, which
are functions of (T, P, xis) and (T, P, yis), respectively.