Chapter 4 Compressible Flows PDF

Chapter
4
COMPRESSIBLE
FLOWS
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS
Ideal Gas Relation
Characteristics of Compressible Flow
Isentropic Gas Flow
Normal Shock Wave
Non-isentropic Gas Flow
Oblique Shock Wave
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Wave

Appendices (A-D)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.1
IDEAL GAS RELATION

Compressible flow analysis requires:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Conservation of mass,
Conservation of linear momentum,
Conservation of energy,
Equation of state for an ideal gas.
The equation of state for an ideal gas is

p = RT
(4.1)
where p is pressure, is density, R is the gas constant (286.9 J/kgK

for air) and T is the absolute temperature (in K).
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Gas constant R could be obtained from the universal gas constant

(8.314 J/molK) and the gas molecular weight (28.97 g/mol for air):
R=
(4.2)
(
For ideal gas, internal energy u is a function of temperature T and its
gradient defines the specific heat at constant volume cv:
(
u
cv =
T
(
du
=
dT
Wiht cv almost constant, integrating the above relation yields
2
(
du = cv dT
1
( (
u2 u1 = cv (T2 T1 )
(4.3)
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(
In thermodynamic texts, enthalpy h is defined as
( ( p (
h = u + = u + RT
(4.4)
(
For ideal gas, enthalpy h is also a function of temperature T and the
gradient defines the specific heat at constant pressure cp:
(
h
cp =
T
(
dh
=
dT
With cp almost constant, integrating the above relation yields
(
2
dh = c p dT
1
( (
h2 h1 = c p (T2 T1 )
(4.5)
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The relationship between cp and cv could obtained from Eq. 4.4:
(
(
dh = du + R dT
(
(
dh du
=
+R
dT dT
c p = cv + R
(4.6)
and, the specific heat ratio k is (also constant for air, k = 1.4)
k=
cp
cv
(4.7)
Combining eqn. (4.6) and eqn. (4.7) yields
cp =
kR
k 1
(4.8)
cv =
R
k 1
(4.9)
6
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(
In thermodynamic texts, with v = 1 being the specific volume, the
relationship for entropy s could be written as
(
(
(
T ds = du + p dv = du + p d (1 )
(4.10)
From the definition of enthalpy:
(
p
dp
(
(
dh = du + d = du + p d (1 ) +
(
dp
dh = T ds +
(4.11)
From eqn. (4.10) and eqn. (4.11), the change in entropy ds is
ds = cv
dT
d (1 )
dT
dp
+R
= cp
R
(1 )
T
T
p
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Integration of both equations above yield
s2 s1 = cv ln
T2
+ R ln 1
T1
2
(4.12)
s2 s1 = c p ln
T2
p
R ln 2
T1
p1
(4.13)
From the Second Law of Thermodynamics, for an adiabatic and

frictionless flow, ds = s 2 s1 = 0 and is known as isentropic flow,
where relationships among variables T, p and could be derived as:
cv ln
T2
T
p
+ R ln 1 = 0 = c p ln 2 R ln 2
2
T1
T1
p1
T
T
p
R
kR
ln 2 + R ln 1 = 0 =
ln 2 R ln 2
2
p1
k 1 T1
k 1 T1
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Hence, for an isentropic flow,
T2

T1
k ( k 1)

p
= 2 = 2
p1
1
= constant
(4.14)
(4.15)
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4.2
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Compressible flow behaviour could be characterised by the Mach
Number (Ma or M) which is defined as
Ma M =
V
c
(4.16)
where V is the flow velocity and c is the speed of sound.
Compressible flow could be classified to three categories:

1.
Nearly-Incompressible flow M 0.3

>
Nearly symmetrical pressure wave,
>
Change in density is negligible (< 5%),
>
Hence, the Bernoulli equation could be used.
10
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
2.
3.
Subsonic flow 0.3 < M < 1.0

>
Assymetrical pressure wave,
>
Change in density becomes more significant (> 5%),
>
When M 1.0, there exists a plane that separates zone of

silence and zone of action and is called Mach wave.
Supersonic flow M 1.0

>
Mach wave transforms to Mach cone with angle:
= sin 1
c
1
= sin 1
V
M
>
Change in density is very significant,
>
Shock wave phenomena could develop when flow is

obstructed by a solid body.
11
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Condition when M = 1.0 is called sonic condition.
Figure 4.1 Sound waves from a fixed and moving source
12
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Figure 4.1 (continued)
13
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Figure 4.1 (continued)
14
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In aerodynamic texts, two more flow regimes are commonly added:

1.
Transonic flow 0.9 M 1.2

>
2.
A state of partial subsonic/supersonic condition causing

analysis to be more complicated.
Hypersonic M > 5
>
Fluid molecules begin to experience chemical reactions such

as air ionization, causing analysis to be too complex.
15
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Figure 4.2 Moving and static control volume of a pressure pulse
The relationship for speed of sound c is derived by considering the

propagation of a pressure pulse.
16
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
To derive it, lets start from the continuity equation (neglecting higher
order terms):
cA = ( + )(c V )A
c = c V + c V
V = c
From the linear momentum equation:
ccA + (c V )( + )(c V )A = pA ( p + p )A
2c V c(c ) = p
c V = p
Combining both relations above yields:
c2 =
c=
(4.17)
17
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
For isentropic flow, Eq. 4.17 could be written as

p
c=
From Eq. 4.15, its derivative yields
p
d k = 0

dp kp d
k +1 = 0
k
p
dp kp
=
=
= kRT
s d
18
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Hence, the speed of sound for an isentropic flow is

c=
kp
= kRT
(4.18)
For air in standard condition:
T = 288.15 K
(15C )
R = 286.9 J/kg K
k = 1.401
Hence,
c = 340 .3 m/s = 1225 km/hr
19
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EXAMPLE 4.1
An aircraft flying at an altitude of 1000 m, passes directly above an
observer. If the aircraft is moving at Mach 1.5 with surrounding
ambient temperature of 20C, obtain the time after which the observer
is able to hear the sound of the aircraft. Use gas constant
R = 287 J/kgK and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.
20
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Since Ma > 1.0, a Mach cone is formed. From the equation for Mach
cone angle:
= sin 1
1
1
= sin 1
= 41.8
M
1.5
From the diagram above:
tan =
z
z
=
x Vt
z
z
z
=
=
V tan M c tan M kRT tan
1000
=
1.5 1.4(287 )(20 + 273.15) tan 41.8
t=
= 2.17 s
21
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.3
ISENTROPIC GAS FLOW

Main characteristics of an isentropic flow are:
1.
No heat transfer across CS adiabatic,
2.
No friction between fluid molecules in CV inviscid.
For conservation of mass in one-dimensional flow, the general

continuity equation is used:
m& = AV = constant
dm& = d (AV ) = 0
AV d + V dA + A dV = 0
Dividing by AV gives:
d
dA dV
+
=0
A
V
(4.19)
22
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For conservation of momentum, the general Bernoulli equation is used

(assuming steady flow and effect of elevation difference g dz is
negligible):
dp
+ V dV = 0
Dividing by V2:
dp
dV
+
=0
V 2 V
(4.20)
Combining Eq. 4.19 and Eq. 4.20 yields:
dA dp
=0
A V 2
dA
dp
d
dp
=
=
2
A V
V 2
V2
1
dp
d
23
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
For isentropic flow, c = dp d :
dA
dV
=
A
V
V2
1 2
c
dV
=
1 M 2
V
Subsonic flow
(Ma < 1)
Supersonic flow
(Ma > 1)
dA > 0
dp > 0
dV < 0
dA > 0
dp < 0
dV > 0
dA < 0
dp < 0
dV > 0
dA < 0
dp > 0
dV < 0
(4.21)
Figure 4.3 Flow through diverging and converging ducts

24
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Relation between and M could be derived from Eq. 4.19-21:

d
dA dV dV
dV
V V
(
1 M 2 )
=
= d
A
V
V
V
c c
ln
= d (12 M 2 )
= 12 M 2
0
= M dM
= d (12 M 2 )
M
= 0 exp 12 M 2
For density change ( 0 ) 0 < 5% (which is justified to be

neglected for incompressible flow assumption):
0
= 1 exp( 12 M 2 ) < 0.05
0
M < 0.320 0.3
25
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
In the isentropic flow relationships, static quantities could be related

to the stagnation quantities through Eq. 4.15:
1k
p

=
=
=
constant
0
k 0k
p0
p
p0
From the Bernoulli equation:
dp
+d V
p 01 k
1
2
p0
p 10 k dp
=
+ d 12 V 2 = 0
1k
0 p
V
dp
+
d 12 V 2 = 0
1k
0
p
p
p 01 k p 1 k +1
2
1
+ 2V
0 1 1 k p
V
0
=0
26
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
k p0 p 1 2
2V = 0
k 1 0
(4.22)
Using the ideal gas equation (Eq. 4.1):
kR
(T0 T ) 12 V 2 = c p (T0 T ) 12 V 2 = 0
k 1
(4.23)
(
From the relationship above, total/stagnation enthalpy h0 could be
defined:
(
h0 = c pT0 = c pT + 12 V 2 = pemalar
(4.24)
Eq. 4.23 is divided by c 2 = kRT to yield the relationship for T:

kR T0 T V 2
1 T0
M2
=
=0
1
k 1 kRT 2c 2 k 1 T
2
27
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
T0
=1+
T
1
2
(k 1)M 2
(4.25)
Through Eq. 4.14:
T0

T
k ( k 1)

p
= 0 = 0
p

Thus, relationships for p and are obtained:

p0
= 1+
p
1
2
(k 1)M 2 ]k (k 1)
(4.26)
0
= [1 +
1
2
(k 1)M 2 ]1 (k 1)
(4.27)
28
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
For sonic condition (M = 1.0):

T
2
=
,
T0 1 + k
p 2
=
p0 1 + k
k ( k 1)
1 ( k 1)
2
=
0 1 + k
(4.28)
For air, taking k = 1.4:

T T0 = 0.8333 ,
p p0 = 0.5283 ,
0 = 0.6339
Cross sectional area where sonic condition occurs is known as the

critical area A*, where the flow is in a state of choked. From
continuity equation:
AV = A V
A V
=
A
V
29
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
where V = kRT is the velocity of the flow at sonic condition.

With V = Ma c = Ma kRT , hence,
) (T
A
kRT
1 0
=
=
A
Ma kRT Ma ( 0 )
A
1 1 + (k 1) Ma
=
A Ma 1 + 12 (k 1)
1
2
T0
(T T0 )
k +1
2 ( k 1)
(4.29)
30
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.4 Relation between the critical area ratio and Ma
At choked flow condition, maximum mass flow rate (M > 1.0):
m& ma x = AV = A kRT
For air (k = 1.4), values from Eq. 4.25-29 are easier to be extracted
from the Isentropic Air Flow Table (Appendix A).
31
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Eq. 4.29 can be used in the design of nozzles and diffusers for
supersonic flows.
Ma < 1
Ma = 1
Ma > 1
Supersonic nozzle
Ma > 1
Ma = 1
Ma < 1
Supersonic diffuser
Figure 4.5 Nozzle and diffuser for supersonic flow
The subsonic-supersonic flow transition in a nozzle or diffuser could

occur at the throat where M = 1.0.
32
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.6 Effect of sonic condition to operation of converging nozzle
33
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Figure 4.7 Effect of sonic condition to operation of

converging-diverging nozzle
34
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.2
An air flow with a Mach 3.5 velocity has a static pressure of

304 kPa (abs) and static temperature of 180 K. Calculate:
(a) Stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature,
(b) Pressure, temperature and the speed of sound for critical
condition,
(c) Flow velocity.
Use gas constant R = 287 J/kgK and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.
35
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(a) From App. A, for M = 3.5: p0 p = 76.27 , T0 T = 3.45 . Hence,
p0
p = 76.27(304 )
p
= 23186 kPa (abs) = 23.2 MPa (abs)
p0 =
T0
T = 3.45(180 )
T
= 621 K
T0 =
(b) At critical condition, for M = 1.0. From App. A:
p0 p = p0 p = 1.893 , T0 T = T0 T * = 1.2
*
Hence,
p*
1
(23.2)
p =
p0 =
p0
1.893
*
= 12.2 MPa (abs)

36
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
T*
1
(621)
T =
T0 =
T0
1.2
*
= 518 K
c * = kRT = 1.4(287 )(518)
= 456 m/s
(c) Flow velocity:
V = M c = M kRT
= 3.5 1.4(287 )(180 )
= 941 m/s
37
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.3
In a subsonic-supersonic flow through a converging-diverging nozzle,

the reservoir pressure and temperature respectively are 10 atm (abs)
*
and 300 K. In the nozzle, there are two positions where A A = 6 ;
one in the converging section and the other in the diverging section.
Calculate the Mach number, pressure, temperature and flow velocity
at those two positions. Use gas constant R = 287 J/kgK and specific
heat ratio k = 1.4.
38
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
In the reservoir, the fluid is in stagnation:
p0 = 10 atm (abs) = 1013 kPa (abs) , T0 = 300 K

*
From App. A, for A A = 6 :
M = 0.097 (subsonic)
, M = 3.368 (supersoni c)
For converging section, M = 0.097 (subsonic). From App. A:
p0 p = 1.006 , T0 T = 1.002
Hence,
p=
p
1
(1013) = 1007 kPa (abs)
p0 =
1.006
p0
T=
T
1
(300) = 299 K
T0 =
T0
1.002
V = M c = M kRT = 0.097 1.4(287 )(299)

= 33.6 m/s
39
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
For diverging section, M = 3.368 (supersonic). From App. A:
p0 p = 63.13 , T0 T = 3.269
Hence,
p=
p
1
(1013) = 16.0 kPa (abs)
p0 =
p0
63.13
T=
T
1
(300) = 91.8 K
T0 =
T0
3.269
V = M c = M kRT = 3.368 1.4(287 )(91.8)

= 647 m/s
40
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.4
NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

When a supersonic flow is resisted by a body or an obstruction, shock
waves will form.
M < 1.0
V<c
M > 1.0
V>c
Subsonic
Supersonic
Figure 4.8 Formation of shock wave
Shock waves are thin (107 m) regions in a supersonic flow where

the fluid properties changes abruptly.
41
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Crossing the shock wave:
p, , T , s
M ,V , p0
(
h0
increases
decreases
no change
M>1
M>1
M>1
M<1
M<1
Normal shock
Oblique shock
Bow shock
Figure 4.9 Typical types of shock waves
42
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.10 Normal shock wave
43
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
List of relationships/equations used are (taking A constant):

1.
Continuity equation
1V1 = 2V2
2.
Momentum equation
( p1 p2 )A = m& (V2 V1 )
3.
4.
Energy equation
(
(
(
h0 = h1 + 12 V12 = h2 + 12 V22
p1 + 1V12 = p2 + 2V22
c pT1 + 12 V12 = c pT2 + 12 V22
Speed of sound
c 2 = kRT = k p
44
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
From the energy equation relationship above:

kRT1 V12 kRT2 V22
+
=
+
k 1 2
k 1 2
c12
V12
c22
V22
+
+
=
k 1 2
k 1 2
Taking the transition condition as sonic V = c :

2
c12
V12
c22
V22
c
c
+
=
+
=
+
k 1 2
k 1 2
k 1 2
c12
V12
c22
V22
k + 1 2
+
=
c =
+
2(k 1)
k 1 2
k 1 2
(k + 1)c 2 12 (k 1)V12
2
c22 = 12 (k + 1)c 12 (k 1)V22
c12 =
1
2
45
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Dividing the momentum equation with continuity equation yields:

p
p1
+ V1 = 2 + V2
1V1
2V2
p1
p
2 = V2 V1
1V1 2V2
c12
c22
= V2 V1
kV1 kV2
Combining with the relationship from the energy equation above:

2
k + 1 c*
k 1
k + 1 c*
k 1
V1
+
V2 = V2 V1
2 kV1
2
2 kV2
2
2
k +1
c*
k 1
(V2 V1 )
(V2 V1 ) = V2 V1
+
2k
V1V2
2k
46
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

2
k + 1 c*
k 1
+
=1
2k V1V2
2k
2
c * = V1V2
(4.30)
Eq. 4.30 is known as the Prandtl relation and could be manipulated

as follows:
c * 2
=1
V22
2
c12 k 1 2
c 22 k 1
k + 1 V 2 + k + 1 k + 1 V 2 + k + 1 = 1
2
1
2
2
2 + k 1 2 + k 1 = k + 1
M
M
1
2
c*2
V12
47
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
M =
2
2
1+
kM
1
2
2
1
(k 1)M 12
12 (k 1)
(4.31)
The change in density across the normal shock wave could be

obtained from the continuity equation:
(
2 V1 V12 V12
k + 1)V12
=
=
=
=
1 V2 V1V2 c 2 2c12 + (k 1)V12
(k + 1)M 12
2
=
1 2 + (k 1)M 12
(4.32)
The change in pressure across the normal shock wave could be

obtained from the combination of continuity and momentum equation:
p 2 p1 = 1V12 2V22 = 1V1 (V1 V2 )
48
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
p 2 p1 1V12
=
p1
p1
V2
1
V1
kV12 V2
= 2 1
c1 V1

= kM 12 1 1
2
p2
2k
=1+
M 12 1
p1
k +1
(4.33)
The change in temperature across the normal shock wave could be

(
h
p
=
RT
obtained from the ideal gas equation
and = c pT :
(
T2 p2 1 h2
=
= (
T1
p1 2 h1
2
T2
2k
2 + (k 1)M 1
2
M1 1
= 1+
2
T1 k + 1
(k + 1)M 1
(4.34)
49
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
The change in entropy across the normal shock could be obtained

from Eq. 4.12 or Eq. 4.13:
If
s2 s1 = cv ln
T2
T
p
+ R ln 1 = c p ln 2 R ln 2
T1
T1
p1
2
M1 = 1:
M1 > 1:
M1 < 1:
s 2 s1 = 0
s2 s1 > 0
s2 s1 < 0
For M1 < 1, this case violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics,

thus shock wave phenomena does not occur in subsonic flow.
However, total/stagnation enthalpy across normal shock is always

constant:
(
(
h01 = c pT01 = c pT0 2 = h0 2
T01 = T0 2
(4.35)
50
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
From the entropy equation, compare stagnation quantities between

locations (1) and (2):
s2 s1 = c p ln
T0 2
p
p
R ln 0 2 = R ln 0 2
T01
p 01
p 01
p0 2
s s
= exp 2 1
p01
R
The loss in stagnation pressure compared to static pressure is given by

the Rayleigh Pitot-tube formula:
p0 2 p0 2 p01
=
p1
p01 p1
(4.36)
(4.37)
For air (k = 1.4), Eq. 4.31-37 are easier obtained from the Normal
Shock Properties Table (Appendix B).
51
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.11
Normal shock properties

52
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.4
Consider a normal shock wave in air, with velocity, temperature and

pressure of the flow before crossing the shock of 680 m/s, 288 K and
101.3 kPa (abs). Calculate velocity, temperature, pressure and change
in entropy after crossing the shock. Use gas constant R = 287 J/kgK
and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.
Let the upstream region be denoted as (1) and downstream region as

(2). Speed of sound at (1):
c1 = kRT = 1.4(287 )(288)

= 340.2 m/s
V
680
M1 = 1 =
= 2.0
c1 340.2
From App. B, for M1 = 2.0:
p 2 p1 = 4.5 , T2 T1 = 1.687 , M 2 = 0.5774
53
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Hence,
p2 =
p2
p1 = 4.5(101.3) = 456 kPa (abs)
p1
T2 =
T2
T1 = 1.687(288) = 486 K
T1
V2 = M 2 c 2 = M 2 kRT2 = 0.5774 1.4(287 )(486)

= 255 m/s
and, the change in entropy:
cp =
kR 1.4(287 )
=
= 1005 J/kg K
k 1 1.4 1
s 2 s1 = c p ln
T2
p
R ln 2 = 1005 ln(1.687 ) 287 ln(4.5)
T1
p1
= 93.6 J/kg K
54
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.5
A Pitot tube is stationed on the fuselage of an aircraft to measure its

speed. If the static pressure measured is 1 atm (abs), determine the
Mach numbers for pressure values on the Pitot tube as follows:
(a) 1.276 atm (abs),
(b) 2.714 atm (abs),
(c) 12.06 atm (abs).
For each case, check whether flow is subsonic or supersonic. From

App. B, for M = 1.0: p0 p = 1.893 .
p0
p = p = 1.893(1) = 1.893 atm (abs)
p
(a) Since p 0 < p 0 , flow is subsonic.

From App. A, for p0 p = 1.276 :
M = 0 .6
55
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(b) Since p0 > p0 , flow is supersonic.

From App. B, for p0 2 p1 = 2.714 :
M = 1.3
(c) Since p0 > p0 , flow is supersonic.

From App. B, for p0 2 p1 = 12.06 :
M = 3 .0
56
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.5
NON-ISENTROPIC GAS FLOW

In this topic, the nonisentropic flows that shall be discussed are:
1.
Fanno flow Adiabatic (no heat transfer) flow with friction in

constant cross-section duct,
2.
Rayleigh flow Non-adiabatic (with heat transfer) frictionless

flow in constant cross-section duct.
Figure 4.12 One-dimensional adiabatic gas flow with friction

57
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
For Fanno flows, consider the following one-dimensional flow:

List of relationships/equations used are:
1.
Continuity equation
V = constant
2.
dV
=0
V
Momentum equation x-direction

pA ( p + dp )A w (D ) dx = m& (V + dV V )
dp
3.
4 w dx
+ V dV = 0
D
Energy equation
(
(
h + 12 V 2 = h0 = c pT0 = c pT + 12 V 2
c p dT + V dV = 0
58
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.
Ideal gas equation of state

p = RT
5.
dp d dT
=
+
p
Darcy friction factor relationship
f =
8 w
w = 18 fV 2 = 18 fkpM 2
Using the relationship for speed of sound c = kRT and Mach

number M = V c , these relationships could be derived:
2
dp
dx
2 1 + (k 1)M
= k Ma
f
2
D
p
21 M
dx
dV
kM 2
=
=
f
D
V
21 M 2
59
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
dp0 d 0
dx
=
= 12 kM 2 f
0
p0
D
dT k (k 1)M 4 dx
=
f
D
T
2 1 M 2
2
1
dM 2
dx
2 1 + 2 (k 1)M
= kM
f
2
2
D
M
1 M
Integration of the above relation yields:
M =1
L
1 M 2
dx
2
dM
f
=
0 D
1 + 12 (k 1)M 2 kM 4
L
1 M 2 k + 1 (k + 1)M 2
= f
ln
+
2
D
2k
(
)
kM 2
k
M
2
1
+
(4.38)
60
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Other relationships could be derived in a similar manner:
M =1
dT
=
M
T
1+
(k 1)
1
(k 1)M 2
2
1
2
dM 2
T
k +1
=
T 2 + (k 1)M 2
(4.39)
(k + 1)M 2
V
M kRT
T
=
=M
=
2
V
T
kRT
2 + (k 1)M
V 2 + (k 1)M 2
=
=
V (k + 1)M 2
12
(4.40)
12
(4.41)
T
p
=
T
p
61
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(k + 1)
p
1
=
p M 2 + (k 1)M 2
12
(4.42)
p0 p0 p p
=
p0
p p p0
p0
1 2 + (k 1)M 2
=
k +1
p 0 M
( k +1) 2 ( k 1)
(4.43)
From Eq. 4.38-43, changes in fluid properties with increasing values

in f could be summarised as in Table 4.1.
62
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Table 4.1 Characteristics of Fanno flows

Property
M, V
p,
p0, 0
T
s
Subsonic
Supersonic
63
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.13
One-dimensional non-adiabatic frictionless gas flows
64
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
For Rayleigh flows, consider the following one-dimensional flow:

List of relationships/equations used are:
1.
Continuity equation
1V1 = 2V2 = constant

2.
Momentum equation x-direction
( p1 p2 )A = m& (V2 V1 )
3.
Energy equation
( 1 2 ( 1 2
&
&
Q = m h2 + 2 V2 h1 2 V1
4.
(
Q& Q (
q= =
= h0 2 h01
m& m
Ideal gas equation of state

(
(
p1
p
= 2
, h0 2 h01 = c p (T0 2 T01 )
1T1 2T2
65
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Using the relationship for speed of sound c = kRT and Mach

number M = V c , the following relationships could be derived:
T0 2(k + 1)M 2 1 + 12 (k 1)M 2

=
2
T0
1 + kM 2
p
k +1
=
p
1 + kM 2
T
(1 + k )M
=
T 1 + kM 2
(4.45)
2
(4.46)
1 + kM 2
V
=
=
(1 + k )M 2
V
p0
1+ k
=
p 0 1 + kM 2
(4.44)
2 + (k 1)M 2
k +1
(4.47)
k ( k 1)
(4.48)
66
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
From Eq. 4.44-48, changes in fluid properties with respect to

increasing values of q could be summarised as in Table 4.2:
Table 4.2 Characteristics of Rayleigh flows
Property
Heating
Cooling
Subsonic
Supersonic
Subsonic
Supersonic
0 Ma 1 k
Ma, V
T0
T
0 Ma 1 k
p,
p0, 0
s
(
)
( 1 k Ma 1)
(
)
( 1 k Ma 1)
67
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.6
OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE

Shock wave in two dimensions is known as oblique shock.
Figure 4.14 Oblique shock wave

68
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
If a body is (or could be approximated as) a particle, oblique shock

angle is equivalent to Mach cone angle (see Fig. 4.1):
sin =
1
c
=
V M
(4.49)
Consider a wedge-shaped body with deflection angle that produces

oblique shock of angle . List of relationship/equations used:
1.
Continuity equation
1Vn1 = 2Vn 2
2.
Momentum equation normal component
p1 p2 = 2Vn22 1Vn21
3.
Momentum equation tangential component
0 = 1Vn1 (Vt 2 Vt1 )

69
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.
Energy equation
(
(
h1 + 12 Vn21 + 12 Vt12 = h2 + 12 Vn22 + 12 Vt 22 = h0
From Fig. 4.14 (and relation 3 above), there is no change in the

tangential velocity component:
Vt1 = Vt 2 = Vt = constant
Thus, relations 1, 2 and 4 are similar to the case of normal shock, but
V and Ma need to be taken in its normal components:
V n1
= M 1 sin
c1
(4.50)
Vn 2
= M 2 sin ( )
c2
(4.51)
M n1 =
M n2 =
70
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
The relationship --M1 could be obtained from Eq. 4.32 by replacing

M1 Mn1 and V Vn:
Vn1
(k + 1)M 12 sin 2
2
tan
=
=
=
1 2 + (k 1)M 12 sin 2 tan( ) Vn 2
Solving for :
)
)
2 cot M 12 sin 2 1
tan =
2 + M 12 k + cos 2 2
(4.52)
Eq. 4.52 is plotted in Fig. 4.15 or in Appendix D, and it shows 2

solutions for :
1.
Weak shock results in M > 1 downstream,
2.
Strong shock results in M < 1 downstream.
71
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.15 --Ma diagram for oblique shock wave

72
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.16 Supersonic flow past a wedge structure
73
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.6
Air at Mach 2 with 70 kPa (abs) pressure, flows through a 10 ramp

and forms a weak oblique shock as shown in the figure below.
Calculate:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(c)
Shock angle ,
Downstream Mach number M2,
Downstream pressure p2,
Total pressure downstream p02, measured by a Pitot tube.
M1 = 2.0
p1 = 70 kPa
10
74
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(a) From App. D, for M1 2.0 and p1 70 kPa:
39.3
(b) Normal component of M1:
M n1 M 1 sin 2.0 sin 39.3 1.267
From App. B:
M n 2 0.8031 ,
p 2 p1 1.707 ,
p 0 2 p1 2.609
Hence, the Mach number downstream:

M n2
0.8031
sin sin 39.3 10

1.64
M2
(c) Pressure downstream:

p2
p2
p1 1.70770 119 kPa (abs)
p1
75
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
(d) Total pressure downstream:

p0 2
p0 2
p1 2.60970 183 kPa (abs)
p1
76
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
4.7
PRANDTL-MEYER EXPANSION WAVE
Figure 4.15 Comparison between oblique shock and expansion wave

77
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
When supersonic flow is deflected from the adjacent flow, an

expansion wave is formed.
Crossing this expansion wave:
1.
M 2 > M 1 but p 2 < p1 , 2 < 1 , T2 < T1 ,
2.
It is a continuous expansion region with upstream Mach wave

angle 1 and downstream angle 2,
3.
Since changes in parameters are continuous (i.e. gradual

infinitesimal change), flow is isentropic (ds = 0).
Expansion wave formed by a sharp concave angle is known as

Prandtl-Meyer expansion wave.
78
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Figure 4.16 Formation of expansion wave
If d is a small angle between two Mach waves, using sine rule:

V + dV
sin ( 2 + )
cos
=
=
V
sin ( 2 d ) cos( + d )
1+
dV
cos
=
V
cos cos d sin sin d
79
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
For small angle (cos d 1, sin d d ) ,

1+
dV
cos
1
=
=
V
cos d sin 1 d tan
Using series expansion (for x < 1) and neglecting high order terms:
1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + L
1 x
1+
dV
= 1 + d tan + L
V
d =
dV V
tan
80
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
From Eq. 4.49:
= sin 1
1
M
tan =
1
M 2 1
Therefore, differential equation for the Prandtl-Meyer flow is

obtained:
d = M 2 1
dV
V
(4.53)
Integrating the above equation yields:

2
d =
M2
M1
M 2 1
dV
V
81
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Combining with the relation M = V c and c = RT :
ln V = ln M + ln c
dV dM dc
=
+
M
c
V
T
k 1 2
k 1 2
c0
c = c 0 1 +
M
M
= 0 =1+
2
2
c
T

k 1
M
1
dc
dM
2
dM dV =
=
k 1 2
k 1 2 M
c
V
1+
1+
M
M
2
2
1 2
Hence,
2
d = 2 1 =
M2
M1
M 2 1 dM
k 1 2 M
1+
M
2
(4.54)
82
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
The integration above is known as the Prandtl-Meyer function:
(M )
M2
M1
M 2 1 dM
k 1 2 M
M
1+
2
With 1 = 0 , and (M ) = 0 at M 1 = 1 , this yields
(M ) =
k +1
tan 1
k 1
k 1 2
M 1 tan 1 M 2 1
k +1
(4.55)
Eq. 4.55 and Eq. 4.49 is given in Appendix C for air (k = 1.4 ) .
83
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
EXAMPLE 4.7
A supersonic air flow with properties M1 = 1.5, p1 = 81.5 kPa (abs)

and T1 = 256 K passes an expansion angle (see figure below) that
deflects the flow through angle 2 = 20. Calculate M2, p2, T2, p02, T02,
and the upstream and downstream angles of the Mach lines.
M1 = 1.5
20
84
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
From App. C, for M1 = 1.5:
1 = 11.91, 1 = 41.81
2 = 1 + 1 = 11.91 + 20 = 31.91
From App. C, for 2 = 31.91:
2 = 26.95 , M 2 = 2.207
From App. A, for M1 = 1.5:
p01 p1 = 3.671, T01 T1 = 1.45
From App. A, for M2 = 2.207:

p0 2 p2 = 10.81, T0 2 T2 = 1.974
Flow through an expansion wave is isentropic:

p01 = p0 2 , T01 = T0 2
85
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Therefore,
p2
p 2 p 0 2 p 01
1
13.67181.5 27.7 kPa (abs)
p1
10.81
p0 2 p01 p1
T2
T2 T0 2 T01
1
11.45256 188 K
T1
1.975
T0 2 T01 T1
p 0 2 p 01
T0 2 T01
p 01
p1 3.67181.5 299 kPa (abs)
p1
T01
T1 1.45256 371 K
T1
Mach line upstream angle, 1 41.81

Mach line downstream angle, 2 2 26.95 20 6.95
86

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Chapter 4 Compressible Flows PDF

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Chapter

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Ideal Gas Relation

Characteristics of Compressible Flow

Isentropic Gas Flow

Normal Shock Wave

Non-isentropic Gas Flow

Oblique Shock Wave

Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Wave

IDEAL GAS RELATION

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

The equation of state for an ideal gas is

where p is pressure, is density, R is the gas constant (286.9 J/kgK

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Gas constant R could be obtained from the universal gas constant

Wiht cv almost constant, integrating the above relation yields

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

With cp almost constant, integrating the above relation yields

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

The relationship between cp and cv could obtained from Eq. 4.4:

Combining eqn. (4.6) and eqn. (4.7) yields

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

From the definition of enthalpy:

From eqn. (4.10) and eqn. (4.11), the change in entropy ds is

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Integration of both equations above yield

From the Second Law of Thermodynamics, for an adiabatic and

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Hence, for an isentropic flow,

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

where V is the flow velocity and c is the speed of sound.

Compressible flow could be classified to three categories:

Nearly-Incompressible flow M 0.3

Nearly symmetrical pressure wave,

Change in density is negligible (< 5%),

Hence, the Bernoulli equation could be used.

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Subsonic flow 0.3 < M < 1.0

Assymetrical pressure wave,

Change in density becomes more significant (> 5%),

When M 1.0, there exists a plane that separates zone of

Supersonic flow M 1.0

Mach wave transforms to Mach cone with angle:

Change in density is very significant,

Shock wave phenomena could develop when flow is

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Condition when M = 1.0 is called sonic condition.

Figure 4.1 Sound waves from a fixed and moving source

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 4.1 (continued)

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 4.1 (continued)

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

In aerodynamic texts, two more flow regimes are commonly added:

Transonic flow 0.9 M 1.2

A state of partial subsonic/supersonic condition causing

Fluid molecules begin to experience chemical reactions such

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 4.2 Moving and static control volume of a pressure pulse

The relationship for speed of sound c is derived by considering the

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Combining both relations above yields: