CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is a system that is associated with the transportation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood, dissolved substances, digested food substances, gases (carbon dioxide and
oxygen), electrolytes, nitrogenous waste products and hormones in and out of the body system.
The circulatory or cardiovascular system includes the heart as a muscular pumping organ, a
blood vessel which includes arteries, veins, lymph and capillaries. The circulatory system
consists of the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
Pulmonary circulation is the circulation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood within the heart
and the lungs. While systemic circulation is the circulation of oxygenated blood through the
artery round the systems, organs, tissues of the body for the supply of food substance, oxygen
and removal of nitrogenous waste product from the body by veins.
The cardiovascular system structures are;
Heart
Pulmonary circulation
Systemic circulation
Blood
Blood Vessels; Arteries and Veins.
HEART
The heart is a hollow muscular pumping organ that is situated at the mediasternum of the
thoracic cavity. The heart has an apex and a base, the apex is inferior to the base. The heart is of

the size of the owners fist and it is found at the level of the second rib. The heart is covered by
pericardium which is a sling-like structure, pericardium help to attach the heart with the
surrounding structures in the thoracic cavity.
The coverings of the heart are of three layers of tissues, epicardium as the outer covering,
myocardium the middle middle layer and the most muscularized layer of the heart and
endocardium the inner most layer that is continuous with the blood vessels arteries, veins and the
chambers of the heart.
The heart is divided into two equal halves by septum while the valves further divide the heart
into four chambers, the upper right and left atria and the lower right and left ventricles. The right
atrium and right ventricle are separated by the tricuspid valve while the left atrium and left
ventricle is separated by the bicuspid valve (mitral) the two valves are also called atrioventricular
valves. However, other valves are found within the heart such as the pulmonary valves these
valves help to prevent the damping back of blood from the ventricles into the atrium and from
the pulmonary arteries and veins. Chordae tendineae help to anchor the valves to the ventricular
wall (It is a tough fibrous tissue).
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG OR EKG)
The cardiac impulses that stimulate the muscles of the muscles of the heart to contract is
called electrical signal. This is measured by placing 12 electrodes on the chest and attached
the electrode to a recording device, hence the recording is called electrocardiogram

P Wave: is the atrial depolarization. Atrial depolarization occurs when there is

inflow/ influx of sodium ion (Na+) inside the cell to make the inside of the cell to be positive

thereby making the heart muscles to contract. QRS Complex: this is when the ventricles
depolarized i.e. ventricular depolarization.
T Wave: - Reflect the electrical activity that is concerned with ventricular repolarizationthereby making the inside of the cell to become negative
P-R interval: - this is time it takes the cardiac impulse to travel from the atria to the
ventricles (P wave QRS Complex) i.e. atrial depolarization
ST: - This is the time it takes the cardiac impulse to move travel from the atrial to the
ventricles repolarization of ventricles
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Pulmonary circulation is the circulation of both deoxygenated and deoxygenated blood within
the heart and the lungs. The heart received deoxygenated blood from the whole body system
through the inferior and superior vena cava into the right atrium when the right atrium is filled up
with deoxygenated blood the tricuspid valve will open and then pour or inject the blood into the
right ventricle the blood in the right ventricle then enters into the lungs through the pulmonary
arteries which is the only artery that carry deoxygenated blood in the body through the opening
of the pulmonary valves. It should be understood at this point that the two atria contract and relax
simustianously or at the same time.
At the lungs there is exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the lungs tissue
capillaries which then leads to the exchange of oxygen from the high concentrated region to the
lower concentrated region with that of carbon dioxide from higher concentrated area to low
concentrated region thereby making deoxygenated blood to become oxygenated (the mechanism

of gaseous exchange is termed diffusion). The oxygenated blood is then transported by the
pulmonary veins into the left atrium where it is poured into the left ventricle that push the
oxygenated blood into the main aorta or ascending aorta from where the oxygenated blood is
circulated into the whole body system through the branches of the arch of the aorta
Brachiocephalic, right and left Common Carotid and right and left Subclavian arteries and the
decending aorta. At this point where the blood enters into the ascending aorta mark the end
pulmonary circulation and the beginning of systemic circulation
BLOOD
The blood is the fluid connective tissue of the body, the blood is divided into two major
components:
Plasma
Formed Cells
Plasma forms about 55% of the total blood volume and it is the liquid part of the blood that
consists of the following dissolved substances: gases e.g. carbon dioxide, oxygen, Protein
globulin Hormones Electrolytes: Calcium, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride
Formed cells: The formed cells account for about 45% of the total blood volume Red blood cells,
white blood cells and Platelets.
The red blood cells (RBC) contain haemoglobin that helps to transport oxygen round the body.
During packed cell volume (Pcv) procedure it is the volume of the formed cells that determine if
an individual is anemic or not
The (WBC) white blood cells act as the first level of the body defense mechanism that is
providing immunity for the body. The white blood cells consists of the following parts;
Eosinophil, Basophil, Lymph, Leukocytes, Monophil.
PACKED CELL VOLUME ANALYSIS (PCV)

PLASMA 55%

WHITE BLOOD CELL

(BUFFER)

RED

BLOOD CELLS (RBC) 45%

BLOOD FORMATION

STEM CELL

Proerthroblast.

Myloblast.

Lymphoblast.

Monoblast.

Megakaryoblast.

Megakarcyte
Monocyte
Lmphocyte
Platelet (Thrombocyte)

Reticulocyte

Erythrocytes

Progranulocyte:

Basophil

Neutrophil

Eosinophil

BLOOD CLOTTING
A clot is a network of thread-like protein fibers, called fibrin which help to trap blood cells,
(Rbc & Wbc) platelets and fluid. Blood vessels constriction and platelet plugs are not
sufficient to arrest bleeding in the case of major injury to the body system blood vessels. When
blood vessel is severely damaged, blood clothing or coagulation result in the formation of a
clot.
The formation of a blood clot depends on a numerous / numbers of proteins found within the
plasma that is called clotting factors. In normal condition the clotting factors are inactive but
when there is injury the clotting factors are activated to bring or cause clotting of the blood.
Blood clotting is a complex process involving many chemical reactions within the body system
that involves the blood and the circulatory system.
The chemical reaction involved in blotting is in two ways; the contact of inactive clotting
factors with the injured or exposed connective tissues result in the activation of the clotting
factors; chemicals such as thromboplastin, released from the injured or damaged connective
tissues can also cause the activation of the clotting factors.
When the initial clotting factors have been activated they will in turn activate other clotting
factors. During this other reactions enzyme prothrombinase is formed this enzyme will act on
the inactive prothrombin (inactive clotting factor) and then convert it to active thrombin.
Thrombin will then convert fibrinogen (inactive clotting factor) into fibrin which is active
clotting factor which is a threadlike protein.
A each step of clotting process each clotting factor activate many additional clotting factors. A
the end of the activation of the clotting factors large quantity of clotting factors is activated/
formed thereby resulting in the formation of blood clot.
Most clotting factors are manufactured in the liver and many of the require vitamin K for the
synthesis of the clotting factors. Also calcium (Ca+) is required in the process of clot
formation with the chemical release from the platelets.

Low levels of vitamin K+, Ca+ platelets and reduced synthesis of clotting factors due to liver
dysfunction or disease of the liver can bring about reduced clot formation.

ABO, ANTIGENS AND BLOOD TYPES

Blood is classified according to specific antigens on the surface of the RBC. An antigen is a
genetically determined substance that the body recognizes as foreign. As a foreign substance, an
antigen stimulates an antigen-antibody response. This response is designed to attack the antigen.
The ABO grouping contains four blood types: A, B, AB and O. the letters A and B refer to the
antigen on the RBC. What does it mean to be type A, B, AB or O. A person with type A blood
has the A antigen on the RBC. A person with type B blood has a B antigen on the RBC. A person
with type AB blood has both A and B antigens on the RBC. A person with type O blood has
neither A nor B antigen on the RBC. Remember that antigen is located on the RBC membrane.
Antibodies and Blood Type
In addition to the antigens on the RBCs, specific antibodies are found in the plasma of each
blood type. Antibodies bind to specific substances and inactivate them. A person with type A
blood has anti-B antibodies in the plasma. A person with type B blood has anti-A antibodies in
the plasma. A person with type AB blood has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
The person with type O blood has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
The ABO blood group system is used to categorise human blood ABO Antigens on the surface of
the red blood cells. Type A blood has type A antigens, Type B blood has Type B antigens while
Type AB blood has both A and B type antigens and O blood has neither A or B antigens.

In addition, plasma from Type A blood contain anti-B antibodies which act against Type B
antigens; whereas plasma from Type B blood contains anti-A antigens which act against Type A
antigens.
Type AB blood plasma has neither Type of antibody and type O blood plasma has both anti A and
B antibodies.
The ABO blood types are not found in equal numbers. In USA , the white people has the
following distribution,
Type O -------47%,
Type A--------41%
Type B---------9%
Type AB-------3%
African American
Type O---------47%
Type A---------27%
Type B---------20%
Type AB--------7%
Antibodies do not normally develop against an antigen unless the body is exposed to that
antigen. Example a person with type A blood would not have anti-B antibodies unless he or she
receives blood transfusion of type B blood that contains type B antigens.

Individuals with type A blood do have anti-B antibodies, not necessarily that they have received
a blood transfusion of a type B blood, one possible explanation is that type A or B antigen can be
present in the body as a result of bacterial infection or food in the digestive tract which will
further stimulate the formation of antibodies.
Antigen-Antibodies Interaction
The blood type A contains the A antigen (RBC) and anti-B antibodies (plasma). What would
happen if a person had the A antigen on his RBCs and anti-A antibodies in his plasma. The A
antigen and the anti-A antibody would cause a clumping reaction much like the curdling seen
when milk and vinegar are mixed together.
The clumping of the antigen-antibody interaction is called agglutination. Agglutination reaction
causes the RBCs to burst or lyse, a process called hemolysis. If rapid hemolysis were to occur
within the circulation, hemoglobin would be liberated from the RBCs and would eventually clog
the kidneys and possibly cause death.

URINARY SYSTEM/RENAL SYSTEM

Structures of Urinary System:
Kidneys
Bladder
Ureter
Urethra

Prostate gland
EXCRETORY ORGANS:
Kidneys: Help to excrete Drugs. Urea, Water and Electrolytes
Skin: Help to excrete urea, Water and Electrolytes
Intestine: Help to excrete Bile & Feaces
Lungs: Help to excrete Carbon dioxide and water
KIDNEY
The kidneys are two in number the right and left reddish-brown beanlike shaped organ located at
the retro- peritoneal cavity, the right kidney is lower than the left due to the location of the liver.
The kidney is enclosed or covered by tough fibrous capsule, kidney is about 10cm long and
about 5cm wide and about 2.5cm in thickness. The indentation of the bean shaped kidney is
called HILLUS and it is at that point that the nerve, blood vessels and ureter enters and exit the
kidney.
When the kidney is cut longitudinally, three structural regions can be well identified
Renal cortex
Renal medulla
Renal pelvis
The lighter outer region is called the cortex i.e. back/outer layer, while the darker triangular
region is the renal medulla which is located deeper within the kidney. The renal medulla is in
striped cone shaped regions called the renal pyramids in which each pyramid is separated by

renal columns which are extensions of the renal cortex. The calyces help to collect the urine
formed by the nephrons which is the functional unit of the kidney.
BLOOD SUPPLY:
Blood supply to the kidney is from the right and left renal arteries that are branches that arise
from the abdominal aorta. Renal artery delivers a large amount of blood to the kidneys which is
about 20-25% of the total cardiac output, after entry into the kidney, the renal artery makes
contact with the nephrons, which are the urine forming structure of the kidneys, the kidneys are
drained by the renal veins.
FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY
Maintains fluids and electrolyte balance of the body
Helps in excretion of nitrogenous waste product
Maintains the acid base balance of the body
Maintains blood pressure with rennin secretion
Helps to regulate red blood cells through erythropoietin secretion
URETER:
The ureters are two in numbers and that connects the kidneys to the bladder, the ureters originate
from the pelvis of the kidney, and they are 10 -13inches long. The ureter is slender structure that
helps to transport urine to the bladder, by peristaltic movement or rhythmic contraction, if there
is any obstruction of the tube the flow of urine into the urinary bladder will be prevented thereby
causing pain and renal colic due to backup of urine, infection to the kidney can also occur from
the backup of urine.

URINARY BLADDER:
The urinary bladder acts as a temporary storage organ for urine or reservoir of urine; it is below
the peritoneal membrane when emptied and behind the pubis symphysis. When the urinary
bladder is full it rises to the abdomen and it can be palpated at the lower abdomen, the bladder
has four layers of muscles namely:

the mucous membrane and the epithelium-innermost

the epithelium is continuous with the ureters
sub-mucosa that contains connective tissues and elastic fibers
Detrusor muscle.

The outermost layer of the upper part of the bladder is called serosa, the lower part of the bladder
is covered by connective tissues. The bladder is arranged in folds called rugae. Rugae allows the
bladder to stretch or expand as it is filled with urine (200mls). The trigon of the urinary bladder
is in a triangular shape and forms a three point: the entrance of the ureters, the exit point of the
ureters. Trigon is very important in such that it is an area of infection i.e. infection persist at this
point. The exit of the urinary bladder contains sphincter muscles; internal sphincter-involuntary
control, external sphincter- control voluntary. Internal sphincter consist of smooth muscles that
contracts involuntarily to prevent the emptying of the urinary bladder.
URINE FORMATION
Urine is formed in the nephrons which is the functional unit of the kidney. During the formation
of urine, water and dissolved substances move between the vascular and tubular structures of the
kidneys.

There are three processes involved in the formation of urine:

1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular re-absorption
3. Tubular secretion
Glomerular filtraton:
Urine formation begins in the glomerulus and Bowmans capsule. Glomerular filtration causes
water and dissolved substances to move from the glomerulus into the Bowmans capsule, that is
afferent and efferent arterioles which forms the network of blood capilleries. Filtration occurs
when the pressure in one of a membrane is greater than the pressure on the opposite side. The
pressure in the glomerulus is higher than the pressure in the Bowmans capsule, hence, the
pressure difference that brings about the driving forces of filtration.
The wall of the glomerulus contains pores that act as a sieve or strainer. The size of the pores
determines the substances that are allowed to pass through or move across the walls of the
glomerulus to the Bowmans capsule. Small substances such as water, sodium, potassium,
chlorine, uric acid and ceratinine moves across the pore easily. These substances are filtered in
proportion to their plasma concentration, that is, if the concentration of a particular substance is
high much of the substances will be filtered. Large molecular substances cannot be filtered
through the glomerular walls, examples red blood cells, protein and glucose. Hence they remain
in the glomerulus or they are reabsorbed back in to the body. The filtered substances are called
glomerular filtrate, (Water and dissolve substances). The glomerular filtration rate per day is 180
liters (125ml/min)

Tubular Re-absorption:
Most of the filtrate, approximately 178.5 liters is re-absorbs into the circulation at the proximal
and distal tubules of the kidney, this is the process water and dissolve substances move from the
tubules back into the blood stream. All the re-absorption occurs throughout of the renal tubule,
mainly in the proximal convoluted tubule. The kidney determines the types and quantity of
substances to be re-absorbed, examples Glucose (sugar) are completely re-absorbed to the body.
HORMONAL CONTROL OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTES BY THE KIDNEY
ALDOSTERONE (Homeostasis)
Aldosterone is a hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland (supra renal gland).
Aldosterone acts majorly/primarily by reabsorbing sodium and water from the distal renal tubule
of the kidney and the excretion of potassium, thereby resulting in increasing blood volume and
blood pressure. If there is a decrease in aldosterone production it result in low blood volume, low
blood pressure and shock.
Rennin help in the secretion of aldosterone, and rennin is an enzyme secreted by the
juxtaglomerular apparatus in the afferent arterioles of the kidney. Rennin then initiates what is
known as rennin angiotensin aldosterone system/mechanism.
Rennin help to activate angiotensin often secreted by the liver into angiotensin I which circulate
in the blood constantly is an inactive form (not potent).
Angiotensin I is then converted into angiotensin II by angiotensin converting enzyme which is
highly potent/active. Angiotensin II then help to stimulate the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland

to release aldosterone which is the chief mineralocorticoid that help in the re-absorption of
sodium (Na) and water of the distal tubule and favor the excretion of potassium.
Angiotensin II is a vasopressor which cause vasoconstriction thereby causing elevated or
increase in blood pressure one can then say that rennin angiostensin aldosterone system help in
the regulation of blood volume and blood pressure.
Clinically, blood pressure can be controlled by drugs like angiotensin converting enzyme
inhibitors (ACEI) by blocking the convention of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, example of such
drug is Enalapril.
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)/ Vasopresin
ADH is another hormone that helps in the reabsorption of water in the body by helping to
concentrate urine. ADH is secreted by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary
gland pending its release for use; the posterior pituitary is also called neurohypophysis (i.e. under
the control of the nervous system).
ADH work primarily on the collecting ducts by determining the permeability of water, with the
presence of ADH the collecting duct become permeable to water hence water is reabsorbed from
the collecting duct into the peritubular capillaries. This then means that ADH help to decrease the
excretion of urine but favors the excretion of concentrated urine (ADH helps to concentrate
urine). The absence of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) leads to an increase in urine production due
to the inability of the kidney collecting duct to reabsorb water which result in the production of
diluted urine. ADH plays a vital role in determining blood volume and blood pressure, excessive
ADH increase blood volume while deficiency of ADH decreases blood volume. The stimulus for

ADH release is due to increased solute concentration in blood plasma and decrease blood
volume.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM//GASTRO-INTESTINAL SYSTEM

Definition of digestion: The small intestine. In protists and some invertebrates, digestion
occurs by phagocytosis. This is the process by which complex food substances is
chemically and physically broken down into simple, simpler and absorbable
substances/chemical compounds that can be absorbed and used as nutrients for the
growth and repair of worn out tissues and elimination of waste products by the body. In
most animals, nutrients are obtained from food by the action of digestive enzymes. In
humans and other higher vertebrates, digestion takes place mainly in the duodenum of
the first part of the small intestine while little or no digestion occurs in the stomach which
only acts as a reservoir for the food eaten or ingested.

PROCESS OF FOOD DIGESTION:

Types

MECHANICAL (PHYSICAL)

Chew

Tear

Grind

Mash

Mix

Catabolic reactions

Enzymatic hydrolysis

CHEMICAL

Carbohydrate

Protein

Lipid

Ingestion

Movement

Digestion

Absorption

Further digestion

PHASES:

Gastrointestinal (Gl) tract (Alimentary canal) Tube within a tube Direct link/path between
organs
STRUCTURES:

Mouth

Oral Cavity

Pharynx

Esophagus

Stomach

Duedenum

Jejenum

kIleum

Cecum

Ascending colon

transverse colon

DESCENDING COLON:

Sigmoid colon

Rectum

Anus

Accessory structures

Not in tube path

Organs

Teeth

Tongue

Salivary glands

Liver

Gall bladder

Pancreas

PERMANENT TEETH:

SALIVARY GLAND:

DEGLUTITION/SWALLOWING:
Sequence
Voluntary stage
Push food to back of mouth
Pharyngeal stage
Raise
Soft palate
Larynx and hyoid
TONGUE TO SOFT PALATE

Esophageal stage

Contract pharyngeal muscles

Open esophagus

Start peristalsis

Nerves

Glossopharyngeal

Vagus

Accessory

Brain stem

Deglutition center

Medulla oblongata

Pons

Disorders

Dysphagia

Aphagia

CONTROL:

EOSOPHAGUS:
Sphincters

Upper

Lower

Achalasia

Atresia

Hernia

Barrets esophagus

Esophageal varices

Abnormalities:

STOMACH:

Usually J shaped

Left side, anterior to the spleen

Mucous membrane

G cells make gastrin

Goblet cells make mucous

Gastric pit Oxyntic gland Parietal cells Make HCl

Chief cells Zymogenic cells

Pepsin

Gastric lipase

MUSCLE LAYERS STOMAC:

Longitudinal
Circular
Oblique

Circular

Longitudinal

Regions

Cardiac sphincter

Fundus

Antrum (pylorus)

Pyloric sphincter

Vascular

Inner surface thrown into folds Rugae

Contains enzymes that work best at pH 1-2

Functions:

Mixing of food substances

Reservoir/Storage of food

Begin the digestion of food

The stomach secrete hydrochloric acid and gastro (mucus)

Protein

Nucleic acids

Fats

Activates some enzymes

Destroy some bacteria

Makes intrinsic factor B 12 absorption

Destroys some bacteria

Absorbs
Alcohol

Water

Lipophilic acid

B 12

SMALL INTESTINE:

Extends from pyloric sphincter Ileocecal valve

Regions

Duodenum

Jejenum

Ileum

Movements

Segmentation

Peristalsis

Intestinal glands Intestinal enzymes

Duodenal glands Alkaline mucous

Paneth cells Lysozyme

Microvilli

Lacteals

Plica circularis

Smooth muscle

Lymphatic tissue

Vascular

Histology

Secretes digestive enzymes

Peptidases
Sucrases
Maltase
Lactase

Saccharidases
Lipase
Nucleases
Small intestine

Villi of the small intestine

LARGE INTESTINE:

Extends from ileocecal valve to anus

Regions

Cecum Appendix

Colon

Ascending

Transverse

Descending

Rectum

Anal canal

Histology:

No villi

No permanent circular folds

Smooth muscle

Taeniae coli

Haustra

Epiploic appendages

Otherwise like rest of gastrointestinal tract

Chime dehydrated to form feces

Feces composition

Water

Inorganic salts

Epithelial cells

Bacteria

Byproducts of digestion

Defecation

Peristalsis pushes feces into rectum

Rectal walls stretch

Parasympathetic

Voluntary

Control

LIVER
Location:

Right Hypochondrium

Epigastric region

4 Lobes

Left

Right

Quadrate

Caudate

Each lobe has lobules Contains hepatocytes Surround sinusoids Feed into
central vein

Functions:

Makes bile
Detergent emulsifies fats
Release promoted by:
Vagus nerve
Cholecyctokinase (CCK)
Secretin
Contains
Water
Bile salts
Bile pigments
Electrolytes
Cholesterol
Lecithin

Liver Detoxifies/Removes:
Drugs
Alcohol
Stores
Gycolgen
Vitamins (A D E K)
Fe and other minerals
Cholesterol
Activates vitamin D

Fetal RBC production

Phagocytosis

Metabolizes absorbed food molecules

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Lipids:

Dual blood supply:

Hepatic portal vein

Direct input from small intestine

Hepatic artery/vein

Direct links to heart

Anterior view of liver

Biliary System:

REPRODUCYIVE SYSTEM

Sac of loose skin, fascia & smooth muscle divided into two pouches by a septum
Temperature regulation of testes
Introduction:

Sexual reproduction produces new individuals

Gametes (sperm & egg) formed by testes and ovaries

Fertilization produces one cell (a zygote)with one set of chromosomes from each
parent

Creates genetic variation

Gonads produce gametes & secrete sex hormones

Reproductive systems

Gonads, ducts, glands & supporting structures

Gynecology is study of female reproductive system

Urology is study of urinary & male reproductive system

Male Reproductive System:

Gonads, ducts, sex glands & supporting structures

Scrotum

Sac of loose skin, fascia & smooth muscle divided into two pouches by a septum

Temperature regulation of testes

Sperm survival requires 2-3 degrees lower temperature than core body
temperature

Muscle in scrotum

Elevates testes on exposure to cold & during arousal

Warmth reverses the process

Testes:

Paired oval glands measuring 2 in. By 1in.

Surrounded by dense white capsule

Septa form 200 - 300 compartments called lobules

Each is filled with 2 or 3 seminiferous tubules where sperm are formed

--- Sperm survival requires 2-3 degrees lower temperature than core body temperature
----Muscle in scrotum

Elevates testes on exposure to cold & during arousal

Warmth reverses the process

Scrotum

Spermatogenesis
Sperm forming cells go through two meiotic divisions. Each of four spermatids develop into a
sperm.
Second meiosis division give four spermatids,each with 23 single stranded chromosomes

First meiosis division give two secondary spermatocytes, each with 23 chromosomes that
become double stranded.
Primary spermatocyte with 2n=46 chromosomes
Spermatogonium with 2n=46 chromosomes multiply by mitosis.

Sperm Morphology
Adapted for reaching and fertilizing the egg

Head contains DNA and the acrosome with enzymes for penetrating the egg

Midpiece contains mitochondria to form ATP for energy

Tail is flagellum used for locomotion

Hormonal Control of Male Physiology

Head contains DNA and the acrosome with enzymes for penetrating the egg
Midpiece contains mitochondria to form ATP for energy
Male Glands:

Semen

Mixture of sperms and seminal fluid

60% from seminal vesicles, 30% from prostate

Slightly alkaline, milky appearance and sticky

Contains nutrients, clotting proteins & an antibiotic to protect the sperms

Typical ejaculate is 2.5 to 5 ml in volume

Normal sperm count is 50 to 150 millions/mL

Actions of many sperm are needed for one to enter

If less than 20 millions/mL sterile

Erection:

Sexual stimulation

Parasympathetic nervous system reflex

Dilation of the arterioles supplying the penis

Blood enters the penis compressing the veins so that the blood is trapped

Blood sinuses of penis engorge with blood

Erection

Emission and Ejaculation

Emission

Muscle contractions close sphincter at base of bladder

Fluids propelled through ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, & ejaculatory ducts
into bulb of penis

Prostatic fluid secreted into urethra

Ejaculation

Sympathetic nervous system reflex

Skeletal muscles squeeze semen out through urethra

Control is Negative FB by increased testosterone and inhibin

Spermatogenesis

Female Reproductive System

Ovaries produce eggs (ocytes) & hormones
Uterine tubes transport the eggs
Uterus where fetal development occurs

Function female reproductive organs:

Ovaries produce eggs (ocytes) & hormones

Uterine tubes transport the eggs

Uterus where fetal development occurs

Vagina or birth canal

External genitalia constitute the vulva

Mammary glands produce milk

The Ovary:

Pair of organs, size of unshelled almonds in upper pelvic region

Histology:

Capsule of dense CT

Cortex just deep to capsule contains follicles with egg cells (ocytes)

Medulla is middle region composed of connective tissue, blood vessels &

lymphatics

Germinal epithelium is peritoneal membrane covering the ovary

Ovarian Follicles

Ovarian Follicles:

Contain ocytes (egg cells) in various stages of development

Secrete estrogens that function for:-

Growth and repair of uterine lining

Regulation of monthly female cycle

Female sexual characteristics

Maintenance of bone and muscle

Mature (Graafian) follicle releases an ocyte each month during ovulation

Ovarian Follicles

Ocytes (egg cells) develop within follicles

Stages of follicular development:

Primordial follicle

Primary follicle

Layers of cuboidal granulosa cells around the ocyte

Granulosa cells secrete estrogens

Ovarian Follicles

Secondary follicle

Antral cavity forms

Graafian follicle

Single layer of squamous cells around the ocyte

Follicle mature ready to ovulate ocyte

Ovulation

Follicle ruptures releasing ocyte

Corpus Luteum:

After ovulation, empty follicle becomes a corpus luteum

Corpus Luteum secretes:

Progesterone completes the preparation of uterine lining

Estrogens work with progesterone

Relaxin relaxes uterine muscles and pubic symphysis

Inhibin decreases secretion of FSH and LH

Corpus albicans is a white scar tissue left after the corpus luteum dies.

Ogenesis Ogonia to Ocytes

Germ cells from yolk sac migrate to ovary and become potential egg cells called ogonia

In fetus, millions of ogonia produced by mitosis but most of them degenerate (atresia)

Some develop into immature egg cells called primary ocytes during fetal development

200,000 to 2 millions present at birth

40,000 remain at puberty but only 400 mature during a womans reproductive life

Each month about 20 primary ocytes become secondary ocytes but usually only one
survives to be ovulated from Graffian follicle

Ogenesis

Uterine or Fallopian Tubes

Narrow, 4 inch tube that extends from the ovary to uterus

Infundibulum is open, funnel-shaped portion near the ovary

Fimbriae are moving finger-like processes

Ampulla is central region of tube

Isthmus is narrowest portion joins uterus

Uterine or Fallopian Tube:

Functions -- events occurring in the uterine tube

fimbriae sweep ocyte into tube

Cilia and peristalsis move it along

Sperm reaches ocyte in ampulla

Fertilization occurs within 24 hours after ovulation

Zygote reaches uterus about 7 days after ovulation

Anatomy of the Uterus

Site of menstruation
& development of fetus

Description

3 inches long by 2 in.

Wide and 1 in. Thick

Subdivided into fundus,

body & cervix

Interiorly contains uterine cavity accessed by cervical canal

Histology of the Uterus

Endometrium

Simple columnar epithelium

Stroma of connective tissue and endometrial glands

Functional layer

Basal layer

Replaces functional layer each month

Myometrium

Shed during menstruation

3 layers of smooth muscle

Perimetrium
--Visceral peritoneum

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

Site of menstruation& development of fetus

Description 3 inches long by 2 in, wide and 1 in. thick the uterus is
Subdivided into fundus, body and cervix.
Vagina:

Passageway for birth, menstrual flow and intercourse

Description

4 inch long fibromuscular organ ending at cervix

Lies between urinary bladder and rectum

Orifice partially closed with membrane (hymen)

Mammary Glands:

Modified sweat glands that produce milk (lactation)

Amount of adipose tissue determines size of breast

Milk-secreting mammary glands alveoli open by lactiferous ducts at the nipple

Areola is pigmented area around nipple

Suspensory (Coopers) ligaments suspend breast from deep fascia of pectoral

muscles
BREAST

Physiology of the Breast:

Milk production and secretion

Estrogens develop the ducts system in the breasts

Progestrone develop the milk-secreting glands which are called alveoli

Prolactin stimulate milk synthesis in the alveoli

Oxytocin stimulate milk ejection from the alveoli

Physiology of Mammary Glands Continued

Milk ejection (release from glands)

Nursing stimulates the hypothalamus to produce oxytocin

Oxytocin secreted from the posterior pituitary

Oxytocin causes smooth muscles around alveoli to contract and squeeze milk into
lactiferous ducts, lactiferous sinuses and into the nipple

Operated by positive feedback

Modified sweat glands that produce milk (lactation)

Amount of adipose tissue determines size of breast

Milk-secreting mammary glands alveoli open by lactiferous ducts at the nipple

Areola is pigmented area around nipple

Suspensory (Coopers) ligaments suspend breast from deep fascia of pectoral

muscles

Milk production and secretion

Estrogens develop the ducts system in the breasts

Progestrone develop the milk-secreting glands which are called alveoli

Prolactin stimulate milk synthesis in the alveoli

Oxytocin stimulate milk ejection from the alveoli

Milk ejection (release from glands)

Nursing stimulates the hypothalamus to produce oxytocin

Oxytocin secreted from the posterior pituitary

Oxytocin causes smooth muscles around alveoli to contract and squeeze milk into
lactiferous ducts, lactiferous sinuses and into the nipple

Operated by positive feedback

Female Reproductive Cycle:

Controlled by monthly hormonal cycle from the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and ovary

Monthly cycle of changes in ovary and uterus

Ovarian cycle: Menstrual Cycle

Changes in ovary during and after maturation of the follicle and oocyte

Uterine cycle (menstrual cycle)

Preparation of the uterus to receive fertilized ovum

If implantation does not occur, the functional layer of endometrium is shed during
menstruation

Hormonal Regulation of Reproductive Cycle:

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH), secreted by the hypothalamus, controls the

female reproductive cycle

Stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) &

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

FSH & LH target the ovaries and drive the ovarian cycle (monthly changes in the ovary)

Estrogens and progesterone from the ovaries drive the uterine cycle (monthly changes in
the uterus)

Phases of Ovarian Cycle:

Follicular Phase

FSH from anterior pituitary stimulates follicle growth

Follicles grow into Graafian (mature) follicle

Granulosa cells of follicle secrete estrogens and inhibin

Increasing levels of estrogens and inhibin inhibit FSH

Increasing estrogens also stimulates secretion of LH

LH stimulates rupture of the Graafian follicle and release of ocyte from

ovary into the pelvic cavity

Fimbriae of Fallopian tube picks up the ovulated ocyte

Ovulation

Phase of Ovarian Cycle

Luteal phase (postovulatory phase)

LH stimulates development of Corpus luteum from ovulated or ruptured follicle

Corpus luteum secretes mostly progesterone & some estrogens

Progesterone prepares endometrium for possible pregnancy

Phases of Uterine Cycle

Proliferative phase:

Rising estrogen levels from the growing follicle stimulates growth of the
functional layer of endometrium to 4-10 mm thickness

Secretory phase

Corpus luteum of ovary secretes progesterone

Progesterone stimulates

Increased thickening of the functional layer of endometrium to 12-18 mm

Increased blood supply into the endometrium

Growth of endometrial glands and secretion of uterine milk

Phase of Uterine Cycle:

Menstruation phase (menses)

Decline in progesterone levels causes functional layer of endometrium to

discharge resulting in vaginal bleeding called menstruation

Mark the beginning of the next cycle

Summary of Ovarian and Menstrual Cycles

Negative Feedback Controls Cycle

If pregnancy does not occur:

Increasing levels of progesterone cause negative feedback that inhibits LH

secretion

After about two weeks corpus luteum atrophies to corpus albicans (white body)

Progesterone and estrogen levels decline

Functional layer of endometrium discharged into first five days of next cycle

Negative Feedback

Starting the next cycle

With the decline in progesterone, estrogens and inhibin secretion:

Inhibition of GnRH, FSH and LH stops

Renewed secretion of these hormones starts a new cycle of growth and

preparation in ovaries and uterus

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The Ovary:
Pair of organs, size of unshelled almonds in upper pelvic re
Histology:
Capsule of dense Connective tissue
Cortex just deep to capsule contains follicles with egg cells (ocytes) Medulla is
middle region composed of connective tissue, blood vessels &lymphatics
Germinal epithelium is peritoneal membrane covering the ovary