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Bristow C., and Mountney N.P. (2013) Aeolian Stratigraphy. In: John F. Shroder (ed.) Treatise on
Geomorphology, Volume 11, pp. 246-268. San Diego: Academic Press.
11.13.1
Introduction
247
11.13.1.1
Wind Ripple Lamination
247
11.13.1.2
Airfall Lamination
247
11.13.1.3
Grainflow/Avalanche Cross-Strata
248
11.13.1.4
Aeolian Plane-Bed Lamination
249
11.13.1.5
Adhesion Ripples
249
11.13.1.6
Aeolian Deflation Lags
249
11.13.1.7
Physically Deformed Strata
249
11.13.1.8
Chemically Deformed Strata
249
11.13.1.9
Pedoturbation and Paleosols in Aeolian Strata
250
11.13.1.10
Bioturbation in Aeolian Strata
250
11.13.2
Bounding Surfaces
250
11.13.2.1
Reactivation Surfaces
250
11.13.2.2
Superposition Surfaces
251
11.13.2.3
Interdune Surfaces
251
11.13.2.4
Super Surfaces
252
11.13.3
Sedimentary Models for Dunes, Interdune, and Sandsheet Strata
252
11.13.3.1
Barchan Dunes
252
11.13.3.2
Transverse Dunes
253
11.13.3.3
Linear Dunes
253
11.13.3.4
Star Dunes
254
11.13.3.5
Parabolic Dunes
254
11.13.3.6
Lunettes
255
11.13.3.7
Nebkhas
256
11.13.3.8
Zibar
256
11.13.3.9
Sand-Sheets
256
11.13.3.10
Interdunes (Wet, Damp, Dry)
256
11.13.3.11
Megadunes
257
11.13.3.12
Compound Dunes
257
11.13.3.13
Complex Dunes
257
11.13.3.14
Computer Simulations of Dune Strata
257
11.13.3.15
Natural Variation
257
11.13.3.16
The Nature of the Aeolian Record
258
11.13.4
Aeolian Stratigraphic Models
258
11.13.4.1
Sequence Stratigraphy in Aeolian Sediments
258
11.13.4.2
Aeolian System Construction
259
11.13.4.3
Aeolian System Accumulation
259
11.13.4.4
Aeolian System Bypass, Destruction, Deflation and Super Surface Generation
261
11.13.4.5
Aeolian System Preservation
263
11.13.4.6
Dynamic Models for the Generation of Aeolian Successions
263
11.13.5
Conclusion
266
References
266
Abstract
Aeolian strata include wind-ripple lamination, airfall lamination, aeolian plane-bed laminae, as well as grainflow (ava-lanche) cross-strata. These small scale
sedimentary structures and their bounding surfaces can be used to reconstruct dune
Bristow, C., Mountney, N.P., 2013. Aeolian stratigraphy. In: Shroder, J. (Editor in Chief), Lancaster, N., Sherman, D.J., Baas, A.C.W. (Eds.), Treatise on Geomorphology. Academic
Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 11, Aeolian Geomorphology, pp. 246268.
246
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00306-7
morphology and style of accumulation. Dunes respond rapidly to changes in wind conditions and the resulting changes in dune morphology are
represented by bounding surfaces that are common in aeolian sandstones. After deposition, aeolian strata may undergo deformation or be reworked
by bioturbation, which disturbs primary lamination and creates its own suite of sedimentary structures. The preservation of aeolian strata within
sedimentary systems is discussed.
Introduction
Wind ripples are very common on the surface of dunes and aeolian
sand sheets, their deposits are widespread and they produce the
most abundant type of aeolian strata. Wind ripple lamination
generally comprises thin (110 mm) parallel laminae defined by
slight changes in grain size. Wind ripples commonly have coarser
and the rate of ripple migration where the critical angle of climb is
the angle of the stoss slope. Subcritically climbing ripples do not
preserve any of the stoss-slope because the angle of climb is too
low. Critically climbing ripples climb at an angle equal to that of
the stoss slope and thus preserve the entire lee slope of the ripple.
Supercritically climbing ripples have an angle of climb greater
than the stoss slope thereby preserving both the stoss side and the
lee side of the ripple form (Figure 1(b)).
Airfall Lamination
Airfall laminae are formed of grains of sand and silt or clay sized
particles deposited from suspension and via a process of modified
saltation. Suspension describes grains that are transported in the air
where the grains are kept in motion by turbulence within the flow.
Aeolian Stratigraphy
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
Figure 1 Photographs of sedimentary structures in dune sands: (a) Pinstripe lamination from wind ripples in Quaternary dune sands, Tunisia.
Wind-ripple lamination exposed in a horizontal section in Quaternary dune sands in Tunisia. The ripples are migrating from left to right and the angle of
climb, which is a function of the rate of ripple migration and the rate of sediment deposition, determines the preservation of the ripple laminae where the
critical angle of climb is the angle of the ripple stoss-slope. Steeper angles of climb that preserve the stoss-slope are said to be super-critical, whereas
lower angles that truncate the lee-side laminae are said to be subcritical. Terminology after Hunter (1977).
Airfall lamination picked out as thin pale-colored laminae draping wind ripple laminated sandstone, Navajo Sandstone, Jurassic, Utah, USA.
Coarse tongues of avalanche/grainflow strata stand out from the enclosing wind-ripple laminated sandstones, viewed in planform looking down on dune
foresets, Miocene, Shuwaihat Formation, Abu Dhabi, UAE. (e) Aeolian planebed on the left passing into wind-rippled sand (lower right) on a modern
dune surface Namibia. (f) Adhesion ripples that accreted upwind, right to left, recent sediments, Tunisia. (g) Lag surface on a sand and gravel covered
interdune in Namibia. (h) Deformation in aeolian strata, Jurassic, Navajo Sandstone, Arizona, USA. (i) Evaporite and dissolution deformation of wet
interdune inland sabkha sediments overlain by aeolian cross-strata, Miocene Shuwaihat Formation, Abu Dhabi, UAE. (j) Rhizoliths preserved in
Miocene aeolian sandstone, Shuwaihat Formation, UAE. (k) Trace fossils with a meniscate backfill attributed to the ichnogenus Taenidium attributed to
burrowing by beetle larvae or termites in Quaternary dune sand, Khomabes, Namibia.
Grainflow/Avalanche Cross-Strata
have inclinations less than the angle of repose and are there-fore
more likely to be dominated by wind ripple and airfall strata. As a
consequence, the sediments deposited at the toe of the dunes have
a higher preservation potential than the ava-lanche strata.
Adhesion Ripples
Aeolian Stratigraphy
Pedoturbation and Paleosols in Aeolian Strata commonly covered in trails from organisms that inhabit desert
Bounding Surfaces
Reactivation Surfaces
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
F
K
J
G
E
H
N
O
I
M
Dry interdune
Dune
Wet interdune
Figure 3 Biotubation and selected secondary sedimentary structures in aeolian dunes. (a) Crane fly larva burrow; (b) termite burrow; (c) burrowing and
disruption of sediment by ants; (d) rabbit track; (e) plant roots; (f) lizard trail; (g) sand-treader cricket burrow; (h) gopher burrow;
(i) wolf spider burrow; (j) sand wasp burrow; (k) beetle trail; (l) toad burrow; (m) aestivating gastropods; (n) desiccation cracks; (o)
evaporate minerals; (p) antelope tracks. Modified from Ahlbrandt, T.S., Andrews, S., Gwynne, D.T., 1978, Bioturbation in aeolian
deposits. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 48, 839848.
Superposition Surfaces
Cross-strata
Interdune surface
Reactivation surface
Super surface
Superposition surface
Interdune Surfaces
Figure 4 Bounding surfaces in aeolian sand dune deposits include
reactivation surfaces formed by reshaping of the dune, superposition
surfaces formed by dunes migrating over larger dune forms, interdune
surfaces and super-surfaces (see text for explanation).
T
w
t
(
n
s
)
E
a
s
t
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
(
m
)
West
Aeolian Stratigraphy
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900 m
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
4
0
0
5
0
0
6
0
0
7
0
0
8
0
0
9
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
2
0
0
10
R
e
a
ct
iv
a
ti
o
n
s
u
rf
a
c
e
S
u
p
e
r
p
o
si
ti
o
n
s
u
rf
a
c
e
R
e
a
ct
iv
a
ti
o
n
s
u
rf
a
c
e
Reactivation surface
2
0
0
2 400
0
Superposition surface
S
u
p
e
r
p
o
si
ti
o
n
s
u
rf
a
c
e
30
D
e
p
t
h
Interdune surface
In
te
r
d
u
n
e
s
u
rf
a
c
e
4
0
6
0
0
800
5
0
(
m
)
60
70
1
0
0
0
500 m
GPR profile
(
a (b)
(c)
Figure 5 GPR profile across a compound dune in the Grand Erg Occidental, Algeria, interpreted
to show reactivation surfaces within dunes and superposition surfaces where smaller dunes are
superimposed on the larger bedform, which could be termed a megadune. The stacking pattern
of cross-strata and bounding surfaces shows that the larger dune is essentially a pile of smaller
dune strata with no clear distinction between an older dune core and younger superimposed
dunes.
Barchan Dunes
Super Surfaces
10
North
15
20
10
15
5
0
20
10
15
10
15
10
15
15
10
20
5
(a)
20
(b)
8 m Depth
5
20
10
15
15
10
20
5
(c)
Transverse Dunes
Linear Dunes
Linear dunes are widespread and are the most common dune form
on Earth. Linear dunes are formed in areas with two wind
directions with the dune crestlines aligned close to the resultant
wind direction, satisfying the gross bedform-normal rule of Rubin
and Hunter (1987). Although sand is trans-ported back and forth
across the crest of linear dunes by opposing winds, the bedforms
appear to propagate by de-position at the end of the dune, thus
advancing across the desert while possibly migrating laterally or
back and forth in a sinuous manner.
Aeolian Stratigraphy
rl
y
31
13
Cov
ered
SW
Main
12
0
(A)
e
x
4
78
16
1
34
Etren v
ch
28
6
3
o
s
e
d
2 11
r
e
25
13 23
29
trench
23
28
(B)
8
26
3
4
1
6
10
(a)
19SSide
26
6
7
2
0
31
NE
33
20
21
?
?
33
0
4
2
5
34
28
expo
sure
s
e
o
14
Met
ers
feet
d
u
n
e
?
18
P
o
o
r
NW
0
10
20
30
Explanation
Feet
set
Figure 7 Line drawings of cross-strata and bounding surfaces exposed in a trench excavated through a
barchanoid dune at White Sands National Monument from McKee, E.D., 1966. Structures of dunes at
White Sands National Monument, New Mexico (and a comparison with structures of dunes from other
selected areas). Sedimentology 7, 369. Section (a) is parallel to the dominant wind direction whereas
Section (b) is perpendicular to the dominant wind direction. Both sections show sets of cross-strata
bounded by abundant reactivation surfaces.
Star Dunes
Parabolic Dunes
Aeolian Stratigraphy
255
(meters)
W
Distance (metres)
E
5
0
10
20
30
40
Profile 1
0.0
Twt (ns)
Elevation
0
5.0
10.0
Legend:
Distance (metres)
Elevation (metres)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Dune
Profile 1
10
Profile 2
Twt (ns)
50
Interdune
100
Profile 2
150
Crest line
Distance (metres)
GPS profile
(metres)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Superimposed
10
Profile 3
(ns)
dune
50
Profile 3
100
Elevation
0
Twt
150
200
Profile 4
Distance (metres)
Profile 5
Elevation (metres)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
0
10
Profile 4
50
Twt (ns)
Profile 6
100
150
200
250
Distance (metres)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
0
Elevation (meters)
10
Profile 5
50
Twt (ns)
100
150
200
250
Distance (metres)
(metres)
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
0
15
Profile 6
50
(ns)
10
100
Elevation
150
Twt
200
250
Figure 8 GPR profiles across a sinuous linear dune from Bristow, C.S., Bailey, S.D., Lancaster, N., 2000. The sedimentary structure of
linear sand dunes. Nature 406, 5659. Profile 1 crosses the distal end of the dune and contains wind-ripple laminated sand that is not
resolved by the radar. Profiles 2 and 3 image strata dipping from left to right indicating lateral migration of the dune toward the east
(right). Profile 4 across a bend in the dune shows a set of strata dipping from left to right, truncated and overlain by strata that dip
from right to left on the outside of the bend. Profile 5 shows increased complexity with strata dipping to left and right as a second
bend propagates along the dune. Profile 6 shows sets of strata dipping from left to right, consistent with the lateral migration shown in
profiles 2 and 3 but truncated and overlain by a superimposed dune on the left side.
Lagoa dune field Brazil (McKee and Bigarella, 1979) show a wide
range of dip directions. Trenches through the nose of parabolic
dunes reveal convex-up strata possibly due to crosswinds undercutting and steepening the dune nose (McKee and Bigarella,
1979). Another key feature of parabolic dunes is the presence of
plant material, roots and gently warped or hummocky strata where
sand is trapped in clumps of vegetation, and/or scoured from
between vegetation stands. Strata within the arms of parabolic
dunes dip away from the interlimb corridor and as a result there is
a wide range of dip directions. At White Sands, 73 readings of true
dip in foresets showed a spread of 2001, and 161 readings of
truncated foresets in adjacent interdune areas showed a spread of
2101; these values compare with spreads of 601401 for
barchanoid ridge and transverse dunes at White Sands (McKee and
Bigarella, 1979). Three-dimensional GPR surveys of parabolic
dunes by Giradi and Davis (2010) image strata that is convex in
planform as well as in section.
Lunettes
Aeolian Stratigraphy
Nebkhas
zibar lower lee face are preserved. The lowangle inter-zibar deposits are overlain
tangentially by finer grained wind-ripple
laminae of the zibar lee face dipping at less
than 151. An unpublished GPR profile across a
zibar in the Sabkha Matti, Abu Dhabi, showed
low angle reflections parallel to the dune
surface, confirming the expectation that they
contain conformable low-angle strata. Similar
low-angle strata have been recorded in a
coarse-grained, elongate whaleback dune in
Antarctica (Bristow et al., 2010a).
Sand-Sheets
Zibar
Dry interdunes occur well above the watertable. Some deep-rooted plants may be able to
establish themselves in these areas and
xerophytic species become temporarily
Megadunes
Complex Dunes
Compound Dunes
Natural Variation
Aeolian Stratigraphy
Distance (m)
Intercept BB
T
wt
(n
s)
(a
)
T
wt
(n
s)
100 m
0
2 80
0
1
0
0
4
0
6
0
1
0
B
A
B
5
0
100
150
Elevation
In
te
rc
e
pt
A
(
m
)
40
60
80
100
120
is
ta
n
c
e
(
m
)
Dune location
0
2
0
1
0
J
a
n
u
ar
y
2
0
1
1
G
P
R
pr
o
fil
e
5
0
Reactivation
s
ur
fa
c
e
1
0
0
Base of dune
Elevation
1
5
0
(
m
)
(b)
Figure 9 GPR profiles along and across a simple barchan dune in southern Morocco which has
been migrating from north to south and slightly toward the west. The northsouth profile shows
inclined reflections attributed to reactivation surfaces.
In dry aeolian systems, where the water table or its capillary fringe
does not interact with the sediment surface, dune con-struction
Site of
Downwind deceleration of airflow
sediment
supply
(clastic or carbonate)
Common sources:
Zone of aeolian
Zone of aeolian
Zone of aeolian
Zone of aeolian
Fluvial,
transport
dune field
dune field
dune field
coastal,
(Aeolian
construction
construction
accumulation
glacial ,
sandsheets)
(Extensive interdune flats)
(Isolated interdune
volcanigenic,
depressions)
older aeolian
Deflation
Bypass
Accumulation
Figure 10 The concept of dry aeolian system construction, in which aeolian bedforms grow and migrate over time but do not climb to
form an accumulation until interdune flats have been reduced to isolated depressions.
exhibit along-crest
Isolated depressions
sinuosities that
at angle of repose
generate large-scale
sets of trough
cross-bedding
Reactivation surfaces
100
1.20 m
Dune
migration
500
significantly
beneath the
Climbing bedforms
accumulation
(a)
generate cross-
surface
stratified sets
Trough cross-bedding
200
with successive
of a train of bedforms
crestline sinuosities
50
accumulations of near-flat
surface
interdune depressions
Accumulation
representing the preserved
(b)
(c)
Figure 11 Stratigraphic architecture arising from aeolian system accumulation in a dry aeolian system. (a) Simple depositional
model for transverse bedforms with the typical range of scale indicated (in part courtesy of Oliver Wakefield); (b) example from
the Permian Cedar Mesa Sandstone, Utah; (c) example from the Jurassic Najavo Sandstone, Utah.
Aeolian Stratigraphy
261
Migrating dunes
Accumulated
Accumulated
t1
t2
Component of
absolute water
table rise
Water table
Accumulation surface
Former water table
(a)
Migrating dunes
Accumulated
Accumulated
t1
t2
damp interdune strata
dune strata
Component of
relative water
Water table
Accumulation surface
table rise
Component of
(b)
subsidence enables
in an absolute sense
accumulation
Figure 12 Schematic illustration of the concept of absolute and relative changes in water-table level and their role in enabling
accumulation in wet aeolian systems.
Aeolian Stratigraphy
200
Dune number
175
150
Cover (1980)
Cover (1980)
metr
es
125
100
75
50
25
Cover (1980)
Cover (1980)
Cover (1980)
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450 1500
metres
thickness
Tramline
packages of
strata
(a)
100
W
a
v
climb overtime
l
e
16
n
g
t
h
(
m
)
I
n
t
e
r
d
u
n
e
w
a
v
e
l
e
n
Time step
g
t
100
h
(
m
)
A
g
Aggradation rate
g
r
a
d
a
ti
o
n
l
e
v
e
l
(
m
)
20
(m/time step)
Time step
100
S
h
o
w
n
accumulating wet
aeolian dune
r
d
system, showing
dune-interdune
morphology and
resultant
n
u
m
b
architecture based
on controlling
e
r
sedimentary
Time step
100
Time step
100
a progressive rise
Climb angle is
determined by the
ratio between the
Aggradation rate overtime
rates of migration
and aggradation.
Model output from
Dunemodeller
200
175
bedform modeling
software.
Cover (1980)
150
metr
Cover (1980)
es
125
Cover (1980)
100
75
Cover (1980)
Transport
50
25
Cov
er
(198
0)
Cov
er
(198
0)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
120
0
125
0
130
0
135
metres
0
140
0
145
0
1500
by non-climbing episodes
100
Wavelength (m)
Angle of bedform
climb overtime
16
Aggradation
level (m)
20
0
Aggradation rate
(m/time step)
Time step
100
0
4
0
(b)
Time step
100
resultant
sedimentary
architecture based
0
Time step
100
on controlling
parameters that are
variable over both
Time step
100
Dunes reduce in
vary in size and
angle of climb
temporally. Wet
interdune units
expand and become
increasingly
interconnected
Aggradation rate overtime
Figure 13 Stratigraphic architectures arising from aeolian system accumulation in wet aeolian systems. (a)
Simple architecture in which dune and interdune size (downwind bedform spacing), and angle of climb itself a
function of the ratio between the rate of bedform migration and the rate of bedform accumulation remain
constant over both space and time. (b) Complex architecture arising from cyclical temporal changes in dune
and interdune size and angle of climb, and an accompanying spatial change in dune and interdune size from a
dune-field center to its margin. For ease of depiction angles of climb depicted are greater than those common
in nature. See Mountney (2012) for further explanation.
Near-surface
of salt crusts
(Roots reach to
wind speed,
Water
water table)
table
encouraging
in semi-arid climates
Wet interdune
(e.g. Gypsum)
Veget
ation
Pione
er
veget
ation
Clima
Stabilization of dune
pond where
x
veget
ation
to stabilize dunes
locally
water table
flanks by precipitation
meets accumulation surface
1m
Figure 14 Stratigraphic architecture arising from aeolian system accumulation in a stabilizing aeolian system, with photo examples
from the SkeiXararsandur dune field, southern Iceland.
Aeolian Stratigraphy
t1
Bypass super
surface model
t2
t3
(b)
(a)
t2
Deflationary super
surface model
t3
root structures
interdunes climb to
accumulate a
succession of
cross-bedded sets
and inclined
bounding surfaces
Generation of subsequent aeolian
dune accumulations and their
Interruption of dune
accumulation, for
example in
response to fluvial
partial
preservation following repeated
episodes of deflation; deflationary
incursion along
interdune corridors;
sequences
Generation of
surfaces
subsequent aeolian
dune accumulations
and their
preservation
following repeated
episodes of fluvial
accumulation;
incursion; bypass
colonized by plants,
surface
supersurfaces
bound aeolian
sequences
Generation of
subsequent aeolian
stabilization; stabilization
dune accumulations
and their
preservation
topography preserved)
(c)
Figure 15 Models for the generation and preserved expression of super surfaces arising from a
termination of episodes of aeolian accumulation. (a) Model for bypass super surface generation.
(b) Model for deflationary super surface generation. (c) Model for stabilization super surface
generation.
Model for the exceptional preservation of an aeolian dune field system due to marine inundation due to a relative sea-level rise.
t1
t2
Water
Dune topography
Former aeolian
Initial marine
Later marine
Marine limestone
partly eroded
sandstone reworked
deposits drape relic
deposits compensate
Marine shale
during marine
by mass transport
topography; thinner
for any remaining
transgression;
flows; accumulation
on bedform crests
topography to
Reworked aeolian
relic bedforms
in interdunes as
and thicker in
generate a low-
Aeolian dune
preserved
homogenized deposits
interdune depressions
relief sea bed
(a)
Emplacement of successive
Availability of sediment for aeolian
basalt flows repeatedly raises the
transport diminishes as the upwind
base level; pauses between flows
sand supply is progressively
enable dunes to become
covered by flood basalts; preserved
temporarily re-established.
dunes diminish in size up-succession.
(b)
Figure 16 Models for the preservation of aeolian system accumulations through exceptional circumstances. (a) Inundation of an
aeolian dune field in response to marine incursion; (b) inundation of an aeolian dune field by flood basalts, with photo examples from
the Cretaceous Etjo Formation, Namibia.
Aeolian Stratigraphy
Conclusion
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Aeolian Stratigraphy
Biographical Sketch
Professor Charlie Bristow is an Assistant Dean and Head of Department at the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck College University of London. He
has a B.Sc. in Geology from the University of Sheffield and a Ph.D. in the Sedimentology of braided rivers: ancient and modern from the University of Leeds. He has
over twenty years experience in conducting GPR surveys in a wide range of environments including, the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh and the Niobrara River in
Nebraska. He has surveyed sand dunes in the deserts of America, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica as well as beach ridges in Australia, New Zealand, and the UK and
published extensively on the subject including editing a book on GPR in Sediments with Harry Jol.
Dr Nigel Mountney is Director of the Fluvial & Eolian Research Group at the School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, UK. He has a BSc in Geology and
Geography from the University of Nottingham, MSc in Computing in Earth Sciences from Keele University, and PhD in Tectonics and Sedimentation from the
University of Birmingham. He has more than 15 years of experience in the sedimentology and stratigraphy, aeolian and fluvial systems and their preserved successions,
and has worked extensively in Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, and North America. He has published on a variety of topics in sedimentology and stratigraphy and is
coauthor of the textbook Sedimentary Structures.