HD 202: Human Physical and Psychosocial Development

Theories of Development
Dr. Cynthia R. Leynes

OUTLINE
I. Psychoanalytic theory
II. Eriksons psychosocial theory
III. Separation-individuation theory
IV. Intellectual development
V. Kohlbergs moral development
VI. Stages of life cycle
VII. Family life cycle*
VIII.Summary*

I. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Sigmund Freud: known as the father of psychiatry
The central concept to Freuds thinking revolved around
pleasure
Two basic things that ran a persons life: pleasure (id) and
anger
Freudian components of personality
o Id (pleasure)
o Ego (reality)
o Superego (moral)

Table 1. Psychosexual stages.

Stage

Age in
years^

Erotic focus

Key tasks
and exp.

Eriksons
stages of
devt

Oral

01

Mouth
(sucking and
biting)

Weaning
(from breast
or bottle)

Trust vs.
mistrust

13

Anus
(expelling or
retaining
feces)

Toilet
training

Autonomy
vs.
shame
and doubt

Identifying
with adult
role models;
coping with
oedipal crisis

Initiative
vs. guilt

Anal

Oedipal

35

Genitals
(sexuality
explored)

Latency

7 12

None
(sexuality
redefined)

Expanding
social
contacts

Industry
vs.
inferiority

Genitals
(being
sexually
intimate)

Establishing
intimate
relationships;
contributing
to society
through
working

Identity
vs. role
confusion

Adolescence

Puberty
onward

April 20, 2015

Trans Number: # 01

Also increases the capacity of the child to form affiliations

or bonding with the mother

B. Anal Stage (1 3 years)

Capable of controlling sphincter

o Control is the main issue at this stage
o Childs attempts to achieve autonomy and
independence without excessive shame or self-doubt
from loss of control

Child associates the capacity to control the bowel and the

bladder as pleasure (physical, discipline, satisfaction)

* These were taken from the 2016 trans. These were not
discussed in class but in Maams powerpoint.
This trans is based on the 2016 trans and Maams lecture and
powerpoint.

EXAM # 1

C. Oedipal Stage (3 5 years)

First surge of sexual drive

Biological phenomenon: increased innervation and

maturation of the genital area

Initially relates to the mother but soon after being able to

separate from the mother (via walking / crawling), the child
is able to interact with other members of the family

Child develops a relationship with another person in the

family

Child notices other members of the family where a 3 is a

crowd phenomenon is seen

The third person (the father) is seen as the rival for the
affection of the mother
o More pronounced in males
o Continued bond with mother, no shift in females
D. Latency Stage (7 12 years)

Sexual drives are down compared to the previous stage

Family disapproves in sexual desires in the adolescent

stage (taboo)

No longer focused on people in the family

The focus of the child would be the people outside

o Child focuses on learning / school
o Allow for the development of ego apparatuses and
mastery skills
o Further integration of oedipal identifications and
consolidation of sex-role identity and sex roles
E. Adolescence

Second surge of sexual drive that is not focused on the

members of the family

The physiological maturation of genital (sexual)

functioning and attendant hormonal systems

Rebelliousness stage

Objectives
o Ultimate separation from parents
o Establishment of mature, non-incestuous object
relations
o Personal identity and acceptance of a set of adult
roles / functions in accordance with social and cultural
values
o According to this, pathology during adulthood is due
to problems during childhood

^ Approximate age
A. Oral Stage (Birth 1 year)

Infants needs, perceptions, and modes of expression are

centered on oral zone (mouth, lips, tongue, etc)

Establishing trusting dependence on nursing and

sustaining objects, to establish comfortable expression
and gratification of oral libidal needs without excessive
conflict or ambivalence from oral sadistic wishes

Initially, the infant has no knowledge of the outside world,

so this gives the child a sense of the inside and outside

II. ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

Development continues throughout life, not just in the first
five years of life
Virtue attained by individual after passing through a stage
If you have psychiatric illness, you revert back to the stage
where you had problems symptoms will manifest in the
stage where you got stuck

A. Trust vs. mistrust (0 1 year)

Virtue: Hope

Many disorders can be traced to a lack of trust of the

primary caregiver (i.e., bipolar, paranoia)

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2.

Attachment to primary caregiver (usually the mother) is

very important

B. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 3 years)

Virtue: Willpower
st

Autonomy starts out very dependent on the mother (1

stage). When the child learns to walk and control his
sphincters, he can somehow control the relationship
walk away from mother/walk towards mother, etc.

Problems in this stage may lead to an obsessive

compulsive disorder

3.

C. Initiative vs. guilt (3 5 years)

Virtue: Confidence

Initiative: desire to become and adult

Exploration stage
D. Industry vs. inferiority (6 12 years)

Virtue: Competence

how do I become an adult? you learn the skills that

you need to become and adult

Industry: the capacity to do things independently

The goal in this stage is to derive pleasure from

completing tasks

4.

E. Identity vs. role diffusion (13 19 years)

Virtue: Fidelity

Issues on gender role and identity

Adolescents experiment with and integrate different roles

Problems may lead to role/identity confusion

5.

F. Intimacy vs. isolation (21 35 years)

Virtue: Love

Problem if you were never close to anybody

Person seeks commitment with others

Problems may lead to self-absorption and isolation

Pathological outcome of distantation

G. Generativity vs. stagnation (35 55 years)

Virtue: Care

May be as simple as having children

Passing on to the next generation preparing your

children for adulthood

Being able to accomplish something that you can pass on

to the next generation
H. Integrity vs. despair (60+ years)

Virtue: Wisdom

Integrity: feeling of wholeness

Elderly is satisfied and has accepted the outcome of his

life

Problems would lead to regret and despair about how

he/she has lived his/her life and how it is too late to
change it

III. SEPARATION-INDIVIDUATION THEORY

Proposed by Margaret Mahler
Focus on attachment or feelings of the infant to mother
during the first three years of life
The child becomes an individual separate from his or her
caregiver
An accomplishment that leads ultimately to a sense of
identity
Helps understand the first two stages of development
(Freud, Erikson)
Psychological development of the infant is well described
Stages
1. Normal autism (0 4 weeks old)
o Autism: the infant has no focus or regard to the
outside world since he or she has no concept of
it
o Vision is still not developed
o Sleep outweighs arousal
o State reminiscent of intrauterine life

6.

Symbiosis (4 weeks 5 months)

o Establishes relationship with mother: he or she
and the mother are one
o Associated with the development of vision and
feelings, which enables him or her to distinguish
the inside from the outside world
o Perceptual abilities develop differentiating inner
from outer world
o Mother-infant perceived as single fused entity
Differentiation (5-10 months)
o Capacity to differentiate ones self from the
caretaker (nangingilala o nakakakilala)
o Reacts when the caretaker is replaced by
another
o Differentiation also in terms of the environment
o Progressive neurological development
o Increased alertness shifts attention from self to
outer world
o Psychological and physical distinction from
mother is appreciated
o Stranger anxiety starts at 26 weeks and peak at
32 weeks (8 months)
Practicing (10-16 months)
o Practicing separation with the mother
o Infant becomes mobile (crawl, stand)
o Psychologically still uncomfortable with being
separated with the mother so it still keeps on
coming back to the mother
o Autonomy of children increase exploration of
outer world
Rapprochement (16-24 months)
o Bridging over practicing and consolidation (of
separateness)
o Point where child has a longer attempt to be
away from the mother
o Child becomes angry both when the mother is
away and when she is not available
o Significance: there must be a figure for the child
to resolve mother should encourage going
away but till support coming back
o Rapprochement concept that mother as part of
the child
o Need for independence alternate with need for
closeness
o Children move away from mother and come
back for reassurance
Consolidation and object constancy (24-36 months)
o Object constancy separate but the mother is
still available
o Children reassured of permanence of mother
and other important people

Table 2. Separation-Individuation Theory of Mahler. (From

the 2018 trans)
Normal Autistic Phase
Birth to 4 weeks
4 weeks to 5
Normal Symbiotic Phase
months
Separation-individuation proper
First subphase
Differentiation
5 to 10 months
Second subphase
Practicing
10-16 months
Third subphase
Rapprochement
16-24 months
Fourth subphase
Object constancy
24-36 months

IV. INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Purpose of intelligence is adaptation
Nowadays, development would happen in an earlier time
period
Children have advanced cognitive abilities

A. Stage 1: Sensorimotor

Birth to 2 years

Infants act by reflex only, autism

First circular reaction

o (2-6 months), symbiolsis
o Tolerant of all adults

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o Implication of chronic crying

Implication of sterile environment
o Procedures destined to make interesting spectacles
o 5-8 months
o Repeats behavior
Coordination and schemata
o 8-10 months
o Behavior as an aim
o Development of differentiation

Formation of stranger anxiety

o Looks for objects where he has last found it

Still no concept of object

What is out of sight, is out of mind

Discovery of new means through active
experimentation/practicing
o 12-16 months
Forms symbolic thought
o 16-24 months
give a toy that is destroyable not playable

B. Stage 2: Preoperational/ Representational

2-7 years

development of language

logic: characteristics, proximity in terms of time

o superstitions consequence was brought about by
what has happened before that specific
phenomenon

logic is not yet developed

logic is usually based on characteristics

no concept of permanence in death

morality not well established

C. Stage 3: Concrete Operational

7-11 years

constant experience with infant

o concrete reasoning forms

increasing intelligence through a concrete manner

o e.g. no concept of value (5pcs of P20 bills is more
than a single P200 bill)
D. Stage 4: Formal Operational
11 through adolescence

able to know the difference between right and wrong

V. KOHLBERGS MORAL DEVELOPMENT

(bold from Maam slides, everything else from Santrock Life-Span
Development 13th ed. and undergrad notes J)

Kohlberg suggested that there are six stages of moral

development
He argued that these stages are universal
Development from one stage to another, said Kohlberg, is
fostered by opportunities to take the perspective of others
and to experience conflict between ones current stage of
moral thinking and the reasoning of someone at a higher
stage.

A. Level 1 (4 10 years)

Preconventional Level No internalization

At this level, good and bad are interpreted in terms of

external rewards and punishments.

Stage 1 Obedience vs Punishment Orientation

(Heteronomous Morality)
o At this stage, moral thinking is tied to punishment
o Example: Children think that they must obey because
they fear punishment for disobedience

Stage 2 Instrumental Hedonistic Orientation

(Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange)
o At this stage, individuals reason that pursuing their
own interests is the right thing to do but they let others

do the same they think that what is right involves an

equal exchange
Example: Children reason that if they are nice to
others, others will be nice to them in return

B. Level 2 (10 13 years)

Conventional Level Intermediate internalization

At this level, individuals apply certain standards, but they

are the standards set by others, such as parents or the
government

Stage 3 Interpersonal Concordance Orientation

(Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and
interpersonal conformity)
o At this stage, individuals value trust, caring, and
loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgment
o Example: Children and adolescents often adopt their
parents moral standards at this stage, seeking to be
thought of by their parents as a good girl or a good
boy

Stage 4 Law and Order Orientation (Social Systems

Morality)
o At this stage, moral judgments are based on
understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty.
o Example: adolescents may reason that in order for a
community to work effectively, it needs to be
protected by laws that are adhered to by its members.
C. Level 3 (13 and above)

Postconventional Level Full internalization

*Internalization - Shift from a behavior that is externally

controlled to one that is controlled by internal standards

At this level, individuals recognize alternative moral

courses, explores the options, and then decides on a
personal moral code

Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation (or Utility and

Individual Rights)
o At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights,
and principles undergird or transcend the law
o Example: A person evaluates the validity of actual
laws, and social systems can be examined in terms of
the degree to which they preserve and protect
fundamental human rights and values

Stage 6 Universal Ethical Orientation

o At this stage, the person has developed a moral
standard based on universal human rights
o Example: when faced with a conflict between law and
conscience, the person reasons that conscience
should be followed, even though the decision might
bring risk
D. Criticisms of Kohlbergs Theory

Culturally biased
o Moral reasoning is more culturally (surface) specific

Underestimated contribution of family relationships to

moral development
VI. STAGES OF LIFE CYCLE
A. Pre-birth

The fetus is influenced by the biologic and psychological

wellbeing of the mother

The factors in the mothers environment impact the

development of the fetus

The fetus also reacts to the influences it receives

B. Infancy

During this stage, the infant is biologically immature and

completely dependent

Use of reflexes

Intelligence and the capacity to control develop much later

and do not develop immediately (have to go through
phases)

The emotional and intellectual development of the child

depends on the consistent presence of the mothering
figure (not necessarily the mother)

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The presence of a consistent figure is more important

when there is recognition already
o During the first three months, the consistent figure
may be anyonenot necessarily the mother, because
the infant is not yet attached
o Once attachment happens (usually at six months),
and you replace the mothering figure, it will be
disturbing to the child
o Separation and individuation should have been
completed before replacing the mother figure so that
there will be no disturbances in attachment and in the
formation of the sense of self
Attachment is not only psychological but also physical
o There are infants with problems of attachmentthese
infants do not react to their environment (e.g., do not
breastfeed) and this is called failure to thrive
o These infants withdraw from their environment
because of the unavailability of someone stimulating
o In pediatrics, failure to thrive is seen because the
infant has been neglected
Play is just exploratory
o The infant tries to know about the environment
o During this stage, play is reciprocal exploration (e.g,
exploring the mothers body)

C. Toddler Years

At the end of the first year, the toddler is able to represent

objects in his mind

The next thing to do is to define his separateness

o He knows that there is somebody outside him
o Initially, he feels bonded to it
o But then, he has to go through a period where he tries
to define his separateness from the person that is
taking care of him
o Walking and the capacity to do things on his own help
define separateness

Control of sphincters and toilet training add a new

dimension to relationships, giving the child the capacity to
control relationships

Introduction to discipline, tidiness, and meticulousness

There is pleasure and mastery in the ability to control

o If it is frustrating or too satisfying, this may lead to
sadism
o Deprivation early in childhood and in the toddler years
can give rise to different problems in adulthood (e.g.,
problems in the relationship with parents)

Development of language and the ability to talk in

sentences

Development of representational thinking that is magical,

animistic (giving human qualities to objects), and selfcentered

Morality is based on obedience and punishment (that is, it

is instrumental hedonistic)

Play is parallel
o One child will play with another
o They may sit together, but play is not interactive

Implications in future development

o When this stage is unsuccessfully experienced, it can
give rise to problems in the oedipal stage (e.g.,
throwing tantrums, being manipulative)
D. Preschool Years

Awareness of the father makes the mother-child

relationship more difficult (usually more so in males)

Growing curiosity about the external environment as well

as the body

Play is more imaginative (e.g., role playing) and creative

There is some amount of loose play or pretend play

o Loose play: play that is not organized (may be played
in a group but has no defined fast rules; e.g., hide and
seek)
o Pretend play: e.g., bahay-bahayan

Oedipal period
o Imitation of the parent of the same sex leads to
gender identity

o
o

The child takes in societys values leading to

formation of the conscience (superego)
Morality in this period is interpersonal concordance
values are obtained from the people around the child

E. School Age

Time spent on learning and attainment and mastery of

skills (industry)

Increased socialization and gender identity

Formation of same-sex groups (boys go with boys; girls go

with girls)
o This happens because you want to guard your gender
identity as you are forming / consolidating your
identity as male or female
o Boys are stricter about this (no girls allowed)
because there is more pressure on them in terms of
sexual identity
o Kung to-tomboy-tomboy ka, okay lang sa parents
mo. Pero kung lalaki ka, babakla-bakla ka,
masyadong pressure

Because the conscience is newly formed, there is a

tendency for latency stage children to have a very strict
conscience
o Sila pa magsasabi, Uy Mommy nagsisinungaling ka
o Children at this stage are stricter than their parents in
terms of conscience

Decrease in sexual activities and curiosity

There is also a difference in play

o Before, play is loose (there are no strict rules)
o In latency, there is an aim with a specific number and
specific rules (e.g., basketball, football), unlike in
previous stages

Increase in intellectual capacity (concrete operational to

formal operational)

Moral development is based on law and order (Pag sinabi

mong hindi puwede, hindi puwede)

Further development of discipline and elaboration of

character
F. Adolescence

Main tasks
o Social identity
o Sexual identity
o Autonomy

The difference between social identity and sexual identity

Is orientation (not simply a matter of whether youre male
or female; also includes preferred sexual partner and what
you want in terms of sexual relationships, among others)

Autonomy here is different from that during the toddler

years
o It means living on your own and providing for yourself
o If you are still depending on your parents, you are not
past adolescence

Traditionally seen as a time of turmoil

According to Freud, if you dont undergo turmoil in

adolescence, it will catch up to you in adulthood

In a study of 20,000 adolescents in four Western

countries, they found that there are other growth patterns
besides tumultuous
o Tumultuous: magulo
o Surgent: will go back to normal after adolescence
o Continuous: well-adjusted from pre-adolescence to
adolescence

However, turmoil is not necessary to be normal

Social identity
o Transition to adulthood

Preparing for your adult role and defining oneself

Usually more difficult in complex societies (e.g.,

in some societies, adolescents have no choice
but to go into farming; here in Metro Manila, you
have many choices)

Having more choices leads to more confusion

o Ambivalence between growing up and staying
dependentusually the issue in adolescence

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because it is the transition from childhood to

adulthood
o Coincides with parents middle age crisis (transition
from early adulthood to late adulthood), which makes
adolescence more difficult

Common between adolescence and middle age

crisis: sexual issuesincrease in the latter and
decrease in the former
Sexual changes
o Occur earlier in femalesmore awkward
Defining autonomy
o Autonomy is the challenging of traditions: Rebel
without a cause
o De-idolization of parents
o Refusal to be identified with parents
o The intellectual capacity of the adolescent makes him
open to a lot of ideas, which makes finding ones path
more difficult
The adolescent has to do away with his parents because
he wants to establish social identity and sexual identity
o Thus, he turns to his peers to compensate for the loss
of his parents
o Peer pressure has a strong effect in terms of relations
with parents and sexual identity
The mood changes in adolescence are due to the
following
o Hormonal changes
o Loss of attachment to parents
o Reformation of values
o Defining personal relations

G. Early Adulthood

How do you know youre mature? Maturity can be seen

through different aspects in the psyche

Measures of maturity
o Ego functioning

Able to delay gratification

Able to tolerate tension

Can give and take in a relationship

Uses mature defenses (e.g., when you fail an

exam, you say that it was your own fault rather
than the teachers)

Rational rather than magical

Can enjoy recreation

o Id functions

In control of sexual and aggressive drives

Sexual satisfaction should be primarily genital

o Superego functions

Right and wrong are not absolute but are

dependent on circumstances

You cannot apply the same rules to every

situation

Common problems in early adulthood

o Adjustment to spouse
o Adjustment to roles (care of children and home)
o Adjustment to work
o Adjustment to in-laws
o Change in residence
o Change in habits
o Loss of friend
The following stages (indicated with an asterisk) were not
discussed by Maam but were in her powerpoint
H. Middle Adulthood*

Generativity vs. stagnation (35 45 years)

Middle age

Peak career

Coincides with the period wherein the children are in the

adolescent stage

Physical decline starts at this stage

o Vision
o Stamina
o Weight gain

The parent struggles with sexual issues like the

adolescent (decreased in the former and increased in the
latter)
Generativity to prevent boredom
o Directed towards the new generation
o Others leave something valuable for the next
generation
o Most simply take care of the next generation, making
the adolescent children part of the society

Table 3. Features salient to middle adulthood. (Taken from

the 2016 trans; source: Kaplan and Sadocks Synopsis of
Psychiatry 10E)
Issues

Positive features

Responsible use
Winner-loser
of power
view
Maturity
Competitiveness
Productivity

Prime of life

Stock taking, what

to do with the rest
of ones life

Possibility,
alternatives
Closure
Organization of
Fatalism
commitments
Redirection
Commitment to
self,
others,
Hypocrisy
career,
and
Self-deception
society
Filial maturity

Fidelity and
commitments

Growth-death (to
grow is to die),
juvenescence and
rejuvenation of
fantasies

Communication
and socialization

Negative features

Naturality
regarding
and time

Obscene
or
frenetic efforts to
be youthful
Hostility
and
body
envy of youth
and progeny
Longing

Matters
understood
Continuity
Picking up where
you left off
Large
social
network
Rootedness
of
relationships,
places,
and
ideas

Repetitiveness
Boredom
Impatience
Isolation
Conservatism
Confusion
Rigidity

I. Late Adulthood*

Integrity vs. despair (55 + years)

Time to look back and reassess life

o Satisfaction if life was well-lived
o Despair, if there are many regrets

Developmental tasks
o To maintain body image and physical integrity
o To conduct life review
o To maintain sexual interest and activity
o To deal with death of loved ones
o To accept retirement
o To accept genetically programmed failure of organ
systems
o To divest oneself of attachment to possessions
o To accept changes in the relationship with
grandchildren

Problems in late adulthood

o Declining physical health
o Declining memory and intellectual ability
o Loss of influence and power
VII. FAMILY LIFE CYCLE

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Stage 1
o Married couple without children
o Developmental tasks

Adjust from single to dyad

Establishing marital roles

Restructuring family relationships to fit into a

kin system
Stage 2
o Child bearing families (birth of eldest child to 30
months)
o Developmental tasks

Adjusting to and encouraging the development

of infants

Balancing needs of self, partner and

dependent infants
Stage 3
o Families with pre-school children (oldest child is 2-5
to 6 years)
o Development tasks

Adapting to needs of growing children

Balancing roles as parent and intimate partner

(privacy)

Renegotiating roles with families of origin (the

grandparents are your parents)
Stage 4
o Families with children (oldest child is 6 to 13 years)
o Development tasks

Adjusting to a larger social system and the

accompanying tension between family
members and society

Encouraging educational achievement

Balancing marital intimacy

Stage 5
o Families with teenagers (oldest child is 13 to 20
years)
o Development tasks

Balancing between freedom and responsibility

Establishing post-parental careers and

interests
Stage 6
o Families launching young adults (first child to last
child gone leaving home)
o Development tasks

Releasing young adults

Maintaining a supportive home base

Rekindling of the marital relationship

Reestablishing interests and careers

Coping with ailing parents

Stage 7
o Return of independence (empty nest to retirement)
o Development tasks

Releasing young adults

Rebuilding the marital relationship

Maintaining ties with an extended family system

Continuing involvement in individual interests

and careers
Stage 8
o Aging family members (retirement to death of both
spouse)
o Development tasks

Releasing young adults

Adjustment to retirement

Maintaining integrity despite ones own decline

and that of the spouse

Coping with bereavement and living alone

VIII. SUMMARY
Human development is influenced by several factors
both biological and psychosocial
There are normative characteristics in each stage of mans
life cycle
END OF TRANSCRIPTION

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