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YJFCA 2440 17
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis xxx (2014) xxxxxx
Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received 5 April 2013
Received in revised form 3 March 2014
Accepted 12 July 2014
Available online xxx
Precise data on food chemical composition is crucial for any quantitative nutrition research and
indispensable for evaluation and planning of computer-based menus. Moreover, exact food chemical
composition is of the utmost importance in composing specic diets that may be low in certain essential
nutrients. Therefore, this research evaluated a weekly vegan menu using three different food
composition databases (FCDB): the Croatian, the ofcial Danish Food Composition Database and the
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.
Signicant differences (p < 0.05) were determined in evaluated and optimised offers for the same menu
when using different FCDBs. Furthermore, in these menus quantities of some nutrients have not reached
ofcial daily recommendations needed for prevention of non-communicable diseases. In this research,
new vegan menus that can provide adequate quantity of essential nutrients, regardless of FCDB utilized,
were created with linear optimisation (LO). This resulted in high quality daily menu offers. However,
depending on the FCDB that was used, optimal menus differed in daily meal combinations, and the
effectiveness of the optimisation in the minimisation of differences caused by differences of data in
FCDBs was tested. Linear optimisation has been proved to be an effective tool in planning of specic
diets, such as vegan diets. Nonetheless, the quality of computer-planned menus depends heavily on the
quality of FCDB used.
2014 Published by Elsevier Inc.
Keywords:
Food analysis
Food composition database
Diet evaluation
Menu planning
Linear optimisation
Vegans
Vegetarians
Food composition
1. Introduction
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.07.002
0889-1575/ 2014 Published by Elsevier Inc.
Please cite this article in press as: Oreskovic, P., et al., Computer-generated vegan menus: The importance of food composition database
choice. J. Food Compos. Anal. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.07.002
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Table 1
Weekly vegan menu.
Meal
Abbreviation
Meal
components
Breakfasts
B1
B2
B3
B4
Oatmeal
Pasta with olive paste, fresh orange juice, apples
Oatmeal with bananas and grapefruit
Milkshake with strawberries, bananas and walnuts,
pasta
Multi-grain bread with margarine and marmalade,
grapefruit juice
Polenta with sweet syrup and almond decoration
Muesli with nuts, raisins and soymilk
B5
B6
B7
Lunches
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
Suppers
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
Snacks
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
Fruits
F 1F 5
F 6F 11
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
105
106
107
108
109
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112
113
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Please cite this article in press as: Oreskovic, P., et al., Computer-generated vegan menus: The importance of food composition database
choice. J. Food Compos. Anal. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.07.002
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Min F w j B j w j L j w j S j w j SN j wk F k
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Subject to
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aij B j aij L j aij S j aij SN j w j F j < or or > bi
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Q7 Daily dietary recommendations from the IOM (2002) and WHO (2003) used as
limitations in the linear optimisation.
Observed
limitation
Energy (Ed)
Protein
Dietary bre
Carbohydrates
Total fat
Saturated fat
Sodium
Calcium
Iron
Zinc
DRI
WHO
Limitations
according to used
food databases
Lower
limitation
Table 3
Basic features of used food composition databases (FCDBs).
Feature of the FCDB
Croatian
Danish, FCDB7.01
USDA, rel. 23
Year of publication
Number of items
Number of components
Include processed
food/prepared meals
1991
582
34
Yes/No
2008
1049
113
Yes/Yes
2010
7636
34
Yes/Yes
(IOM, 2003). When the WHO recommendations were used, lower and
upper limitation is already dened, and they were used as bi.
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Table 4
Comparison of average energy and nutrient content for the 7-day vegan menu
calculated using data from three different FCDBs (mean and SD) for the same food
ingredients.
Observed content
10% Ed
27 g
55% Ed
15% Ed
0% Ed
/
Upper
limitation
15% Ed
40 g
75% Ed
30% Ed1
10% Ed
6g
FCDBs
Danish
Croatian
Energy (kJ)
Protein (g)
Dietary bre (g)
Carbohydrates (g)
Total fat (g)
Saturated fats (g)
Sodium (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Zinc (mg)
USDA
SD
SD
SD
8959.4
57.5
64.0
295.3
88.6
12.1
2252.7
685.3
22.3
8.6
749.9
6.1
5.9
26.8
11.9
1.6
262.5
69.6
2.1
1.1
9486.1
62.0
55.2
341.0
88.5
16.3
1771.5
1079.1
24.1
8.7
935.7
6.9
4.7
31.9
13.7
3.2
241.7
177.1
4.1
1.1
10252.3
62.6
64.4
347.3
90.6
11.9
2057.3
1092.3
28.5
12.7
843.8
6.1
5.4
30.7
12.9
1.8
188.5
163.6
4.4
1.7
Please cite this article in press as: Oreskovic, P., et al., Computer-generated vegan menus: The importance of food composition database
choice. J. Food Compos. Anal. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.07.002
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The Reinivuo method (Reinivuo et al., 2009) includes the
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calculation of energy and nutritional composition by the multipli210
cation of the content with appropriate yield and retention factors,
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but this method was not applied in this study because the factors
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were not known for all FCDBs. If the same yield and retention
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factors had been used for different FCDBs, the effect would have
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been the same as the effect that is achieved when the energy and
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nutrient content for all meal ingredients were just multiplied with
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their content and summarized. A study conducted in 1999 by
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McCollough and co-workers compared four nutritional databases
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in the DASH trial where the results showed deviations that varied
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for most nutrients due to the chemical analysis used in detection of
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the food components.
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Critical nutrients for a vegetarian diet according to the
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American Dietetic Association (2009) include proteins, n3 fatty
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acids, iron, zinc, iodine, calcium, and vitamins D and B12. Vitamin
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B12 intake among Croatian vegetarians and vegans, based on
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weighed 7-days food records, is estimated at 1.6 and 0.2 mg,
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respectively (Satalic, 2009). Due to limited food choices, additional
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effort is needed to plan an adequate vegan diet. Beside the daily
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energy requirements for vegans, requirements for nutrients that
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were available in the FCDBs and were considered as important for
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the target group, as proteins, dietary bres, total carbohydrates,
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total fat, saturated fats, calcium, sodium, zinc, iodine and iron were
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observed. Being a vegan implies a lower quality regarding protein
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intake and especially the amino acid lysine (Kniskern and Johnston,
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2011), and the recommended daily intake rises for vegans from
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recommended 0.8 for general population to 1 g/kg body weight.
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Using one-way ANOVA, insignicant deviations (p > 0.05) were
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established for the content of proteins, fats, poly-unsaturated fats
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and iron. Signicant differences (p < 0.05) were observed for the
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content of sodium (where the lowest content was achieved by use
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of Danish FCDB), content of calcium and zinc (where the lowest
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content was achieved using the Croatian FCDB). Mentioned
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differences can be explained by use of different denition of the
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same food because each country is using their country-specic
244 Q3 names (Deherveng et al., 1999), using different (allowed) amounts
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of fertilizer, in different countries (Hakala et al., 2003) and the
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geographic locations of the food sampling can also cause the
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differences (Schulze, 1999; Uusitalo et al., 2011) as well as use of
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different methods in food component detection which is in our
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opinion the most likely cause (Schulze, 1999; Uusitalo et al., 2011).
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Analysing the absolute deviations from the recommendations,
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deviations for some nutrients were determined (p < 0.05), such as
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the deviations for saturated fats that are in accordance with the
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share of 10% of the daily energy intake, but are not in the
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recommended range regarding the DRI limitation (Table 2).
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Also, dietary bre does not meet the recommended WHO range
Fig. 1. Multivariate analysis of the average daily energy and nutrient content of vegan menus using different FCDBs presented with (a) rst two factors of the principle
component analysis and (b) associated loadings in the correlation circle.
Please cite this article in press as: Oreskovic, P., et al., Computer-generated vegan menus: The importance of food composition database
choice. J. Food Compos. Anal. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.07.002
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Table 5
Optimal daily offer using different FCDBs.
Croatian FCDB
Danish FCDB
USDA FCDB
Breakfast
(B)
Lunch
(L)
Supper
(S)
Snack
(SN)
Fresh
fruits
(F15)
Seeds and
dried fruits
(F611)
6
5
7
1
4
4
1
5
1
6
3
2
1
4
4
7
11
8
FCDBs
Danish
Croatian
Energy (kJ)
Protein (g)
Dietary bre (g)
Carbohydrates (g)
Total fat (g)
Saturated fats (g)
Sodium (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Zinc (mg)
USDA
SD
SD
SD
9158.2
56.6
62.6
279.5
73.2
24.9
2215.6
797.9
22.4
8.7
904.1
13.7
12.8
40.5
24.9
4.8
430.8
130.7
3.6
0.8
9340.5
58.5
58.7
334.5
86.1
10.2
1909.2
917.2
18.9
8.8
758.4
10.6
5.2
53.0
16.5
3.0
621.0
183.8
3.4
0.9
9597.1
59.6
64.2
331.2
81.2
10.9
2106.3
989.8
27.2
10.9
799.4
9.5
4.0
48.3
17.5
1.7
498.4
150.9
6.1
1.8
Please cite this article in press as: Oreskovic, P., et al., Computer-generated vegan menus: The importance of food composition database
choice. J. Food Compos. Anal. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.07.002
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4. Conclusions
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Please cite this article in press as: Oreskovic, P., et al., Computer-generated vegan menus: The importance of food composition database
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