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General
Formula
CnH2n+2
Alkene
CnH2n
n = 2, 3,
4,
Alkynes
CnH2n-2
n = 2, 3,
4,
Arenes
CnH2n-6
n = 6, 7,
8,
Alcohol
CnH2n+1OH
Carboxylic Acids
CnH2n+1COOH
n = 1, 2,
3,
n = 0, 1, 2
Esters
CnH2n+1COOCmH2
m+1
Functional group
n = 1, 2,
3,
n = 0, 1,
2,
m = 1, 2,
3,
Carbon-carbon single
bond
-CCCarbon-carbon double
bond
-C=CCarbon-carbon triple
bond
-C=C-C=Cdelocalised / free to
move around the ring
Hydroxyl group
- OH
Carboxyl group
- COOH
Carboxylate group
- COO -
Sources of Hydrocarbon:
1.
Coal from the lush vegetation that grew in warm shallow coastal
swamps or dead plants slowly become rock. Mainly contains of hydrocarbon and
some sulphur and nitrogen. It is used to produce: fertiliser, nylon, explosives and
plastics.
2.
Natural gas from plants and animals and trapped between the layers
of impervious rocks (on top of petroleum). Mainly contains of methane gas and
other gas such as propane and butane. It is used for: cooking, vehicle and
generate electrical power.
3.
Petroleum from plants and animals and trapped between the layers of
impervious rocks. It is a complex mixture of alkanes, alkenes, aromatic
hydrocarbons and sulphur compound. These compounds can be separated by
using fractional distillation.
< 35C petroleum gas
35C 75C Petrol (gasoline)
75C 170C Naphtha
170C 230C Kerosene
230C 250C Diesel
250C 300C Lubricating oil
300C 350C Fuel oil
350C Bitumen
Quiz: How many known carbon compounds there are in the world now?
Estimated to be around 10 million carbon compounds known. However,
theoretically the number could be way larger. (Source: Wikipedia)
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10
5
Nonane
Decane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
Structural formula is a chemical formula that shows the atoms of elements are
bonded(arrangement of atoms) together in a molecule by what types of bond.
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Alkanes do not react with chemicals such as oxidizing agents, reducing
agents, acids and alkalis.
Combustion of alkanes
Complete combustion of hydrocarbons
CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 > xCO2 + y/2 H2O
CH4 +
2O2 > CO2 + 2H2O
Incomplete combustion occurs when insufficient supply of oxygen
CH4 + O2 > C + H2O
2CH4 + 3O2 > 2CO + 4H2O
Substitution reaction of alkanes (Halogenation)
Substitution reaction is one atom (or a group of atoms) in a molecule
is replaced by another atom (or a group of atoms).
Substitution reaction of alkanes take place in ultraviolet light.
Example:
Alkanes react with bromine vapour (or chlorine) in the presence of UV
light.
CH4 + Cl2 > HCl + CH3Cl (Chloromethane)
CH3Cl + Cl2 > HCl + CH2Cl2 (Dichloromethane)
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 > HCl + CHCl3 (Trichloromethane)
CHCl3 + Cl2 > HCl + CCl4 (Tetrachloromethane)
The rate of reaction between bromine and alkanes is slower than the rate
of reaction between chlorine and alkanes.
SPM Chemistry Form 5 Terminology and Concepts: Carbon Compounds
(Part 3)
Family of Hydrocarbon Alkene
1. General formula: CnH2n
Where n = 2, 3, 4 (n = number of carbon)
2. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more carboncarbon (C = C) double bonds in molecules.
3. The functional group in alkenes is carbon-carbon double (C = C) bond.
Name of alkene Molecular formula of
alkene
Ethene
C2 H 4
Propene
C3 H 6
Butene
C4 H 8
Pentene
C5H10
Hexene
C6H12
Heptene
C7H14
Octene
C8H16
Nonene
C9H18
Decene
C10H20
Molecular formula is a chemical formula that shows the actual number
of atoms of eachtype of elements present in a molecule of the compound.
Example: molecular formula of butene is C4H2x4 = C4H8
4. Physical properties of alkenes
Name
Molecularfor RMM Density( Physical state
mula
g cm-3) at 25C
Ethene C2H4
28
0.0011 Gas
Propene C3H6
42
0.0018 Gas
7
Butene C4H8
56
0.0023 Gas
Pentene C5H10
70
0.6430 Liquid
Hexene C6H12
84
0.6750 Liquid
Heptene C7H14
98
0.6980 Liquid
Octene C8H16
112
0.7160 Liquid
Nonene C9H18
126
0.7310 Liquid
Decene C10H20
140
0.7430 Liquid
Solubility in water all members in alkenes are insoluble in water but
soluble in many organic solvent (benzene and ether).
Density of alkene the density of water is higher than density of alkene.
When going down the series, relative molecular mass of alkenes
is higher due to the higher force of attraction between molecules and
alkene molecules are packed closer together.
Electrical conductivity all members in alkenes do not conduct
electricity.
Alkenes are covalent compounds and do not contain freely moving ions.
Boiling and melting points all alkenes in general have low boiling
points and melting points. Alkenes are held together by weak attractive
forces between molecules (intermolecular forces) van der Waals force.
When going down the series, more energy is required to overcome the
attraction. Hence, the boiling and melting points increases.
5. Chemical properties of alkenes
Reactivity of alkenes
Alkenes are more reactive (unsaturated hydrocarbon).
Alkenes have carbon-carbon (C = C) double bonds which is more reactive
than carbon-carbon (C-C) single bonds. All the reaction occur at the double
bonds.
Combustion of alkenes
Complete combustion of hydrocarbons (alkenes)
CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 > xCO2 + y/2 H2O
C2 H 4 +
3O2 > 2CO2 + 2H2O
(Alkenes burn with sootier flames than alkanes. It is because
the percentage of carbon in alkene molecules is higher than alkane
molecules and alkenes burn plenty of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
and water)
Incomplete combustion occurs when insufficient supply of oxygen
C2H4 + O2 > 2C + 2H2O
C2H4 + 2O2 > 2CO + 2H2O
(The flame in the incomplete combustion of alkenes is more smoky than
alkanes)
Polymerisation reaction of alkenes
Polymers are substances that many monomers are bonded together in a
repeating sequence.
Polymerisation is small alkene molecules (monomers) are joined
together to form a long chain (polymer).
nCH2 = CH2 > -(- CH2 CH2 -)-n
ethene (monomer)(unsaturated compound) > polyethene polymer
(saturated compound)
It must be carry out in high temperature and pressure.
Addition of hydrogen (Hydrogenation)
Addition reaction is atoms (or a group of atoms) are added to each carbon
atom of a carbon-carbon multiple bond to a single bond.
Alkanes
Alkenes
Properties
Physical state
Boiling points
and melting
points
increases).
Density
conductivity.
molecule increases).
Solubility in
water
solvent)
Chemical
Alkanes
Alkenes
Properties
(Substitution reaction)
(Addition reaction)
Reactivity
Unreactive
Reactive
Combustion
flame.
Reaction with
No reaction.
Decolourise brown
bromine
bromine solution.
solution
Reaction with
No reaction.
Decolourise purple
acidified
acidified potassium
potassium
manganate(VII)
manganate(VII)
solution.
solution
2. Isomerism
Isomerism phenomenon that two or more molecules are found to have the same
molecular formula but different structural formulae.
Isomerism in alkanes
Molecular formula
CH4
- (no isomer)
Methane
C2H6
- (no isomer)
Ethane
10
C3H8
- (no isomer)
Propane
C4H10
Butane2-methylpropane
C5H12
Pentane2-methylbutane2,2dimethylpropane
Isomerism in alkenes
Molecular formula
C2H4
- (no isomer)
Ethene
C3H6
- (no isomer)
Propene
C4H8
But-1-eneBut-2-ene2-methylpropene
C5H10
Pent-1-enePent-2-ene2-methylbut-1-ene
3-methylbut-1-ene
2-methylbut-2-ene
Physical state
at 25C
11
(C)
(C)
Methanol CH3OH
-97
65
Liquid
Ethanol C2H3OH
-117
78
Liquid
Propanol C3H5OH
-127
97
Liquid
Butanol C4H7OH
-90
118
Liquid
Pentanol C5H9OH
-79
138
Liquid
Solubility in water all members in alcohol are very soluble in water
(miscible with water).
Volatility all alcohols are highly volatile.
Colour and Smell alcohols are colourless liquid and have sharp smell.
Boiling and melting points all alcohols in general have low boiling
points (78C).
5. Chemical properties of alcohol
Combustion of alcohol Complete combustion of alcohol. C2H5OH + 3O2
> 2CO2 + 3H2O (Alcohol burns with clean blue flames. Alcohol burns plenty
of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. This reaction releases a lot
of heat. Therefore, it is a clean fuel as it does not pollute the air.) Other
example: 2C3H7OH + 9O2 > 6CO2 + 8H2O
Oxidation of ethanol In the laboratory, two common oxidising
agents are used for the oxidation of ethanol which are acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) solution (orange to green) and acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution (purple to colourless). C2H5OH + 2[O] >
CH3COOH + H2O Ethanol oxidised to ethanoic acid (a member of the
homologous series of carboxylic acids will be discussed in Part 6). Other
example: C3H7OH + 2[O] > C2H5COOH + H2O
Removal of water (Dehydration) Alcohol can change
to alkene by removal of water molecules (dehydration). It results in the
formation of a C=C double bond. CnH2n+1OH > CnH2n + H2O C2H5OH >
C2H4 + H2O Two methods are being used to carry out a dehydration in the
laboratory. a) Ethanol vapour is passed over a heated catalyst such
asaluminium oxide, unglazed porcelain chips, pumice stone or porous pot.
b) Ethanol is heated under reflux at 180C with excess concentrated
sulphuric acid, H2SO4. Other example: C3H7OH > C3H6 + H2O
6. Uses of Alcohol
Alcohol as a solvent (cosmetics, toiletries, thinners, varnishes, perfumes).
Alcohol as a fuel (fuel for racing car, clean fuel, alternative fuel).
Alcohol as a source of chemicals (polymer, explosives, vinegar, fiber).
Alcohol as a source of medical product (antiseptics for skin disinfection,
rubbing alcohol).
7. Misuse and Abuse
Depressant drug
Alcoholic drinks
Addictive drug
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* reflux = upright Liebig condense to prevent the loss of a volatile liquid
by vaporisation.
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Waxes (beewax) are solid ester derived from long-chain fatty acids and
long-chain alcohols.
5. Uses of Esters
Preparation of cosmetics and perfumes (esters are volatile and have sweet
smell).
Synthetic esters used as food additives (artificial flavour).
Natural esters serves as storage reserve of energy in living things.
In plant, wax (esters) helps to prevent dehydration and attack of
microorganisms.
Esters used as solvents for glue and varnishes.
Esters used to make plastics softer.
Esters used to produce polyester (threads and synthetics fabrics)
Esters used to produce soap and detergents.
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Cholesterol
high
low
State at room
solid
liquid
temperature
Fats (animal) in general are solids at room temperature and acted as:
thermal insulator
protective cushion to protect the vital organ
provide energy and stored in body
carry Vitamin A, D, E, K (insoluble in water)
Example: butter, fish oil (liquid in room temperature)
Fats (plant) are called oils. Oils are liquids at room temperature.
Example: olive oil, peanut oil, palm oil and bran oil
7. Chemical properties of fats
Unsaturated fats can be converted into saturated fats
by hydrogenation (additional reaction) in 200C and 4 atm in the presence
of nickel catalyst.
Example: production of margarine from sunflower oil of palm oil.
8. Effect of fats
Fatty food produce high energy but high consumption of fatty food will results:
obesity
raise the level of cholesterol
deposition will cause block the flow of blood which lead to stroke and heart
attack.
9. Palm oil
It is extracted from fresh oil palm fruits.
Palm oil extracted from the pulp of the fruits.
Steps in extraction of palm oil:
1. sterilising (oil palm fruit)
2. stripping
3. digestion (crushing the husk and fruit and separate the oil by heating)
4. squeezed out the oil
5. extraction (separate the oil from water)
6. purification the oil (palm oil is treated with phosphoric acid and then
steam is passed through to separate the acid)
7. vacuum
Palm kernel oil extracted from the kernel or seed.
Steps in extraction of palm oil:
1. sterilising (oil palm fruit)
2. stripping
3. crushing the husk and fruit
4. extracting kernel oil
5. purification (purify the oil from kernel)
Goodness in palm oil:
higher proportion of unsaturated fats.
easy to digest and absorb.
rich in vitamin A (carotenoid)
rich in vitamin E (tocophenols and tocotrienols)
resist oxidation in high temperature.
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Latex is colloid (35% rubber particles and 65% water).
Rubber particle contains rubber molecules which are wrapped by a layer
of negatively-charged protein membrane. Same charge of rubber
molecules repels each other. This prevent rubber from coagulate.
7. Coagulation process of latex
The process for the coagulation of latex is summarised as:
1. Acid (H+) can neutralise the negatively-charged protein membrane.
Example of acid: formic acid, methanoic acid, suphuric acid and
hydrochloric acid.
2. The rubber molecules will collide after the protein membrane is broken.
3. Rubber molecules (polymers) are set free
4. Rubber molecules combine with one another (coagulation).
8. Natural coagulation process of latex
For the natural coagulation of latex:
1. Latex is exposed to air without adding acid (duration overnight).
2. Coagulation process occurs in slower pace due to the bacteria
(microorganism) action which produce acid)
9. Prevent coagulation process of latex
The following are latex coagulation prevention method:
1. Alkaline / Basic solution is added to the latex. Example: ammonia (NH 3).
2. Positively-charged hydrogen ion / H+ produced by bacteria can be
neutralised by negatively-charged hydroxide ion / OH - from ammonia
solution.
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Properties
Double
bonds
Melting point
Vulcanised rubber
Decreases (formation of
sulphur cross-links)
High (presence of
sulphur)
Elasticity
More elastic (sulphur
cross-links prevents the
polymer chain or rubber
from slipping past.
Strength and Strong and hard
hardness
(depends on degree of
vulcanisation)
Resistant to
heat
Oxidation
Resistant to heat
Resistant to oxidation
(reduction of number of
double bonds per rubber
molecule)
Unvulcanised rubber
More number of double
bonds
Low
Less elastics