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FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA


FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT
FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPE (E1)
Name
Matrix No.
Group / Section
Supervisor
Date of Experiment
Date of Submission
Marks obtained (%)

1.0

Objectives

The objectives of this experiment are


i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

2.0

To measure head loss in pipes for different water flow rates, pipe diameters and
pipe roughness.
To estimate the values of loss coefficient for pipes of different flow conditions,
diameters and roughness.
To study the effect of the velocity of the fluid, the size (inside diameter) of the
pipe, the roughness of the inside of the pipe on the values of loss coefficient.
To study the effect of sudden change in pipe diameter and flow direction on the
total energy or head losses in pipes

Introduction

As an incompressible fluid flows through a pipe, a friction force along the pipe wall is
created against the fluid. The frictional resistance generates a continuous loss of energy
or total head in the fluid and hence decreases the pressure of the fluid as it moves
through the pipe. There are four factors that determine friction losses in pipe
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

The velocity of the fluid.


The size (inside diameter) of the pipe
The roughness of the inside of the pipe
The length of the pipe

In addition to energy or head loss due to friction, there are always head losses in pipes
due to an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, bends, junctions, valves etc.,
which are commonly known as minor or small losses. When the direction of flow is
altered or distorted, energy losses occur which are not recovered are dissipated in eddies
and additional turbulence and finally lost in the form of heat. However, this energy must
be supplied if the fluid is to be maintained in motion, in the same way, as energy must be
provided to overcome friction. In practice, in long pipe lines of several kilometres the
2

effect of minor losses may be negligible. For short pipeline the losses may be greater than
those for friction.

3.0

Theory

In Bernoulli's equation as shown below, hf represents the head loss due to friction between
the fluid and the internal surface of the constant diameter pipe as well as the friction between
the adjacent fluid layers
p1/g + V12/2g + Z1 = p2 / g + V22/2g + Z2 + hf

(1)

This will result in a continuous change of energy from a valuable mechanical form (such as
kinetic or potential energies) to a less valuable thermal form that is heat. This change of
energy is usually referred to as friction head loss, which represents the amount of energy
converted into heat per unit weight of fluid .

The head losses (hf) in pipe due to friction can be determined using Darcy-Weisback
equation;
Turbulent flowhf = 4 fLV2

(2)
2 gD

hf = 32 fLQ2
2gD5

Laminar flow

(3)

Where:
f
L
V
g
D

=
=
=
=
=

Friction factor
Length
Mean velocity (Q/A)
Gravity
Constant diameter

The friction head loss for both laminar and turbulent flows can be expressed by similar
formulas although the original derivation of each one is different:
hf f

L V2
D 2g

(4)

In laminar flow, the friction factor is only a function of Reynolds number


while for turbulent flow it is a function of Reynolds (R e) number and the
relative roughness of the pipe.
Re

VD

(5)

where : density, V: average velocity, D: pipe inside diameter, : viscosity.


4

Based on the nature of the flow, friction factor (f ) can be estimated using the following
correlations
Laminar flow

= 64

(6)

Re
Turbulent Flow

f = 0.316 x Re -0.25

(7)

Equation (7) is Blausius Equation and only valid for smooth pipe and 3000 < Re< 105.
The value of f for turbulent flow can be obtained experimentally from the Moody Chart.
Moreover, for turbulent flow, the relationship between hf and V takes the form
hf = K. Vn

(8)

where K is a loss coefficient and n ranges from 1.7 to 2.0 (depending on


the value of Re and ks/D).This equation can be written as
Log hf = Log K + n Log V

(9)

in order to find K and n experimentally, using graph


Experimentally, one can obtain the head loss by applying energy equation
between any two points along a constant diameter pipe. This is done in
Eq. 1 and by noticing that the pipe is horizontal and the diameter is
constant. The pressure heads of a fluid between 2 points , h 1 and h2, are
measured by using Piezometer tubes. The total head loss can be
determined experimentally by applying the Bernoullis equation as
follows:

hf = (P1- P2) /g = h1 - h2

(10)

Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it flows around an
elbow, through an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through a valve.
Experimental values for energy losses are usually reported in terms of a resistance or loss
coefficient K as follows:
hL

KV 2
2g

(11)

where hL is the minor loss, K is the resistance or loss coefficient, and V is the average
velocity of flow in the pipe in the vicinity where the minor loss occurs. The resistance or
loss coefficient is dimensionless because it represents a constant of proportionality
5

between the energy loss and the velocity head. The magnitude of the resistance
coefficient depends on the geometry of the device that causes the loss and sometimes on
the velocity of flow.
Minor losses at sudden enlargement
When a fluid flows from a smaller pipe into a larger pipe through a sudden enlargement,
its velocity abruptly decreases, causing turbulence, which generates an energy loss.

where,
V1 = velocity at small cross-section (upstream)
V2 = velocity at large cross-section (downstream)
The minor loss (hL) due to sudden enlargement of the pipe can be estimated by
integrating the momentum, continuity and Bernoulli equations between positions 1 and 2
to give
hL

V1 V2 2

(12)

2g

Substituting again for the continuity equation to get an expression involving the two
areas, (i.e. V2=V1(A1/A2) gives
KV1
hL
2g

(13)

Where , K

A
1 1
A2

D
1 1

D2

Minor losses at sudden contraction


When a fluid flows from a larger pipe into a smaller pipe through a sudden contraction,
the fluid streamlines will converge just downstream of the smaller pipe, known as vena
contraction phenomena, creating a turbulence region from the sharp corner of the smaller
pipe and extends past the vena contracta, which subsequently generates an energy loss.

In a sudden contraction, flow contracts from point 1 to point 1', forming a vena
contraction. It is possible to assume that energy losses from 1 to 1' are negligible (no
separation occurs in contracting flow) but that major losses occur between 1' and 2 as the
flow expands again

If the vena contracta area is A1=Ac, then the minor loss (hL) can be estimated by
integrating the momentum , continuity and Bernoulli equations between positions 1 and 2
to give
A
hL 1 C
A2

V22
2g

(14)

The above equation is commonly expressed as a function of loss coefficient (K) and the
average velocity (V2) in the smaller pipe downstream from the contraction as follows;
hL

Where

KV2
2g

(15)

A
K 1 C
A2

As the difference in pipe diameters gets large (A 1/A2 0) then this value of K will tend
towards 0.5 which is equal to the value for entry loss from a reservoir into a pipe. The
value of K depends upon the ratio of the pipe diameters (D2/D1) as given below;
D2/D1
K

0
0.5

0.1
0.45

0.2
0.412

0.3
0.39

0.4
0.36

0.5
0.33

0.6
0.28

0.7
0.15

0.8
0.15

0.9
0.06

1.0
0

Minor Losses at elbow or bend pipe


Losses in fittings such as elbow, valves etc have been found to be proportional to the
velocity head of the fluid flowing. The energy loss is expressed in the general form,
hL

KV 2
2g

(16)

where,

K = loss coefficient (dependent on the ratio of total angle of bending to


radius of bending (R/d) of the curves as the bending occurs)

Experimental determination of total head loss


In the experiment the pressure heads before and after a fluid
undergoing sudden change in pipe diameter or flow direction, h 1 and h2,
are measured by using Piezometer tubes. The total head loss (major
and minor losses) can be determined experimentally by applying the
Bernoullis equation as follows:
P1/g + Vl 2 / 2 g + Z1 = P2/g + V2 2 / 2 g + Z2 + hL

(17)

hl + Vl 2 / 2 g + Z1 = h2 + V2 2 / 2 g + Z2 + hL

(18)

and since Z1 = Z2 ,

then

hL h1 h2

V12 V22
2g

(19)

4.0

Apparatus

10

Linear Pipe
1
2

Section
A (rough)

Diameter (mm)
25.0

Length (mm)
1030

B (smooth)
A (rough)

23.5
14.0

1030
1030

B (smooth)

13.3

1030

Note 1: Q (m3/s) = Q (1/min) x 1.667 x 10-5


Note 2 : Reynold Number for linear pipe assumed at room temperature
Pipe 1A: Re = 29.2 x 103 x V

Pipe 2A: Re = 16.4 x 103 x V

Pipe 1B: Re = 27.5 x 103 x V

Pipe 2B: Re = 15.5 x 103 x V

Table of Water Dynamic Viscosity and Density at Different Temperatures

5.0

Temperature (oC)

(kg/m3)

(x 10-3 N.s/m3)

999.8

1.781

1000.0

1.518

10

999.7

1.307

15

999.1

1.139

20

998.2

1.002

25

997.0

0.890

30

995.7

0.798

40

992.2

0.653

50

988.0

0.547

60

983.2

0.466

70

977.8

0.404

80

971.8

0.354

90

965.3

0.315

100

953.4

0.282

Experimental Procedure

11

Open all outlet valves of pipes 1, 2 and 4 (valves are in parallel with the pipes). Make
certain that the control valve in closed position (turn clockwise). Switch on the pump and
slowly open the control valve (turn counter-clockwise) until maximum, and wait for a
while in order to remove any air bubble in the flowing pipe.
Important Note:
To identify which inlet flowing pressure (H1) and outlet flowing pressure (H2) during
installation of water manometer rubber tube, determine the direction of water inflow and
outflow through the pipe.
A)

B)

Experiment with Pipe 2A: Rough Surface


1.

Connect rubber tube of water manometer at inlet flowing pressure (H1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) for rough surface of Pipe 2A.

2.

Reduce the flow rate (Q) by slowly closing the control valve (turn
clockwise) until flow rate of 26 liter/minute is achieved. Then, rise both
water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and outlet
flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time close the outlet valves of
pipes 1 and 4 (turn clockwise) but let only the outlet valve of pipe 2 open .
At this moment the flowing system is for pipe 2A of rough surface. During
the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe, the air will move
through the water manometer rubber tube. Air bubbles will move to the
peak of the higher tube. Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass
tube.

3.

Readjust the flow rate to 26 liter/minute, and determine 5 (five) flow rates
Q from value of 26 liter/minute to the lowest value 12 liter/min (let the
increment as large as possible). Record the values of H 1 and H2 in
millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of water manometer flowing
pressures as Q is changed.

Experiment with Pipe 2B: Smooth Surface


1.

Move manometer rubber tube from the outlet flowing pressure (H 2) of the
rough surface of pipe 2A to inlet flowing pressure (H1) of smooth surface
of pipe 2B. The system is now flowing through pipe 2B (smooth surface).

2.

Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches 26 liter/minute.
During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe, the air will
move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube. Remove the
air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.

12

3.

C)

D)

Determine 5 (five) flow rates (Q), similar to Pipe 2A (rough surface).


Record the values of H1 and H2 in millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the
outlet of water manometer flowing pressures as Q is changed.

Experiment with Pipe 1A: Rough Surface


1.

Move both manometer rubber tubes of inlet (H1) and outlet (H2) flowing
pressures of pipe 2B (smooth surface) to the section of pipe 1A (rough
surface).

2.

Open the outlet valve of pipe 1 (turn counter-clockwise), and close the
outlet valve of pipe 2 (turn clockwise). The system is now flowing through
pipe 1A (rough surface).

3.

Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches maximum value
42 liter/min. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.

4.

Readjust the flow rate to appropriate maximum value 42 liter/min, and


determine 5 (five) different flow rates Q from manimum value to the
lowest value 12 liter/min (let the increment as large as possible). Record
the values of H1 and H2 in (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of water
manometer flowing pressures as Q is changed.

Experiment with Pipe 1B: Smooth Surface


1.

Move the manometer rubber tubes from outlet (H2) flowing pressures of
pipe 1A (rough surface) to inlet (H 1) flowing pressure of pipe 1B (smooth
surface). The system is now flowing through pipe 1B (smooth surface).

2.

Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches maximum value
42 litter/min. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.

3.

Determine 5 (five) different flow rates Q similar to pipe 1A (rough


surface). Record the values of H1 and H2 in (mm) of the inlet and the outlet
of water manometer flowing pressures as Q is changed.

13

E)

F)

Experiment with Pipe 4: Sudden Enlargement


1.

Move both manometer rubber tubes of inlet (H1) and outlet (H2) flowing
pressures of pipe 1B (smooth surface) to the section of pipe 4 (Sudden
Enlargement).

2.

Open the outlet valve of pipe 4 (turn counter-clockwise), and close the
outlet valve of pipe 1 (turn clockwise). The system is now flowing through
pipe 4 (Sudden Enlargement).

3.

Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches 30 liter/minute
value. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe, the air
will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.

4.

Readjust the flow rate to 30 liter/min, and determine 5 (five) flow rates Q
from value of 30 liter/minute to the lowest value 12 liter/min (let the
increment as large as possible). Record the values of H 1 and H2 in
millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of water manometer flowing
pressures as Q is changed.

Experiment with Pipe 4: Sudden Contraction


1.

Move the manometer rubber tubes from the inlet flowing pressure (H 1) of
pipe 4 (sudden enlargement) to the outlet flowing pressure (H 2) of pipe 4
(sudden contraction). The system is now flowing through pipe 4 (sudden
contraction).

2.

Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches value 30
liter/minute. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.

3.

Readjust the flow rate to appropriate value 30 liter/minute, and determine


5 (five) different flow rates Q from value 30 liter/minute to the lowest
value 12 liter/min. (let the increment as large as possible). Record the
values of H1 and H2 in millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of water
manometer flowing pressures as Q is changed.

14

G)

H)

Experiment with Pipe 4: 90o Bend


1.

Move the manometer rubber tube from the inlet flowing pressure (H 1) of
pipe 4 (sudden contraction) to the outlet flowing pressure (H 2) of pipe 4
(90o bend). The system is now flowing through pipe 4 (90o bend).

2.

Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches value 30
liter/minute. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.

3.

Readjust the flow rate to appropriate maximum value 30 liter/min, and


determine 5 (five) different flow rates Q from value 30 liter/min to the
lowest value 12 liter/min. (let the increment as large as possible). Record
the value of H1 and H2 in millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of
water manometer flowing pressure as Q is changed.

Experiment with Pipe 4: Elbow


1.

Move the manometer rubber tube from the inlet flowing pressure (H 1) of
pipe 4 (90o bend) to the outlet flowing pressure (H2) of pipe 4 (elbow). The
system is now flowing through pipe 4 (elbow).

2.

Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches value 30
liter/minute. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.

3.

Readjust the flow rate to appropriate maximum value 30 liter/minute, and


determine 5 (five) different flow rates Q from value 30 liter/minute to the
lowest value (let the increment as large as possible). Record the value of
H1 and H2 in millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of water
manometer flowing pressure as Q is changed.

15

6.0

Experimental data and analysis


ftheo

Pipe

2A

2B

hf.theo

hf.exp

fexp

h=h1-h2)

(Eq. 10)

26

4.33

920

35

4.91

0.882

14.46

(Eq 6 or
(Eq. 4)
Eq. 7 or
Moody
diagram)
0.162
0.473

22

3.67

770

155

4.91

0.747

12.25

0.168

0.352

0.615

0.294

18

3.00

660

240

4.91

0.611

10.02

0.177

0.248

0.420

0.300

14

2.33

565

320

4.91

0.475

7.790

0.189

0.160

0.245

0.290

12

2.00

530

350

4.91

0.407

6.670

0.196

0.122

0.180

0.289

26

4.33

915

185

4.34

0.998

15.47

0.159

0.625

0.730

0.186

22

3.67

780

245

4.34

0.846

13.11

0.166

0.469

0.535

0.189

18

3.00

660

300

4.34

0.691

10.71

0.174

0.328

0.360

0.191

14

2.33

570

350

4.34

0.537

8.320

0.185

0.211

2.220

0.193

12

2.00

535

370

4.34

0.461

7.150

0.193

0.162

0.165

0.197

Q
(1/min)

Q x 10-4
(m3/s)

h1
(mm)

h2
(mm)

A
2
(m x10-4)

V
(m/s)

Re
(x 103)

(m)

2 Dgh f ,exp

0.885

0.303

LV 2

16

Pipe

1A

1B

Q x 10-4
(m3/s)

Q
(1/min)

h1
(mm)

h2
(mm)

A
(m x10-4)
2

V
(m/s)

Re
(x103)

ftheo

hf.theo

hf.exp

fexp

(Eq 6 or
Eq. 7 or
Moody
diagram)

(Eq. 4)

h=h1-h2)

(Eq. 10)

(m)

2 Dgh f ,exp

28

4.67

390.2

300

4.91

0.951

28.33

0.137

0.260

0.09

0.047

24

4.00

373

315

4.91

0.815

24.29

0.142

0.198

0.06

0.043

20

3.33

360

330

4.91

0.678

20.20

0.149

0.144

0.03

0.031

16

2.67

353

340

4.91

0.544

16.21

0.157

0.098

0.013

0.021

12

2.00

349

345

4.91

0.407

12.13

0.169

0.059

0.004

0.011

28

4.67

384

305

4.34

1.076

29.59

0.135

0.349

0.079

0.031

24

4.00

370

315

4.34

1.168

32.12

0.132

0.402

0.055

0.018

20

3.33

365

317

4.34

1.402

38.56

0.126

0.553

0.048

0.011

16

2.67

363

320

4.34

1.749

48.10

0.120

0.820

0.043

0.006

12

2.00

365

325

4.34

2.335

64.21

0.111

1.352

0.04

0.003

LV 2

Table for Data of Sudden Enlargement Pipe


Q
(1/min)

Qx10-4
(m3/s)

h1
(mm)

h2
(mm)

h
(m)

A1
(m2x10-4)

A2
(m2x10-4)

V1
(m/s)

V2
(m/s)

hL,theo
(m)
Eq. 2

hL,exp
(m)
Eq. 9

K
hL,exp /(V12/2g)

17

28

4.67

5356

525

0.01

1.39

4.26

3.360

1.096

0.261

0.524

0.911

24

4.00

490

485

0.005

1.39

4.26

2.878

0.939

0.192

0.382

0.905

20

3.33

445

440

0.005

1.39

4.26

2.396

0.728

0.133

0.266

0.909

16

2.67

405

400

0.005

1.39

4.26

1.921

0.627

0.085

0.173

0.920

12

2.00

365

363

0.002

1.39

4.26

1.439

0.469

0.048

0.096

0.910

Table for Data of Sudden Contraction Pipe


Q
(1/min)

Qx10-4
(m3/s)

h1
(mm)

h2
(mm)

h
(m)

A2
2
(m x10-4)

A2
2
(m x10-4)

V1
(m/s)

V2
(m/s)

hL,theo
(m)
Eq. 5

hL,exp
(m)
Eq. 9

hL,exp /(V22/2g)

28

4.67

845

280

0.565

4.26

1.39

1.096

3.360

0.288

0.051

0.089

24

4.00

765

300

0.465

4.26

1.39

0.939

2.878

0.211

0.088

0.208

20

3.33

635

335

0.300

4.26

1.39

0.782

2.396

0.146

0.039

0.133

16

2.67

560

340

0.220

4.26

1.39

0.627

1.921

0.094

0.052

0.276

12

2.00

485

360

0.125

4.26

1.39

0.469

1.439

0.053

0.031

0.294

V
(m/s)

hL,theo
(m)
Eq. 6

hL,exp
(m)
Eq. 9

Table for Data of 90o Bend Pipe


Q
(1/min)

Qx10-4
(m3/s)

h1
(mm)

h2
(mm)

h
(m)

A
2
(m x10-4)

hL,exp /(V2/2g)

18

28

4.67

825

2201

0.605

1.27

3.677

0.262

1.294

1.878

24

4.00

735

250

0.485

1.27

3.150

0.192

0.991

1.960

20

3.33

640

295

0.345

1.27

2.622

0.133

0.695

1.983

16

2.67

550

330

0.220

1.27

2.102

0.086

0.445

1.976

12

2.00

475

355

0.120

1.27

1.575

0.048

0.246

1.946

hL,exp
(m)
Eq. 9
1.469

K
hL,exp /(V2/2g)
2.132

Table for Data of Elbow Pipe


Q
(1/min)

Qx10-4
(m3/s)

h1
(mm)

h2
(mm)

h
(m)

A
2
(m x10-4)

V
(m/s)

28

4.67

860

80

0.780

1.27

3.677

hL,theo
(m)
Eq. 6
0.262

24

4.00

755

155

0.600

1.27

3.150

0.192

1.106

2.187

20

3.33

640

230

0.410

1.27

2.622

0.133

0.760

2.169

16

2.67

545

295

0.250

1.27

2.102

0.086

0.475

2.109

12

2.00

475

340

0.135

1.27

1.575

0.048

0.261

2.064

19

20

7.0

Laboratory report

1. See handout (Laboratory Report Format)


2. Additional report requirement
i.
ii.

Plot a graph of ftheo and fexp versus Re on the same graph and
comment on the results.
Plot a graph between experimental hf and V on a log-log paper to
obtain the values of K and n in eq. (9) for turbulent flow in a pipe.
Use log-log paper and remember that n, the slope of the straight
line, is given as n = (log hf 1 - log hf 2 ) / (log V1 - log V 2 ). The yintercept gives the value of log K.

a. Calculate the value of n. Theoretically, the head loss due to friction is


proportional to the velocity of the flow (i.e. hf = kV2/2). Comment on the
obtained value of n.
b. Discuss the effect of fluid velocity, pipe roughness and pipe diameter on the
value of loss coefficient (K) and hence friction loss in pipe.
iii.
iv.

Plot (hL)th and (hL )exp versus Q on the same graph. Compare the
difference between the experimental and theoretical results and
discuss on the effect of fluid flowrate on energy loss.
Plot on the same graph paper graphs of (hL )exp versus V21/2g (sudden
enlargement), V22/2g (sudden contraction), V2/2g (90o bend) and
V2/2g (90o elbow)
a. Estimate the value of loss coefficient (K) , i.e. slope of the
graph, for each flow condition
b. Compare the K values and briefly discuss the effect of pipe geometry
on the value of loss coefficient and hence energy loss in pipe.
c. Compare the average value of K with the theoretical value for
the experiments involving sudden pipe enlargement and 90 o
bend.

v.

Briefly discuss factors contributing to errors or inaccuracy in experimental data


and propose recommendation to improve the results

21

GRAPH RESULT:

22

23

24

25

26

1.value of n:
n = (log hf 1 - log hf 2 ) / (log V1 - log V 2 )
pipe 2A: (log 0.84 log 0.32)/ (log 0.84 log 0.46)
= 1.4688
pipe 2B: (log 0.54 log 0.16)/ (log 0.82 log 0.44)
= 1.0525
pipe 1A: (log 0.075 log 0.01)/ (log 0.9 log 0.5)
= 0.1612
pipe 1B: (log 0.05 log 0.04)/ (log 01.35 log 2.1)
= 0.0234

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

Result and discussion:


1.

34

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