1

DOMESTIC WINDPOWER CONTRIBUTION TO THE ZERO-ENERGY HOUSE

Doug Jahnke (djahnke00@ccny.cuny.edu), Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mentor: Professor Latif M. Jiji
ACKNOWLEDGMENT: This project was sponsored by NSF STEP, Bridges to Engineering Success for
Transfers, Grant No. 0523413.
Introduction
Domestic windpower can meet the energy needs of a
zero-energy house or be a valuable addition to other
on-site generation methods. Because zero-energy
houses are not intended to be independent of the
utility grid this article focuses on windpower
systems connected to the utility grid through an
intertie system. The focus will be on tower systems
under 25 kilowatts.
The Zero-Energy House
The US Department of Energys Building America
(BA) program defines a zero-energy house as one
that produces enough energy to meet its needs over
the course of a year based on average US energy
consumption and local weather conditions [1]
(Norton and Christensen, 2006).
A zero-energy house may not produce enough
energy to meet its peak demand, but will, over time,
make up any deficits. By remaining grid connected,
the zero-energy house can use energy from the
utility grid when on-site energy production is below
its needs and return energy to the grid when on-site
production exceeds its needs. This allows the on-site
energy systems to be smaller than if they needed to
support peak demand and eliminates the need for onsite energy storage.

By using available information and adjusting for a

particular site, a reliable estimate of windspeed can
made [2] (Sagrillo, 1994).
Windspeed can be estimated from an annual
windspeed map. Annual windspeed maps can be
found in The Wind Energy Resource Atlas of the
United States, through AWS Truewind, through the
US Department of Energy, or through state
government agencies. Most of these resources are on
the internet. It is important to understand the
measuring conditions so the measured speed can be
adjusted to the on-site conditions [3] (National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2005).
The turbine should be raised above the turbulent
airflow caused by obstructions and ground friction.
By raising the turbine at least 30 feet above any
obstruction within 500 feet turbulence can be
avoided (see Figure 1). [4] (Sargrillo, 1993).

Domestic Windpower
Domestic windpower is defined as a wind turbine
system connected to a small farm or home and
designed to supply energy for only that farm or
house. The wind turbines are mounted on small
towers or rooftops and the size of the turbines is
limited to 25 kilowatts or less.
Evaluating a Site for Domestic
Windpower
DETERMINING WINDSPEED

When a utility company or other corporation plans a

wind farm, they measure the windspeed at the
proposed site. For a domestic wind turbine
installation, the time and expense is harder to justify.

Figure 1: Site Layout Sketch

The layout should include any obstructions within 300-500 feet
of the planned location of the turbine.
Source: Sagrillo 1994

Table 1). The coefficient is used to find the height

correction factors (see Table 2). The adjusted
average annual windspeed can be calculated using
Equation 1. This average will be used to make a
more accurate assessment of the energy that the
turbine will generate.

With the tower height determined, the average

annual windspeed from a map or other source can be
adjusted for wind shear. Wind shear is the increase
in windspeed proportional to the height above
ground level [6] (Park, 1981). The site features will
determine the surface friction coefficient () (see

Table 1: Surface Friction Coefficient

The coefficient (alpha) determines the
rate of increase of windspeed with
respect to height.
Source: Park, 1981, p. 164

SURFACE FRICTION COEFFICIENT

Description of Terrain

Smooth, hard ground; lake or ocean

Short grass on untilled ground
Level country with foot-high grass, occasional tree
Tall row crops, hedges, a few trees
Many trees and occasional buildings
Wooded country; small towns and suburbs

0.10
0.14
0.16
0.20
0.22-0.24
0.28-0.30

Urban areas, with tall buildings

0.40

Height Correction Factor

Height
(ft)

Surface Friction Coefficient

25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90

0.100
0.981
1.000
1.016
1.029
1.041
1.052
1.062
1.072
1.080
1.088
1.096
1.103
1.110
1.116

0.140
0.975
1.000
1.022
1.041
1.058
1.074
1.089
1.102
1.114
1.126
1.137
1.147
1.157
1.166

0.160
0.971
1.000
1.025
1.047
1.067
1.085
1.102
1.117
1.132
1.145
1.158
1.170
1.181
1.192

0.200
0.964
1.000
1.031
1.059
1.084
1.107
1.128
1.148
1.167
1.184
1.201
1.216
1.231
1.245

0.220
0.960
1.000
1.034
1.065
1.098
1.118
1.142
1.164
1.185
1.204
1.223
1.240
1.257
1.273

0.240
0.957
1.000
1.037
1.071
1.102
1.130
1.156
1.180
1.203
1.255
1.245
1.265
1.283
1.301

0.280
0.950
1.000
1.044
1.083
1.120
1.153
1.184
1.214
1.241
1.267
1.292
1.316
1.338
1.360

0.300
0.948
1.000
1.047
1.090
1.129
1.165
1.199
1.231
1.261
1.289
1.316
1.342
1.366
1.390

0.400
0.929
1.000
1.063
1.121
1.176
1.226
1.274
1.319
1.362
1.403
1.442
1.480
1.516
1.551

95

1.122

1.175

1.203

1.259

1.288

1.318

1.380

1.413

1.585

Vneasured

CFtower
= Vadjusted
CFmeasured

Vmeasured = average measured annual windspeed from map or other source

CFtower = height correction factor for planned tower height
CFmeasured = height correction factor for height of windspeed measurement
Vadjusted = adjusted average annual windspeed at tower height

Table 2: Height Correction

Factor
Calculates the windspeed at a
given height based on the height
of the measured windspeed.
Source: Park, 1981, p. 165

Equation 1: Windspeed Adjustment

Adjusts the average annual
windspeed from measured height to
planned tower height.
Source: Windpower for Home and
Business [9] (Gipe, 1993)

1
FINANCIAL VIABILITY

Energy Generated

Determining the financial viability of a windpower

system is similar to calculating a break-even analysis
for a business. The break-even point is where
benefits exceed costs. The length of time to reach the
break-even point is also called the payback period.

Table 4 shows the estimated generated energy, in

kilowatt hours, based on average windspeed and
rotor diameter. In the case of net-metering, where
the utility buys back power at the retail rate, the
value of the energy is calculated by multiplying the
kilowatt hours by the utilitys charge per kilowatt
hour. In New York, excess generation from turbines
rated at 10 kilowatts or less is bought back by the
utility at retail rates.[3] (National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, 2005)

Table 3 shows the first two years of a payback

analysis for a hypothetical 10 kilowatt system. The
system cost includes all costs to buy and install the
wind turbine. This cost can be estimated at around
$3,000 per kilowatt installed [7] (Gipe, 1993). The
annual operating cost can be estimated at 1-3% of
the initial installation cost. Government incentives
include cash incentives or loans for purchases as
well as any tax benefits. Generated power is the
value of energy produced by the turbine.

To make a system most cost effective, the output of

the turbine should be matched to the power needs of
the house. A larger turbine can be worthwhile, but
the avoided cost rates must be understood fully and
used in any break-even analysis.

Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
32,000
System cost (turbine, tower, installer, permitting, etc
Operating cost (maintenance, insurance, etc.)
640
640
640
Cost
32,640
640
640
Government incentives
16,000
Generated power
2,187
2,187
2,187
Benefit
18,187
2,187
2,187
Net cost (benefit)
$ 14,453 $ (1,547) $ (1,547)
Cummulative cost (benefit)

$ 14,453 $ 12,905 $ 11,358

Annual Generated Kilowatt Hours

Average
Windspeed
(mph)

Table3: Payback Period

Calculates the cumulative
cost/benefit for each year of
operation.

Rotor Diameter (feet)

7

10

12

14

15

18

21

31

10

651

850

1,328

1,912

2,603

2,988

4,303

5,856

12,762

11

866

1,131

1,768

2,545

3,464

3,977

5,727

7,795

16,986

12

1,124

1,469

2,295

3,304

4,498

5,163

7,435

10,120

22,053

13

1,430

1,867

2,918

4,201

5,719

6,565

9,453

12,867

28,038

14

1,786

2,332

3,644

5,247

7,142

8,199

11,807

16,070

35,019

15

2,196

2,868

4,482

6,454

8,785

10,085

14,522

19,766

43,072

16

2,665

3,481

5,439

7,833

10,661

12,239

17,624

23,988

52,273

17

3,197

4,176

6,524

9,395

12,788

14,680

21,139

28,773

62,700

18

3,795

4,957

7,745

11,153

15,180

17,426

25,093

34,155

74,428

19

4,463

5,830

9,109

13,117

17,853

20,495

29,512

40,170

87,535

Table 4: Annual Generated

Kilowatt Hours
Calculates the amount of power
generated based on windspeed
and rotor diameter.

Subsidies and Incentives

Noise

Federal

Noise created by a wind turbine is often a concern,

particularly in a more populated setting. In general,
the noise generated by a turbine will increase with
windspeed, but it is also important to realize that the
noise generated by the wind itself also increases. In
acoustic tests conducted by the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory National Wind Technology
Center several of the turbines tested were found to
produce noise that could not be separated from the
background noise when the turbines were in normal
operating mode [11] (Migliore, Dam and Huskey,
2004).

Currently, the only Federal incentives available for

domestic windpower installations are through the
Wind Energy Development Provisions of the 2002
Farm Bill. This bill provides direct grants and
subsidized loans for farmers and rural small
businesses. Grants may be for up to 25% of the
installation cost. Loans, or a combination of loans
and grants, may be for up to 50% of the installation
cost [8] (Federal Register, 2005).
New York State

New York State offers cash incentives, loan rate

reductions and property tax exemptions for domestic
windpower systems. The cash incentives are
standardized at a specific dollar amount depending
on the turbine installed. Loan rate reductions of up to
4% for ten years are offered through the New York
Energy $mart program.[9] (NYSERDA, 2007). Real
property tax exemptions are for 15 years on
windpower systems.[10] (DSIRE, 2006)
COMMUNITY ISSUES

Wind turbines have not enjoyed the popularity of

solar panels so fewer people are familiar or
comfortable with them. As a large rotating structure,
wind turbines are also more visible than solar panels.
With less familiarity and greater visibility, wind
turbines can generate a greater response from the
surrounding community. By understanding and
addressing the concerns of the community, many
problems and challenges can be forestalled.

Bird Kill

Another concern for communities is bird kill by

turbines. Turbines do kill birds. Communication
towers, tall buildings, cars, and glass windows also
kill birds. Mick Sargrillo makes the point that there
havent been any studies of bird kills from small
wind systems and based on our best available
information, the relatively smaller blades and short
tower heights of residential wind energy systems do
not present a threat to birds [12] (Sagrillo, 2003).
Buying a Windpower System
EVALUATING TURBINE POWER/OUTPUT

The most common and visible rating found when

evaluating wind turbines is the rated power.
Unfortunately there is no standard methodology for
determining rated power. This makes it difficult to
compare turbines based solely on rated output. Since
the power output varies as the cube of the
windspeed, variations in testing windspeed can have
large effects. Equation 2 calculates the power output
from a wind turbine.

P = 21 41 D 2 V 3 Cp Ng Nb
P = power (watts)

Cp = Coefficient of performance (%)

= air density (kg/m3)

Ng = generator efficiency (%)

D = rotor dia (m)

Nb = mechanical efficiency (%)

V = windspeed (m/s)

Equation 2: Turbine Power

Calculates the power output of a
wind turbine for given
conditions.

AOE = 0.01328D 2V 3
AEO = annual energy output in kilowatt hours
0.01328 = wind density adjustment

Equation 3: Annual Energy

Output
Calculates the annual energy
output of a wind turbine.
Source: [24] (U.S. Department
of Energy)

D = rotor diameter in feet

V = average annual windspeed in mph

Figure 2: Efficiency Curve

Wind turbine efficiency as a
function of windspeed.
Source: Danish Wind Industry
Association

Rotor efficiency is limited to a narrow range of

windspeeds. Figure 2 shows an efficiency graph for
a typical rotor. Efficiency peaks at 9 m/s and falls
rapidly both above and below that speed [13]
(Danish Wind Energy Association, 2003). Matching
the rotor to the average windspeed of a site can
improve output.
Power output of a wind turbine can be used for
comparison, but it is energy output that determines
the success of a system. Equation 3 provides an
estimation of annual energy output based on rotor
diameter and windspeed. Manufacturers publish
estimates of energy production at various
windspeeds and Equation 3 can be used as a check
against the manufacturers claims.

manufacturer and should be considered when

choosing a turbine [14] (Sagrillo, 2002):
Maximum Design Windspeed Most turbines are
designed to withstand windspeeds in excess of 120
mph (54 m/s). Other factors give a better indication
of durability, but a rating below 120 mph is suspect.
RPM at Rated Output A lower operating RPM is
desirable as it causes less wear on the turbine and is
less likely to generate objectionable noise.
Governing System All turbines have a governing
system to protect the turbine from excessive speed.
These systems can affect the operating noise level
and the power output at peak windspeed.

GENERAL WIND TURBINE FEATURES

Warranty Compare warranties for coverage and

length.

With the approximate size of the turbine determined,

other factors need to be evaluated when choosing
among the various manufacturers. The following
information is normally supplied by the

Routine Maintenance Modern turbines tend to be

low maintenance, but understanding the maintenance
requirements can affect the type of tower or other
installation options.

2
CHOOSING A TOWER

Conclusion

There are two primary types of towers: freestanding

and guyed. A freestanding tower relies on a massive
foundation to absorb lateral loads, while a guyed
tower uses cables running from points on the tower
to anchors in the ground to support those loads. [7]
(Gipe, 1993) Because of these loads the turbine
manufacturers will provide minimum specifications
for the tower.

Evaluating a wind turbine system is not a complex

process, but success depends on making a careful
assessment of the installation site and the wind
turbine itself. Avoiding turbulence and taking
advantage of wind shear are both accomplished by
placing the turbine on a tower of sufficient height.
There are government incentives for installing wind
turbines that can make a system affordable. At this
time, achieving a reasonable payback period is
difficult without government incentives. There may
be local concerns about noise or bird kills, but being
well informed and able to address those concerns
can assuage those concerns. Following these steps
will help ensure a successful wind turbine
installation.

For regular maintenance or inspections, the turbine

needs to be accessible. Hinged towers allow the
turbine to be lowered to the ground for easy access;
however lowering the tower is not necessarily a
simple task. Skill, patience, and the proper
equipment is necessary to raise and lower the tower
safely.
Rooftop Installations

Some studies that have been completed have found

that rooftop turbines are plagued with technical
problems are likely to cause structural damage to
the buildings they are installed on, are often
deactivated due to excessive vibration, and are likely
to generate at most 10-15% of a households energy
needs[15] (Leake, 2006).
Apart from issues of noise, vibration and structural
issues, the rooftop installation is at a disadvantage
compared to a tower installation because the rooftop
turbine is subject to more turbulence and is unable to
take advantage of wind shear.
Maintaining a Windpower System
A turbine and its tower should be inspected twice a
year: once in spring and once in the fall (before and
after winter). The inspection includes checking for
signs of wear on the turbine and blade, loose bolts
and connections (including electrical), any shifting
of the tower from plumb, and any signs of corrosion.
Some turbines also require changing the
transmission oil and greasing bearings. [7] (Gipe,
1993) With proper maintenance a lifespan of 20 to
30 years can be expected for a wind turbine. [16]
(Corum, 2006)

References

[1] Norton, P. and Christensen, C., "A ColdClimate Case Study for Affordable Zero
Energy Homes: Preprint," for N. R. E.
Laboratory (2006) p. 9.
[2] Sagrillo, M. (April/May 1994). "Site Analysis
for Wind Generators - Part 1: Average Wind
Speed." Home Power,
[3] National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
"Small wind electric systems: a New York
consumer's guide," for U. D. o. Energy
(2005) p. 24 p.
[4] Sargrillo, M. (October/November 1993).
"Tower Economics 101." Home Power,
[5] Sagrillo, M. (June/July 1994). "Site Analysis
for Wind Generators - Part 2: Your Site."
Home Power,
[6] Park, J., The Wind Power Book (Cheshire
Books, Palo Alto, CA, 1981).
[7] Gipe, P., Wind Power for Home and Business
(Chelsea Green Publishing Company, Post
Mills, Vermont, 1993).
[8] "Renewable Energy Systems and Energy
Efficiency Improvements Grant, Guaranteed
Loan, and Direct Loan Program, Final Rule,"
Federal Register 70 p 4124-44348
[9] NYSERDA. On-Site Wind Incentives. Retrieved
on 4/23/07 from
[10] DSIRE. (9/11/06). Solar, Wind & Biomass
Energy Systems Exemption. Retrieved on
4/23/07 from
[11] Migliore, P., Dam, J. v. and Huskey, A.,
"Acoustic Tests of Small Wind Turbines",
(National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
National Wind Technology Center, Golden,
CO, 2004) p. 14.
[12] Sagrillo, M. Putting Wind Power's Effect on Birds
in Perspective. Retrieved on 2/6/2007 from
http://www.awea.org/faq/sagrillo/swbirds.h
tml
[13] Danish Wind Energy Association. (6/1/03).
The Power Coefficient. Retrieved on 4/30/07

from
http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wres/
cp.htm
[14] Sagrillo, M. (August/September 2002).
"Choosing a Home-Sized Wind Generator."
Home Power,
[15] Leake, J., "Home wind turbines dealt killer
blow", in "The Sunday Times (UK)"
(London, UK, 2006).
[16] Corum, L., Distributed Energy (2006).