Downloaded from pmj.bmj.com on February 2, 2013 - Published by group.bmj.

com

377

REVIEW

Osteoarthritis
I Haq, E Murphy, J Dacre
.............................................................................................................................
Postgrad Med J 2003;79:377383

Osteoarthritis is a chronic degenerative disorder

characterised by cartilage loss. It is extremely prevalent
in society and is a major cause of disability. It is
important to treat osteoarthritis effectively using a
multidisciplinary approach tailored to the patients
needs. This paper reviews current thinking on the
aetiology, pathogenesis, investigations, and
management of osteoarthritis. The paper also discusses
the challenges for developing good quality outcome
measures for use in large scale multicentre clinical trials
for new osteoarthritis treatments, especially disease
modifying osteoarthritis drugs.
..........................................................................

See end of article for

authors affiliations

.......................
Correspondence to:
Dr Inam Haq, Academic
Centre for Medical
Education, 4th Floor
Holborn Union Building,
Archway Campus,
Highgate Hill, London N19
3LW, UK;
i.haq@acme.ucl.ac.uk
Submitted
18 December 2002
Accepted 3 March 2003

.......................

steoarthritis is a chronic, degenerative

disorder of unknown cause characterised
by gradual loss of articular cartilage. It is
the most prevalent disease in our society, with a
worldwide distribution. It ranks fourth in health
impact in women and eighth in men in the western world.1 In England and Wales, between 1.3
and 1.75 million people have symptomatic
osteoarthritis.2 Data from the Arthritis Research
Campaign show that up to 550 000 people in the
UK have severe knee osteoarthritis and two
million people visited their general practitioner in
the past year because of osteoarthritis. More than
80 000 hip or knee replacements were performed
in 2000 in the UK with a cost of 405 million.3 As
a cause of disability (such as walking and stair
climbing) in the elderly in the west, osteoarthritis
is second only to cardiovascular disease. Altogether 10%15% of adults over 60 have some
degree of osteoarthritis, and with an ageing
population it is becoming an increasingly important disease.
Osteoarthritis is classified into two groups. Primary osteoarthritis can be localised or generalised, the latter more commonly found in postmenopausal women, with development of
Heberdens nodes. Secondary osteoarthritis has
an underlying cause, such as trauma, obesity,
Pagets disease, or inflammatory arthritis.

CLINICAL FEATURES
Patients are usually over the age of 50 and
complain of pain and stiffness in the affected
joint(s), which is exacerbated with activity and
relieved by rest. Early morning stiffness, if
present, is typically less than 30 minutes.
Joint tenderness and crepitus on movement
may also be present. Swelling may be due to bony
deformity such as osteophyte formation, or due to
an effusion caused by synovial fluid accumulation. Systemic symptoms are absent, with a

normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate. The presence of fever, weight loss, anorexia, or abnormal
blood tests should alert the physician to other
disease processes such as infection or malignancy.
The American College of Rheumatology have
produced criteria for the diagnosis of
osteoarthritis.4 They were developed for epidemiological purposes and are not recommended
for use in routine clinical practice.

PATHOGENESIS
Traditionally, osteoarthritis was viewed as an
inevitably progressive, degenerative disease process. New work suggests that it is a dynamic process that may progress episodically. It is a
heterogeneous group of diseases characterised by
an adaptive response of synovial joints to a variety
of environmental, genetic, and biomechanical
stresses.
Cartilage is made of water (70%) and a type II
collagen framework with proteoglycans and
glycosaminoglycans (consisting mainly of aggrecan and also chondroitin), produced by chondrocytes. Proteoglycans in turn bind to hyaluronate
which stabilises the macromolecule. Chondrocytes receive nutrition from the synovium by diffusion and the synovial fluid is circulated by joint
movement. It has been postulated that if the joint
stops moving (as a result of a fracture or
immobility) and chondrocytes lose their source of
nutrition, they go into shock and cartilage repair
ceases. Metalloproteinases are produced, which
catalyse collagen and proteoglycan degradation.
The synovium has been shown to be variably
inflamed in osteoarthritis producing increased
levels of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumour necrosis
factor-alpha (TNF-), cytokines that induce nitric
oxide
and
metalloproteinase
production.
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and mechanical loading of
the joint also induce catabolic cytokine receptors.
These bind IL-1 and TNF- within cartilage causing more destruction.
It is thought that the osteophytes and subchondral sclerosis seen in osteoarthritis may be the
bodys way of trying to compensate for lack of
cartilage, although some researchers have found
bony changes before cartilage changes in animal
models.5 This sort of abnormal bone is also
thought to lead to further degradation of the cartilage surrounding it. Poor synthesis of cartilage
.................................................
Abbreviations: COMP, cartilage oligomeric matrix
protein; COX-2, cyclo-oxygenase-2; IL-1/IL-6,
interleukin-1/interleukin-6; NICE, National Institute for
Clinical Excellence; NSAIDs, non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs; SF-36, short form 36; TNF-,
tumour necrosis factor-alpha; WOMAC, Western Ontario
and McMaster Universities osteoarthritis index

www.postgradmedj.com

Downloaded from pmj.bmj.com on February 2, 2013 - Published by group.bmj.com

378

Haq, Murphy, Dacre

56-fold increased risk of developing osteoarthritis.7 This usually occurs in a younger age group and can lead to prolonged
disability and unemployment. Meniscectomy after a knee
injury resulted in an increased risk of developing tibiofemoral
osteoarthritis.10
Occupation
Osteoarthritis is commoner in those performing heavy physical work, especially if this involves knee bending, squatting, or
kneeling. Dockers and miners have been found to have a
higher prevalence of knee osteoarthritis than those in sedentary jobs.11 There is a significant relationship between occupational kneeling12 or repetitive use of joints during work and
osteoarthritis.

Figure 1 Postmortem specimen of femoral component of a knee

joint with osteoarthritis showing (A) cartilage fibrillation and (B)
osteophyte formation.

building blocks may be caused by dysfunctional forms of

insulin-like growth factor-1 and transforming growth factorbeta, agents which normally promote new cartilage
formation.5

PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS
Macroscopically, the osteoarthritic process results in cystic
degeneration of the bone surrounding the joint, with loss of
cartilage and irregular, abnormal bone formation at the edges
of the joint (osteophytes; fig 1) and narrowing of the joint
space.
Microscopically, there is flaking and fibrillation of the
articular cartilage surface and destruction of the cartilage
microarchitecture with formation of holes within it, as well as
bony cysts.6 Variations in the cellularity and vascularity of
subchondral bone leads to sclerosis in some areas and new
bone and callous formation where the synovium is continuous
with the periosteum. The cartilage itself has three discrete
zones within it: a surface layer adjacent to the synovium consisting of collagen aligned parallel to the surface, a middle
zone consisting of thicker, wider spaced collagen molecules
arranged randomly, and an inner zone adjacent to bone, consisting of collagen arranged perpendicular to the surface.6

RISK FACTORS
Age
The normal ageing process is thought to cause increased laxity around joints, reduced joint proprioception, cartilage calcification, and reduced chondrocyte function, all leading to a
propensity for osteoarthritis. The Framingham Study found
that 27% of those aged 63 to 70 had radiographic evidence of
knee osteoarthritis, increasing to 44% in the over 80 age
group.7 Other studies have found that 80% of people over the
age of 65 have some radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis
(although this may be asymptomatic), but that incidence and
prevalence of symptomatic osteoarthritis levelled off or
declined in men and women at around 80 years of age.8
Studies of proprioception in osteoarthritis have found that
it is reduced in an elderly patient group with knee
osteoarthritis.9
Trauma
Cruciate, collateral ligament and meniscal tears as well as joint
fracture lead to increased risk of osteoarthritis. The Framingham Study found men with a history of knee injury were at a

www.postgradmedj.com

Exercise
Elite athletes who take part in high impact sports do have an
increased risk of knee osteoarthritis.8 Primary quadriceps
weakness is a risk factor for its development by decreasing the
stability of the joint and reducing the shock absorbing properties of the muscle.11
Gender and ethnicity
Under the age of 50, men have a higher prevalence and
incidence than women. However, once over 50, women have a
higher overall prevalence and incidence than men. This difference tends to become less marked after the age of 80. A withdrawal from oestrogen at menopause may be a trigger.13
Although ubiquitous, osteoarthritis is generally commoner
in Europeans than in Asians. Osteoarthritis of the hip is more
common in Europeans (7%25%) than in Chinese, Africans
from Nigeria and Liberia, and Jamaicans (1%4%). Osteoarthritis of the hand is more common in European women
than in women of Afro-Caribbean descent.13 There is conflicting evidence as to whether oestrogen based hormone replacement therapy protects against large joint osteoarthritis.14 15
Genetics
There is increased concordance for osteoarthritis in monozygotic twins compared with dizygotic twins, indicating there
is a genetic susceptibility to the disease.16
Many genes have been linked to osteoarthritis. There is
most concordance with chromosomes 2q, 4, and 16. Families
have been found with rare autosomal dominant patterns of
inheritance of osteoarthritis. The defective genes are often
coding for structural proteins of the extracellular matrix of the
joint and collagen proteins. Children of parents with early
onset osteoarthritis are at higher risk of developing it
themselves compared with families where this is not the case
(reviewed in Loughlin16).
Obesity
This is the strongest modifiable risk factor. Three to six times
the body weight is transferred across the knee joint during
walking. Any increase in weight should be multiplied by this
factor to estimate the excess force across the knee joint when
an overweight patient walks. The Chingford Study showed
that for every two unit increase in body mass index (approximately 5 kg), the odds ratio for developing radiographic knee
osteoarthritis increased by 1.36.17 Increasing weight increased
the risk of contralateral osteoarthritis of the knee in women
with established osteoarthritis of one knee.
Being overweight at an average age of 3637 is a risk factor
for developing knee osteoarthritis in later life (>70 years of
age). Losing 5 kg of weight reduced the risk of symptomatic
knee osteoarthritis in women of average height by 50%.9 Also,
increased risk of developing progressive osteoarthritis seems
to be apparent in overweight people with localised disease.13
Diet
People in the lower tertile of vitamin C and vitamin D blood
levels had a threefold risk of progression of knee

Downloaded from pmj.bmj.com on February 2, 2013 - Published by group.bmj.com

Osteoarthritis

379

osteoarthritis.7 The antioxidant and collagen promoting properties of vitamin C may be of benefit as animal models have
shown vitamin C may delay the onset of osteoarthritis.
Vitamin D intake and status had no effect on development of
knee osteoarthritis but those with low intake and low serum
levels had an increased risk of osteoarthritis knee progression.
Vitamin E has not been shown to be of benefit.18
Bone density
There is an inverse relationship between bone density and
osteoarthritis. Increasing subchondral bone density may lead
to increased loading through weightbearing joint cartilage.11

NATURAL HISTORY
The natural history of osteoarthritis is a slow process:
In the knee, progression may take many years. Once established however, the joint may remain in a stable condition for
many years. Spector et al found that in a cohort of 63 patients,
radiographic deterioration occurred in approximately one
third.19 In another study of 31 patients with established knee
osteoarthritis followed up for eight years, 20 patients got
worse and seven remained the same. Changes in symptoms,
disability, and radiographs do not correlate.20
In the hip, natural history is variable. In a Danish study, two
thirds of hips studied deteriorated radiographically over 10
years, however symptomatic improvement was common.21
Other studies have shown clinical deterioration to be more
common. Unlike knee osteoarthritis, symptomatic and radiological recovery is possible. Avascular necrosis of the femoral
head occurs late in disease and is a major problem.
In the hand it is initially a relapsing and remitting disease
with episodic inflammatory phases associated with joint redness and swelling. Bony swellings form at this time. The
frequency of disease flares then reduces and the joint
swellings become hard and fixed. This is associated with a
reduction in pain.21

INVESTIGATIONS
Imaging

Plain radiographs
The following changes may be seen on plain radiographs (fig
2):
Joint space narrowing.
Osteophytes.
Bony cysts.
Subchondral sclerosis.
Radiographs are cheap, provide a permanent record, and are
easily available. They are not a good measure of disease
progression as this is based on measures of joint space
narrowing, which occurs at <0.1 mm per year, so it is difficult
to measure accurately.

Scoring systems to quantify radiological progression

Several radiograph scoring systems have been employed to
assist the measurement of osteoarthritis progression. Other
techniques include chondrometry, where minimal interbone
distance is measured using a special compass magnifying
glass calibrated to 0.1 mm (reviewed in Hochberg22). Dacre
and Huskisson have developed a reliable computerised
method for measuring total tibiofemoral compartment joint
space.23 A digitised image of a standard anteroposterior knee
radiograph is obtained and the area of the knee joint space is
measured. Microfocal radiography allows magnification of the
image (usually 410 times) with high spatial resolution,
sharply defined joint margins, allowing accurate and reproducible measurements of radiographic features.24

Relationship between radiography findings and symptoms

Results have been conflicting, probably due to the differences
in populations studied and radiographic and clinical criteria

Figure 2 Standard anteroposterior knee radiograph showing

medial joint space narrowing at (A).

used. The presence of osteophytes had a very strong

association with knee pain, whereas the absence or presence
of joint space narrowing was not associated.25 Knee pain
severity was a more important determinant of functional
impairment than radiographic severity of osteoarthritis.26 27
There was no correlation between joint space narrowing and a
disability score (Western Ontario and McMaster Universities
Osteoarthritis index, WOMAC) at a single time point.27

Magnetic resonance imaging28 29

This is already well established for use in assessing ligament
and meniscal tears in the knee. It has no place in routine
clinical assessment of osteoarthritis, but may be a specific and
sensitive way of quantifying cartilage loss. Currently, magnetic
resonance imaging has not proved to be sensitive enough in
the detection of preclinical osteoarthritis. Changes in surface
morphology and full thickness cartilage defects can be seen,
but fibrillation cannot yet be evaluated.

Other imaging techniques

Computed tomography is thought to have little advantage
over plain radiographs unless an axial joint view is required.
Radionuclide imaging is considered inadequate in assessing
disease progression as it lacks sufficient anatomical detail.
However studies have found that retention of technetium
labelled diphosphonate in the knee predicts subsequent cartilage loss in patients with advanced osteoarthritis.30 Thus far,
radionuclide imaging has not been recommended as a routine
imaging modality due to worries about radiation exposure.
Ultrasound is good for assessing cartilage integrity and
destruction, but in most weight bearing joints, cartilage is not
easily accessible.
Biochemical markers in osteoarthritis
Current diagnosis of osteoarthritis relies on a clinical history
and radiography. Radiographic changes occur late in the
disease and are largely irreversible. Molecular markers may
theoretically be able to detect osteoarthritic changes at an
early stage. Ideally these markers would be sensitive to
change, reliable, and quantitative.31
There are currently several candidates for biochemical
markers in osteoarthritis, but none have been found to be
specific so far. They reflect remodelling of the bone, cartilage,
and synovium.32
Cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) may be a
marker of cartilage destruction. C-reactive protein, hyaluronan, YKL-40, and metalloproteases are markers of synovial
inflammation. Pyridinoline and bone sialoprotein are markers
of bone turnover.

www.postgradmedj.com

Downloaded from pmj.bmj.com on February 2, 2013 - Published by group.bmj.com

380

Box 1: Learning points

Osteoarthritis is a common disease with high morbidity.
The aetiology is multifactorial.
Biochemical markers of disease activity are not yet
available for routine clinical care.
Plain radiographs are the current most common way of
assessing progression of osteoarthritis, although there are
problems with standardisation of joint positioning with
respect to the knee.
Any assessment of effect of a therapy should include a
measure of health status in addition to radiological
assessments.

A major problem is that most of the body cartilage is found

in intervertebral discs and costochondral junctions. Joints
affected by osteoarthritis form a small proportion of the total
by number and may develop only subtle biochemical changes
in early disease.
These markers need to be validated as no single marker can
yet distinguish between a healthy subject and an osteoarthritis patient on an individual basis. A recent study showed
that a combination of three markers (TNF receptor II, COMP,
and epitope 846) discriminated between healthy controls and
osteoarthritis patients in 90% of cases.33 It is hoped that a profile of several markers with genetic analysis may provide a
unique risk assessment for development of osteoarthritis, and
also to assess treatment effects.

OUTCOME MEASURES TO BE USED IN CLINICAL

TRIALS
With current interest in the development of possible disease
modifying osteoarthritis drugs, it is important to have suitable
outcome measures that are sensitive to change in articular
cartilage thickness, reproducible (precise), and accurate
(valid). These outcome measures can then be used in large
multicentre clinical trials to assess efficacy of new treatments.
Ideally, these measures would reflect current disease activity,
damage due to previous disease, and effect on health status.
Radiographic measurement of joint space width remains
the method of choice for evaluation of efficacy of disease
modifying drug. Brandt et al concluded that the current
anteroposterior knee radiograph was unable to provide reproducible measurements of joint space narrowing and that its
estimation depended on anatomical positioning of the knee.34
Results from ongoing studies to assess progression of
osteoarthritis using different knee positioning protocols will
help in defining a gold standard method of assessment of joint
space narrowing.
Any assessment of outcome in interventions in osteoarthritis needs to take into account a measure of impairment
and quality of life. For lower limb osteoarthritis the most
widely used measure is the WOMAC.35 General health
questionnaires used include the short form 36 (SF-36)36 and
health assessment questionnaire. These instruments are
important for measuring clinically important changes in
response to treatments, and are used in clinical trials. They
may be difficult to use in routine clinical practice due to time
pressures. The WOMAC is a measure of pain, stiffness, and
physical functional ability. The SF-36 covers areas such as
physical function, general health, and social and psychological
function. The WOMAC and SF-36 have been shown to be valid
and responsive in those on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drug (NSAID) treatment. A recent study has shown that both
WOMAC and SF-36 show improvements in pain scores in
patients with hip or knee osteoarthritis undergoing an intensive physical therapy rehabilitation programme.37 The
WOMAC was better at detecting functional improvement.

www.postgradmedj.com

Haq, Murphy, Dacre

Box 2: American Geriatrics Society recommendations

for exercise41
Warm up: 5 min.
Exercises
Isometric strength training: daily.
Isotonic strength training: 23 times/week.
Flexibility training: daily.
Aerobic training (endurance): 35 times/week.
Cool down: 5 min.

Many patients need to concentrate on strength and

flexibility training first before considering aerobic training.
The exercise programme should be adapted to the
patients age and functional ability.

MANAGEMENT OF OSTEOARTHRITIS IN CLINICAL

PRACTICE
The aims of management of patients with osteoarthritis are:
Patient education.
Pain control.
Improve function.
Alter the disease process.
Management interventions in osteoarthritis include:
Education.
Exercise.
Weight loss.
Physiotherapy.
Appliances.
Drugs.
Surgery.
Each management plan should be individualised and patient
centred, agreed on by the patient and doctor in a mutual discussion. Non-pharmacological measures should be tried first,
and plans may need to be modified as the patient condition
changes. The multidisciplinary team should also be involved.
Non-drug therapy

Education and community support

Walker-Bone et al performed a meta-analysis of 10 trials
between 1989 and 1997 on patient education and outcome for
pain and function.38 They concluded that there was a
significant effect, but that it was only 20% as effective as
NSAIDs. Formal education by any member of the multidisciplinary team should be an initial part of management.

Exercise
This is the single most important intervention. Inactivity due
to the pain of osteoarthritis leads to reduction of muscle bulk
surrounding the joint, thus destabilising it. Aerobic capacity is
also reduced, and the risk of obesity is increased. Exercise is
needed to build muscle strength and endurance, improve flexibility and joint motion, and improve aerobic activity.
There have been many studies showing the benefit of exercise in osteoarthritis.39 40 Evidence suggests that while advice
regarding exercise is important, being given a specific
programme to do with follow up is probably more effective
than advice alone. Given improved outcomes in nearly all
these trials in osteoarthritis and exercise, it is likely that compliance is good, although none seem to have measured it
directly. Box 2 shows the American Geriatrics Society protocol
for an exercise programme.41

Weight loss
A study of 21 obese elderly men and women with knee osteoarthritis randomised to either a diet and exercise group or diet

Downloaded from pmj.bmj.com on February 2, 2013 - Published by group.bmj.com

Osteoarthritis

alone group found that the former group lost more weight but
both groups had similar improvements in self reported
disability, knee pain intensity, and frequency after six
months.42

Mechanical aids
In knee osteoarthritis, shock absorbing footwear reduces the
impact of a load on the knee. Heel wedging improves proprioception and reduces pain in osteoarthritis of the knee. The
occupational therapist can provide assessment for walking
aids, for example, sticks and for providing a safe and
functional environment at home and work. There is historical
and anecdotal evidence for their benefit rather than from controlled trials.
Drug therapies

Analgesics
Paracetamol is used first line up to a dose of 1 g four times a
day. It is safe and well tolerated, especially in older age
groups.43 Paracetamol/opiate combinations such as coproxamol may be used if paracetamol alone is unhelpful.
Stronger opiates should be avoided if at all possible. Both the
American College of Rheumatology and European League
Against Rheumatism guidelines recommend this as initial
therapy.44 45

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

NSAIDs have been found to have equal efficacy to paracetamol
in most patients. There are no predictors of response to
NSAIDs,46 and no evidence that NSAIDs are more effective in
those patients with clinical signs of joint inflammation than in
those with none. Interestingly there is also no evidence to
confirm the widely held view that NSAIDs are superior to
paracetamol in those with moderate to severe chronic
osteoarthritis pain. All NSAIDS are thought to have similar
pain relieving effects, with a reduction in pain of around 30%
and an improvement in function of around 15%.43 46 If used,
the dose should be titrated depending on response and side
effect profile. Renal and gastrointestinal side effects are a
major source of mortality and morbidity, especially in the elderly. If a patient is at risk of peptic ulceration, gastroprotection
in the form of H2 antagonists, misoprostol, or proton pump
inhibitors should be prescribed.
The new cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) selective inhibitors are
increasingly used. They have equal efficacy to standard
NSAIDs, but can still cause upper gastrointestinal adverse
events. The VIGOR trial studied 8000 patients with rheumatoid arthritis taking rofecoxib or naproxen.47 The incidence of
significant upper gastrointestinal complications was reduced
by 50% in the rofecoxib group, but there was a significant
excess of myocardial infarctions in this group. There is concern
about the loss of antiplatelet activity with the coxib group of
drugs which may have contributed to this excess of cardiovascular complications, especially in the elderly who are at higher
risk of cerebral and cardiac thrombosis. They should not be
used first line in these patients and avoided if a patient is on
aspirin. Results from the CLASS trial suggested that the risk
reduction in annualised upper gastrointestinal events associated with COX-2 selective drugs did not occur in combination
with aspirin.48 There is no evidence to suggest that prescription
of gastroprotective agents with these drugs reduces risk of
adverse gastrointestinal events further. A recent systematic
review of nine randomised controlled trials using celecoxib
found lower incidences of drug withdrawals, endoscopically
detected ulcers and perforations, ulcers, and bleeds.49 In those
taking aspirin, there was also a lower incidence of endosopically detected ulcers. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines do not currently recommend use of
COX-2 drugs in this patient group.
There are no good randomised trials directly comparing different COX-2 drugs. The NICE report on guidance for use of

381

Box 3: NICE recommendations for the use of COX-2

selective inhibitors50
Aged over 65 years.
Using other medicines known to increase the likelihood of
gastrointestinal problems.
Having serious co-morbidities.
Requiring long term use of standard NSAIDs at the
maximum dose.

These drugs should be prescribed after discussion with the

patient and assessment of the risks and benefits for each
patient.

COX-2 selective inhibitors in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid

arthritis gives guidance on appropriate use (box 3), and
estimates that switching high risk patients with osteoarthritis
and rheumatoid arthritis to COX-2 selective drugs would lead
to an annual incremental cost of 25 million to the NHS.50

Intra-articular corticosteroids51
There are significant short term benefits of 24 weeks over
placebo with injection of triamcinolone hexacetonide or
methylprednisone in knee joints. Data on hip, thumb base,
and finger injections are lacking. Anecdotal evidence suggests
some patients achieve a sustained improvement in symptoms.
Side effects include skin atrophy and dermal depigmentation,
especially with long acting preparations and if the soft tissues
are injected. Infection is an important but rare complication.
Early studies suggested the possibility of severe cartilage
destruction with excessive use. It seems that the disease progression itself is the determinant of any future cartilage damage rather than intra-articular corticosteroid.
Studies in knee inflammatory arthritis have confirmed the
benefit of strict non-weightbearing rest after injection. No
studies in osteoarthritis have been performed but it is logical
to advise a similar approach. Intra-articular corticosteroids
should be used in disease flares only. Some studies suggest a
greater benefit if a joint effusion is present in the knee. The
effusion may indicate an active inflammatory phase of the
disease with possible increased cartilage damage. American
College of Rheumatology guidelines suggest no more than 34
knee joint injections per year. In patients needing more than
this number, other therapeutic manoeuvres should be considered.

Hyaluronic acid derivatives51

Hyaluronic acid is a high molecular weight polysaccharide,
and is a major component of synovial fluid and cartilage. The
molecular weight and amount of hyaluronic acid decrease in
osteoarthritis. It was postulated that supplementation with
intra-articular hyaluronic acid could help to improve synovoial
fluid viscoelasticity. Several preparations are available, either
low (for example, Hyalgan) or high molecular weight (for
example, Synvisc).
Studies have found Hyalgan (an injection each week for five
weeks) and Synvisc (an injection each week for three weeks)
to be superior to placebo in reducing pain and number of
intra-articular corticosteroid injections needed for 12 months.
Symptomatic effect started at week 35 and persisted up to 12
months. In comparison with intra-articular steroid, a double
blind study found that hyaluronic acid and intra-articular
corticosteroid had similar efficacy up to week 5, followed by
superior efficacy of hyaluronic acid until the end of the six
month study. There is also evidence that hyaluronic acid injections have similar efficacy to NSAIDs for between 36 months
after injection. Data on the effect of repeated injections, cost
benefit, and possible disease modifying effects are lacking. At
the moment, most repeat injections are given on recurrence
after a successful response to an initial course.

www.postgradmedj.com

Downloaded from pmj.bmj.com on February 2, 2013 - Published by group.bmj.com

382

Topical treatments
Topical capsaicin cream is often used on hands and knees in
patients with moderate pain. There have been some trials
showing the efficacy of capsaicin in osteoarthritis.52 53 There is
little evidence of efficacy of topical NSAIDs.

Glucosamine sulphate
Glucosamine sulphate is a nutrient supplement available over
the counter from pharmacies and health food shops in Europe
and USA, and is used to relieve musculoskeletal symptoms.
Many preparations are available, some of which also contain
chondroitin sulphate.
Both glucosamine sulphate and chondroitin sulphate are
derivatives of glycosaminoglycans found in articular cartilage.
Their mechanism of action is unclear, especially as they cannot
be absorbed from the gut intact. Reginster et al studied 212
patients with primary knee osteoarthritis and found that
there was a 20%25% improvement in symptoms and a reduction in knee medial compartment changes over three years in
those taking glucosamine.54 A meta-analysis has also shown
that glucosamine sulphate has some analgesic efficacy.55
Interestingly, a recent double blind placebo controlled trial
found no clinical or statistical analgesic effect, and a large placebo response (33%).56 This trial included patients with a
wider spectrum of disease severity and higher pain and
disability scores than the Reginster trial. Glucosamine
sulphate has probably an analgesic effect in mild to moderate
knee osteoarthritis. There is little evidence for its use in osteoarthritis at other sites.

Other possible disease modifying osteoarthritis drugs

Diacerein is a drug that inhibits production and activity of
metalloproteinases and interleukins and may have an effect in
delaying progression of hip osteoarthritis as measured by
minimum joint space measured visually.57 There is also interest in the use of bisphosphonates and specific leukotriene
antagonists as disease modifiers.
Surgery
Surgery is used where medical therapy has reached its limits.
Arthroscopic debridement and lavage can improve symptoms
in degenerative meniscal tears, but does not halt progression.
Autologous cartilage transplantation, where grafts of
normal cartilage are taken from the edge of the diseased joint,
cultured in vitro and reimplanted into areas where the
cartilage is denuded may be an effective technique, but it is
expensive and is not currently recommended for first line
treatment of knee joint articular cartilage defects.58 Osteotomy
in early osteoarthritis may relieve symptoms and slow the rate
of progression. Arthrodesis is good as a last resort for pain
relief. It can be used in the carpus, spine, and foot. Joint
replacement is, of course, the final solution for many people,
providing pain free and functioning joints for up to 20 years.

THE FUTURE
Translational research from the bench to the bedside will
hopefully allow the development of true disease modifying
osteoarthritis drugs.
Local delivery of anti-inflammatory cytokines (for example,
IL-1-Ra) or gene induction using gene transfer methods
may provide a novel treatment regimen.59
Further work on cartilage culture and transplantation for
other joints is needed.
Large clinical trials to assess the efficacy of interventions are
also necessary, using validated and reliable outcome measures
that reflect disease activity, damage, and quality of life.

CONCLUSION
This review has detailed current knowledge about the
epidemiology and best practice in treating osteoarthritis. At

www.postgradmedj.com

Haq, Murphy, Dacre

Box 4: Learning points in management of

osteoarthritis
Importance of patient education.
Early involvement of multidisciplinary team to help with
exercise advice, weight loss where appropriate, or walking
aids.
Each patient should have an individual plan made after full
discussion between the patient, doctor, and multidisciplinary team.
Paracetamol is the most appropriate first line drug
treatment.
NSAIDs should be used with caution, especially in at-risk
patients.
Newer COX-2 selective drugs are of equal analgesic efficacy to standard NSAIDs.
Intra-articular injection tends to work better in those with
joint effusions.
Glucosamine and chondroitin sulphates are safe over the
counter treatments that can be tried.
Hyaluronic acid derivatives should be reserved for use in
severe disease or if surgery is not possible.

the moment most of our knowledge of the aetiology and epidemiology of osteoarthritis is from observational studies. Very
little is really known with certainty about the mechanism(s)
underlying osteoarthritis, why its course varies from person to
person, and why it progresses rapidly in some and not in others. Our diagnostic measures are based on clinical findings and
clumsy radiological methods and none of our therapeutic
interventions are curative, with many patients needing joint
replacements. Robust outcome measures are needed in order
to assess the efficacy of any disease modifying osteoarthritis
drug in the future. Currently such outcome measures are not
agreed. This hampers research opportunities. Meanwhile,
osteoarthritis remains a significant public health problem.
.....................

Authors affiliations
I Haq, J Dacre, Academic Centre for Medical Education, University
College London and Department of Rheumatology, Whittington Hospital
NHS Trust, London
E Murphy, Academic Centre for Medical Education, University College
London

REFERENCES
1 Murray CJL, Lopez AD. The global burden of disease. Geneva: World
Health Organisation, 1996.
2 Reginster J-Y. The prevalence and burden of arthritis. Rheumatology
2002;41(suppl 1):36.
3 Arthritis Research Campaign. Available at: http://www.arc.org.uk/
about_arth/astats.htm.
4 Altman RD. Criteria for the classification of osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol
1991;27(suppl):1012.
5 Creamer P, Hochberg M. Osteoarthritis. Lancet 1997;350:5038.
6 MacFarlane PS, Reid R, Callander R. Pathology illustrated. 5th Ed.
London: Churchill Livingstone, 2000.
7 Felson DT, Zhang Y, Hannan MT, et al. The incidence and natural
history of knee osteoarthritis in the elderly: the Framingham Osteoarthritis
Study. Arthritis Rheum 1995;38:15005.
8 Oliveria SA, Felson DT, Reed JI, et al. Incidence of symptomatic hand,
hip and knee osteoarthritis among patients in a health maintenance
organisation. Arthritis Rheum 1995;38:113441.
9 Pai Y-C, Rymer WZ, Chang RW, et al. Effect of age and osteoarthritis
on knee proprioception. Arthritis Rheum 1997;40:22605.
10 Roos H, Lauren M, Adelberth T, et al. Knee osteoarthritis after
meniscectomy: prevalence of radiographic changes after twenty-one
years compared with matched controls. Arthritis Rheum
1998;41:68793.
11 Hunter DJ, March L, Sambrook PN. Knee osteoarthritis: the influence of
environmental factors. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2002;20:93100.
12 Maetzel A, Makela M, Hawker G, et al. Osteoarthritis of the hip and
knee and mechanical occupational exposure: a systematic overview of
the evidence. J Rheumatol 1997;24:599607.
13 Felson DT, Zhang Y. An update on the epidemiology of knee and hip
osteoarthritis with a view to prevention. Arthritis Rheum
1998;41:134355.

Downloaded from pmj.bmj.com on February 2, 2013 - Published by group.bmj.com

Osteoarthritis
14 Wolf F, Altman R, Hochberg M, et al. Post-menopausal estrogen therapy
is associated with improved radiographic scores in osteoarthritis and
rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1994;37(suppl 9): S231.
15 Spector TD, Nandra D, Hart DJ, et al. Is hormone replacement therapy
protective for hand and knee osteoarthritis in women? The Chingford
Study. Ann Rheum Dis 1997;56:4324.
16 Loughlin J. Genome studies and linkage in primary osteoarthritis. Rheum
Dis Clin North Am 2002;28:95109.
17 Hart DJ, Spector TD. The relationship of obesity, fat distribution and
osteoarthritis in women in the general population. The Chingford Study. J
Rheumatol 1993;20:3315.
18 Brand C, Snaddon J, Bailey M, et al. Vitamin E is ineffective for
symptomatic relief of knee osteoarthritis; a six month randomised double
blind placebo controlled study. Ann Rheum Dis 2001;60:9469.
19 Spector TD, Dacre JE, Harris PA, et al. Radiological progression of
osteoarthritis. An 11 year follow-up study of the knee. Ann Rheum Dis
1992;51:110710.
20 Massardo L, Watt I, Cushnaghan J, et al. Osteoarthritis of the knee joint:
an eight year prospective study. Ann Rheum Dis 1989;48:8937.
21 Klippel JH, Dieppe PA, eds. Rheumatology. 2nd Ed. London: Mosby
Press, 1997.
22 Hochberg MC. Quantitative radiography in osteoarthritis: analysis.
Bailleres Clin Rheumatol 1996;10:4217.
23 Dacre JE, Huskisson EC. The automatic assessment off knee radiographs
in osteoarthritis using digital image analysis. Br J Rheumatol
1989;28:50610.
24 Buckland-Wright CJ. Quantitative radiography in osteoarthritis:
microfocal radiography. Bailleres Clin Rheumatol 1996;10:41520.
25 Cicuttini F, Baker J, Hart D, et al. Association of pain with radiological
changes in different compartments and views of the knee joint.
Osteoarthritis Cartilage 1996;4:1437.
26 Bruyere O, Honore A, Giacovelli G, et al. Radiologic features poorly
predict clinical outcomes in knee osteoarthritis. Scand J Rheumatol
2002;31:1316.
27 McAlindon T, Cooper C, Kirwan J, et al. Determinants of disability in
osteoarthritis of the knee. Ann Rheum Dis 1993;52:25862.
28 Disler DG, Recht MP, McCauley TR. MR imaging of articular cartilage.
Skeletal Radiol 2000;29:36777.
29 Waldschmidt JG, Braunstein EM, Buckwalter KA. MRI of osteoarthritis.
Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1999;25:45165.
30 Dieppe P, Cushnaghan J, Young P, et al. Prediction of the progression of
joint space narrowing in osteoarthritis of the knee by bone scintigraphy.
Ann Rheum Dis 1993;52:55763.
31 DeGroot J, Bank, RA, Tchetverikov I, et al. Molecular markers for
osteoarthritis: the road ahead. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2002;14:5859.
32 Vignon E, Garnero P, Delmas P, et al. Recommendations for the
registration of drugs used in the treatment of osteoarthritis: an update on
biochemical markers. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2001;9:28993.
33 Otterness IG, Swindell AC, Zimmerer RO, et al. An anlaysis of 14
molecular markers for monitoring osteoarthritis: segregation of the
markers into clusters and distinguishing osteoarthritis at baseline.
Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2000;8:1805.
34 Brandt KD, Mazzuca SA, Conrozier T, et al. Which is the best
radiographic protocol for a clinical trial of a structure modifying drug in
patients with knee osteoarthritis? J Rheumatol 2002;29:130822.
35 Bellamy N, Buchanan WW, Goldsmith CH, et al. Validation study of
WOMAC: a health status instrument for measuring clinically important
patient relevant outcomes to antirheumatic drug therapy in patients with
osteoarthritis of the hip or knee. J Rheumatol 1988;15:183340.
36 Ware JH, Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36 item short form health survey
(SF-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care
1992;30:47383.
37 Angst F, Aeschlimann A, Steiner W, et al. Responsiveness of the
WOMAC osteoarthritis index as compared with the SF-36 in patients
with osteoarthritis of the legs undergoing a comprehensive rehabilitation
intervention. Ann Rheum Dis 2001;60:83440.

383
38 Walker-Bone K, Javaid K, Arden N, et al. Medical management of
osteoarthritis. BMJ 2000;321:9369.
39 Thomas KS, Muir KR, Doherty M, et al. Home based exercise
programme for knee pain and knee osteoarthritis: randomised controlled
trial. BMJ 2002;325:7526.
40 Halbert J, Crotty M, Weller D, et al. Primary care based physical
activity programs: effectiveness in sedentary older patients with
osteoarthritis symptoms. Arthritis Care and Research 2001;45:22834.
41 American Geriatrics Society Panel on Exercise and Osteoarthritis.
Exercise prescription for older adults with osteoarthritis pain: consensus
practice recommendations. J Am Geriatric Soc 2001;49:80823.
42 Messier SP, Loeser RF, Mitchell MN, et al. Exercise and weight loss in
obese older adults with knee osteoarthritis: a preliminary study. J Am
Geriatric Soc 2000;48:106272.
43 Courtney P, Doherty M. Key questions concerning paracetamol and
NSAIDs for osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2002;61:76773.
44 Altman RD, Hochberg MC, Moskowitz RW, et al. Recommendations for
the medical management of osteoarthritis of the hip and knee. Arthritis
Rheum 2000;43:190515.
45 Pendleton A, Arden N, Dougados M, et al. EULAR recommendations for
the management of knee osteoarthritis. Report of a task force of the
Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including
Therapeutic Trials. Ann Rheum Dis 2000;59:93644.
46 Brandt KD, Bradley JD. Should the initial drug used to treat osteoarthritis
pain be a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug? J Rheumatol
2001;28:46773.
47 Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A, et al. Comparison of upper
gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with
rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2000;343:15208.
48 Silverstein FE, Faich G, Goldstein JL, et al. Gastrointestinal toxicity with
celecoxib vs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis and
rheumatoid arthritis: the CLASS study: a randomised controlled trial.
JAMA 2000;284:124755.
49 Deeks JJ, Smith LA, Bradley MD. Efficacy, tolerability and upper
gastrointestinal safety of celecoxib for treatment of osteoarthritis and
rheumatoid arthritis: systematic review of randomised controlled trials.
BMJ 2002;325:61926.
50 National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Technology appraisal
guidance No 27. Guidance on the use of cyclo-oxygenase (COX) II
selective inhibitors for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. London:
NICE, July 2001 (www.nice.org.uk).
51 Ayral X. Injections in the treatment of osteoarthritis. Best Practice and
Research in Clinical Rheumatology 2001;15:60926.
52 Deal CL, Schnitzer TJ, Lipstein E, et al. Treatment of arthritis with topical
capsaicin: a double blind trial. Clin Ther 1991;13:38395.
53 McCarthy GM, McCarty DJ. Effect of topical capsaicin in the therapy of
painful osteoarthritis of the hands. J Rheumatol 1992;19:6046.
54 Reginster JY, Deroisy R, Rovati LC, et al. Long term effects of
glucosamine sulphate on osteoarthritis progression. A randomised,
placebo controlled trial. Lancet 2001;357:2516.
55 McAlindon TE, LaValley MP, Gulin JP, et al. Glucosamine and
chondroitin for treatment of osteoarthritis: a systematic quality assessment
and meta-analysis. JAMA 2000;283:146975.
56 Hughes R, Carr A. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
of glucosamine sulphate as an analgesic in osteoarthritis of the knee.
Rheumatology 2002;41:27984.
57 Dougados M, Nguyen M, Berdah L, et al. Evaluation of the
structure-modifying effects of diacerein in hip osteoarthritis. Arthritis
Rheum 2001;44:253947.
58 National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Technology appraisal
guidance No 16. Guidance on the use of autologous cartilage
transplantation for full thickness cartilage defects in knee joints. London:
NICE, December 2000.
59 Fernandes JC, Martel-Pelletier J, Pelletier J-P. Gene therapy for
osteoarthritis. Clin Orthop 2000;379(suppl):S26272.

www.postgradmedj.com

Downloaded from pmj.bmj.com on February 2, 2013 - Published by group.bmj.com

Osteoarthritis
I Haq, E Murphy and J Dacre
Postgrad Med J 2003 79: 377-383

doi: 10.1136/pmj.79.933.377

Updated information and services can be found at:

http://pmj.bmj.com/content/79/933/377.full.html

These include:

References

This article cites 50 articles, 17 of which can be accessed free at:

http://pmj.bmj.com/content/79/933/377.full.html#ref-list-1

Article cited in:

http://pmj.bmj.com/content/79/933/377.full.html#related-urls

Email alerting
service

Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article. Sign up in
the box at the top right corner of the online article.

Notes

To request permissions go to:

http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions

To order reprints go to:

http://journals.bmj.com/cgi/reprintform

To subscribe to BMJ go to:

http://group.bmj.com/subscribe/