Conceptual History of Democracy

Berghahn Books
Conceptual History and Politics: Is the Concept of Democracy Essentially Contested?

Author(s): Oliver Hidalgo
Source: Contributions to the History of Concepts, Vol. 4, No. 2 (2008), pp. 176-201
Published by: Berghahn Books
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Contributions
i RIL L
to the History of Concepts
4 (2008)
176-201
www.brill.nl/chco
History and Politics:

Conceptual
Is the Concept
of Democracy
Contested?
Essentially
Oliver Hidalgo
Institut fiir Politikwissenschaft
der Universitat
Regensburg
Abstract
This
article
different
because
are
popular
ideas
theory
and
reveals
usage
to speak
to its ability
its semantic
field.
unequivocal
definition
and
contradictions
quality
vs. quantity,
the synchronicity
of democracy
of it from
are suffused
practice
history
of all due
that no
aporias,
finally,
and
to subsume
These
vs. equality,
political
Thus,
normative
the
is possible
similarities
perspective.
to
that
Moreover,
liberty
between
empirical
times
shows
it contains.
in present-day
an external
with
from Ancient
of democracy
under
representation,
and,
ubiquitous
it impossible
is most
realities
paradoxes,
vs.
sovereignty
The
and
of the concept
vs. collective,
similarities.
cratic
historical
of democracy
the conceptual
of the concept
of the significant
individual
makes
success
evolution
historical
of the concept
to the author,
According
the overwhelming
very
the history
surveys
the present.
and
dis
language
both
demo
elements.
Keywords
democracy,
conceptual
history,
conceptual
politics,
normative
theory
The concept of democracy has been associated at different points in history

with some very opposing ideas: while the ancients used the term dripoKpaxta
to identify the effective rule of the many or even of the whole people
(despite the fact only a minority were considered citizens and the popula
tion was constricted to a small area), modern thinkers employ it in order
to
refer
rulers
to
as
a society
a means
to
in
which
guarantee
are
people
freedom,
able
to
elect
and
and
equality,
the
control
pursuit
their
of self
interest for all individuals.1
There are also countless other forms of govern
" For a
comprehensive
analysis
of ancient
(1995),
and Josiah Ober
(1980),
Fritz Gschnitzer
Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2008
and
modern
democracies
and Charles
Hedrick
DOI:
see Moses
I. Finley
(1996).
10.1163/187465608X363463

O. Hidalgo
to the History of Concepts 4 (2008)
/ Contributions
176-201
177
merit which adopt patterns, (sub-) types, and varieties of decision-making

processes that have also been labelled democratic, making it hard to keep
orientation.
This
myriad
tions and qualifications.

that
are liberal
prominence
or
even
or socially
such
direct
or representative,
oriented.
More
as participatory,
alternatives
to
leads
concept
a spate
of distinc
Most traditionally, one can speak of democracies
or republican,
market
tarian,
of the
usage
like
other
recently,
deliberative
and
skewed
demarchy,
consensual
or majori
variants
grassroots
and
democracy
acquired
democracies,
non-partisan
democracy. Finally, considering how democracies have evolved worldwide,

even the possibility of a specific Islamic transformation of democracy or of
a socialist
of the
and
anarchist
brand
in the
concept
of democratization
the
expand
might
scope
future.
If a typology is plausible (a difficult task as it is, since nowadays the basic

traits
of a direct
within
the
representative
referenda
-initiatives,
democracy
and
system
the
and
take
recalls
sometimes
people
not
place
han
only
dle legislative but certain executive and judicial powers as well), we cannot
avoid the suspicion that the "government of the people, by the people, and
for the people" (Abraham Lincoln) might just as well mean "everyone and
everything."2
than
Rather
to a mood
succumbing
of dismay,
we
must
take
into
con
sideration W. B. Gallie's classical statement that democracy - like justice or

is
yet
arts
one
another
those
among
contested
"essentially
concepts"
which lack unique standards of definition.3 Furthermore (and fortunately)

the
contest
not
concept,
that
to
seems
must
assess
made
what
whether
concern
the concept
be
all
to
of democracy
is whether
is the
there
best
is to
to which
perception
negative:
ysis
conceptual
of concrete
of
the
might
At first glance,
(here
semantics,
origins,
then
the question
and
arguments
criteria
of democracy
concept
a juxtaposition
or
of competing
deeper problem, namely, the

in
help
there
understood
of the
interpretation
Obviously
is to accept
history
the
to find
implies a second,
history
historical
itself.4
it is possible
done
conceptual
of democracy.
foremost
interpretation
be
versions. This approach

extent
first and
can
a normative
acquiring
only
as the
derivations
be an answer
and
description
and
alterations
in the
anal
of
8 Giovanni
Sartori (1992),
11.
3> See Walter B. Gallie
(1956).
4) See some considerations
concerning
(1974)
and Rainer
Forst (2003),
normative
concepts
presented
by Stephen
50-52.

Lukes
O. Hidalgo
178
/ Contributions
concepts)
apparently
therefore
a normative

to the
belongs
notion
empirical
in social
paradigm
of democracy
not
(and
176-201
sciences,5
a reflection
only
of
the social and moral impact of democratic ideas and values) can only be
informed by political philosophy. However, simply considering what the
entire range of the history of political ideas is able to offer would be much
too
simple.
ceed
to
the
analyze
framework
the
for the
an abstract
must
and
contexts
conceptual
It is therefore
of ideas
that
if it remains
must
They
also
make
an
effort
ceptual history of democracy

conceptual
"best
politics7
of the
the
the
after
history
bound
to norma
with an additional
extent
to which
the
con
might function as a basis for any kind of

on
depending
interpretation"
to clarify
pro
provide
conceptual
closely
tive theories. This presents the political philosophers

task.
thus
of democracy
theory
to separate
possible
even
and
importance
of a normative
development
history
the
acknowledge
historical
turn.6
linguistic
from
we
Instead,
whether
are
they
able
of democracy.
concept
to extrapolate
the
first I would
However,
like to discuss, briefly, democracy as a historical concept, before showing

that
conceptual
tion
that
history
reflects
the
1. The Concept
As
leads
and
aporias
to the
of a normative
necessity
contradictions
concep
of democracy.
of Democracy
it is well-known,
word
also
ancient
Greece
means
(which
"5r|poKpaxia"
is the
the
by the
The
of democracy.8
birthplace
"rule
was
people")
invented
by the Athenians in order to define their political system after 462/461

B.C., particularly after Ephialtes put in place the proposals of Cleisthenes
in 508/507 B.C, disempowering the aristocratic Areopagand turning most
5)
Through
intends
his writings on Quentin
theory.
6) Arno Waschkuhn
7)
"Conceptual
(1998),
politics"
in contrast
Sumerian
of Reinhard
both the method

of sociologist
31, as well as the analogy
(2006),
politics
of Max Weber,
argue that the historical
City and the first republics
racies avant la lettre which
Koselleck,
critique
Kari Palonen
of normative
(2002)
political
part 3.
to their own conceptions
For the conceptual

8) Some authors
and Reinhart
into a subversive
is my translation
by which he wants to characterize
Mehring
Skinner
to turn the history of concepts
Mehring's
or historian
to Hermann
Liibbe's
origins of democracy
and Reinhart
of concepts.
see also Kari Palonen
of ancient
of Begriffspolitik
concept
of Carl Schmitt
concept
Koselleck
See Reinhard
of Ideenpolitik.
(2005).
can be found already in the
India but these examples
are at best democ
makes them irrelevant for this article.

O. Hidalgo
of the
important
by male
dom
decisions
political
At
citizens.9
and
as an
in return.
After
the
all
equality
the other
/ Contributions
citizens
and
equal,10
the
to the
the
time,
being
henceforth
second
each
by birth
they
fifth century,
179
exclusively
of democracy
by ruling
of the
half
constituted
assembly
first principles
free
176-201
were
one
free
would
accept
to be
accepted
ruled
also
democracy
meant
that officials were to be controlled by fixed laws and by the people's vote
- as stated
and
in Pericles'
funeral
oration
which
survived
thanks
to Thucy
dides that citizens would be ensured the right to live on their own behalf
without
educated
being
The
and
first historian
Herodotus.
of
tyranny
the
state
the concept
we
Nevertheless,
by the
guarded
to mention
must
Peisistratides12
retrace
and
the
and
its public
of SquoKpcmw
at least
its origins
Athenian
Sea
norms."
was
obviously
to
back
Union13
the
when
the
nobles' position was weakened while that of the citizens - the 8t|po<; - was
also
8ri|roKpana
shows
(ehvopta,
concept
the
Moreover,
strengthened.
the
of law
replacement
iaovopfa)
derivation
etymological
an
by
of
as
(nomos)
on
emphasis
the
word
constitutional
power,
that
is
arche
((tovapyia, oXtyapyta) and kratia (hripoKpaxta), respectively.14

These
shifts
show
evidence
that
the
of democracy
concept
was
above
all
an attempt to identify political reality in ancient Athens. Today one can

hardly call democratic the political system in Attica, which included slav
ery and excluded
to
describe
and
it much
makes
versely
all women
people
Rather
than
be
to contextualize
no
(who
surprise
associated
Xenophon
city of Athens,
91 Kurt A. Raaflaub
n) Werner
12) Michael
Conze
Meier
with
hoped
chaos
for an
to lament
(1995),
32-38;
In this
but
wind
of moral
Bleicken
and (1301a),
828.
Kinzl
(1995).
36ff.
(1983).

Plato
Socrates,
in
the
authority
(1995).
28-32.
it is
light,
also
and
eras.
should
them
of change
order
by the
and
one
among
anarchy),
andjochen
singular
rule
contexts
Greeks.
aristocratic
the loss
Jochen Martin
and Konrad
(1995),
and
very
of democracy,
Greece
in order
of the
political
ancient
ancient
5-7 and 24; (1291b),
et al. (1972),
However,
other
of the
in
the
development
standards
claims
thinkers
them
(1995),
Stahl (1987)
13) Kurt A. Raaflaub

14) Christian
the
many
(1280a),
with
of 8r|poKpaxia
concept
to the
contemporary
leading
10) See Aristotle
led
compare
democracy
others
and
the
conditions.
that
hardly
applying
that
to adopt
political
circumstances
in Athens
able
easier
present-day
complex
and foreigners from citizenship. This con
180
O. Hidalgo
/ Contributions
and to call for the rule of the best (aptaxot),

by their
were
Nevertheless,
they
arrangement
compatible
famously
city;
ens
ment
and
and
became
its Sea
than
an
after
the
of ttoXtxeta
the only
an
Later
form
the
mixed
of Greek
Romans
aristocratic
monarchic,
of constitution
deemed
and
to be
of the
between
between
the
Ath
a "good"
emphasis
and
oligarchy
of govern
quality
constitution
subsequently
outside
Athens
on
as a system,
law
and
Their concept of respublico. -
democratic
the
Socrates
laws
between
an
to have influenced
democracy
a new
put
Athens.
democratic
between
including democracy only as a supplement.

model
in
(oyAoc;).15
to accept
reconciliation
amalgam
The
participation.16
conceivable
Union.17
as
as a compromise
therefore
the people's
connecting
the
distinction
interesting
mob
a readiness
reality
to break
the
many,
form of democracy, which is supposed
conception
democracy
of the
democratic
to Athens
made
rule
or of the ones distinguished
of developing
capable
with
Plato
Sparta;
and a "bad"
of the
rather
returned
Xenophon
Aristotle's
also
to die
preferred
and
instead
(xt|tf|i)
bravery
176-201
best
elements18
insurance
against
was
instability,
from Polybius to Machiavelli.

After the fall of the republic and the rise of the Roman Empire the con
cept
of democracy
was
circumstances.
"common
democracy
director,"19
Cassius
a monarchy,
was
15)
of
Dio
to
Early supporters
the
be
to new
no
that
Platonic
longer
of democracy
real
but
but merely did emphasize
could
best
only
ruler
exist
one's
("Doing
democratic.20
a conflict between
and
under
own")
Ultimately,
and Pericles, who linked justice
the unity of the city against the menace
and iso
citizens and nobles
of oligarchy
and tyranny.
the political and moral concept of aristocracy

- as Thucidides
and Aristotle did
democracy or
Conze
and Christian
161 In Aristotle a
pure democracy
His concept
of political
like Pindar and Plato innovated
in order to pit the rttle of the best against

later - to distinguish good from bad oligarchies.
see Werner
the
man,
of justice
aristocratic
like Herodotus
one
democracy
formula
nomia to the rule of the 8r||io<;, still did not envisage

At first nobles
as a result
assessment
under
world,
stressed
the
whereby
supposed
submitted
Aelius Aristides called the Imperium romanum a
While
of politeia
understood
Meier
For the conceptual
history of aristocracy
(1972).
is described
as degenerated
rule of the poor (1279b
as the good form of democracy
5-10).
or also as free constitu
tion was shared by Isocrates (IV, 125; ep. VI, 11) and Demosthenes
(I, 5; VI, 21; XV, 20).
17)
and Alexander Demandt
316-23
(1995), viii and ix.
Wolfgang Schuller (1995),
18) por jPg
in Rome, see John North (1994).
strong elements of popular participation
19) Aelius Aristides
Klein (1981),
60.
See
also
Richard
131f.
XXVI,
(1981),
20) Cassius
Demandt
Dio (1961),
LVI, 43.4. and VI, 23.5. See also Alexander
(1995),
213.

O. Hidalgo
neither
/ Contributions
Aristides
nor
of democracy
concept
Dio
wanted
still
carried
to
renounce
the
The situation only changed during the European

of
predominance
democracy
over
religion
useless.
evidently
all
few thinkers revived the concept

bert
of Admont,
tered
it through
the
Marsilius
their
contemporary
not
and
of the
life
made
the
thirteenth
Nicole
of Aristotle21
reception
by the
rise
of contract
era.
reference
to
that
century
Italian
who
Oresme
and
started
cities.22
But
which
theory,
encoun
the
rise
of Prot
Church (accom
the
epitomized
new
forms
rationalism in politics) could not immediately change the association

the
of democracy
concept
with
The
antiquity.
and
is born
and
more,
since
even
on
be said
concept
the
reign
the sovereignty
for
of the
Rousseau
though
his
the
that
argument
democratic.
Meanwhile,
against
of represen
every
man
Rousseau
representation.
idea that democracy means nothing

themselves
too
something
and
argues
of
with the idea
in favour
of the people
over
people
the Reformation
Hobbes
to be
they shared the unchanged
Obviously
image
can
equal
vice-versa,
than
Thomas
democracy
against
free and
insisted,
else
people.
ruling
tation
Hence
of
of representation,
especially, was for a long time considered to be incompatible

of the
it to describe
using
even
estantism and the diminishing authority of the Catholic

panied
the
Christian
Middle Ages, when the
the
until
of the
notably, St. Thomas of Aquinas, Engel
of Padua
politics
of
aspects
It was
value
legitimizing
in the first centuries
181
176-201
nice
to
for
be
Enlightenment
Hobbes
a terrible
actualized.23
Further
the concept
of democ
racy was sporadically used to identify some specific elements of the mixed
constitution in England (Blackstone, De Tolme, John Adams), of the
republican
constitutions
of Switzerland
and
its cantons,
of the Netherlands,
21) Hie
work of Aristotle was unknown in the West from the fifth century all
philosophical
the way to the late twelfth century.
221 See Claire R. Sherman
Karl Ubl (2000),
(1995),
240-52;
134ff., R.W. Dyson (2003),
203-05
23) "A
and 246-50.
prendre le terme dans la rigueur de l'acception,
cratic, et il n'en existera jamais
[...]
il n'a jamais
S'il y avait un peuple
existe de veritable
de dieux, il se gouvernerait
demo
demo
Un gouvernement
si parfait ne convient pas a des hommes." Translation:
"In
its most rigorous sense, there has never been a true democracy, such a
will
never
exist
thing
cratiquement.
[...]
If a people
of god existed, it would
ment is not appropriate
1969), III, 4.
for mankind."
govern itself democratically.

Jean-Jacques
Rousseau,
Du
Such a perfect govern

contrat social,

(1959
182
and
of some
also
cism
concerning
until
the
the
realization
of the
that
fact
of the state
the
predominated
Aristotelian
very
use
scepti
to the
was
description
in the works
as, for example,
system,
still
also
concept's
176-201
(Aristotelian)
democracy
Indeed,
century.
restricted
government
the
Nevertheless,
of a "pure"
eighteenth
thinkers
many
and
cities.24
German
the
end
/ Contributions
O. Hidalgo
of Johan
nes Althusius, John Henry Alsted, Thomas Hobbes, William Temple, John
Locke, Samuel von Pufendorf, Christian Wolff, Charles de Montesquieu,
the Encyclopaedic (De Jaucourt), Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Christoph Martin
Wieland
This
not
and August von Schlozer.

context
historical
a chord
strike
was
republic
the
during
still
the
most
the
why
explains
French
Revolution.
used
widely
would
of democracy
concept
its
During
In
concept.25
this
first
stage,
the
works
sense,
of the Abbe Sieyes are instrumental in proving that only the republic was
assumed
direct
rule
there
ever,
to include
of the
was
a modern
whereas
government,26
and
people
a significant
of the Jacobins
only
the
in the
as well
economy
was
still
of citizens.
virtu
by the
served
market
democracy
increase
uttered
democracy
concerning
reign
able
to be
resentative
number
associated
few
to confirm
later,
years
of positive
but
revolutionaries,2'
the
how
statements
eventually
towards
scepticism
as a rep
with
the
democracy,
discrediting the concept for another few decades, especially in England

and in Germany. This is how in Kant's Zurn Ewigen Frieden (1795) a
of Rousseau's
complement
Contrat
in which
social
forma
democracy
well
remains
Rene
Louis
and
25) Therefore
Martin
d'Argenson's
with
associated
as of representation
24> See for

example
and
aristocracy,
(monarchy,
imperii
the
Luther's
the
rule
address
Considerations
an
democracy)
absence
distinc
important
and despotism)
tion between the forma regiminis (republicanism
of checks
can
and
be
and the
found
balances
as
of law.28
on February
(1764),
7th
1539
(WA
IV:
4324),
and
8ff., 61f., 70ff., and 103.
the concept of democratic did not play any role during the French debate
214.
concerning the suffrage universe/in 1790. See Robert R. Palmer (1953),
26)
Jean Roels (1969).
27> See for instance
Robespierre's address on February 5th 1794 when he made no substan
324ff.
tial distinction between democracy and republic. Charles Vellay (1908),
28) Before
the
Sieyes and Kant, the Federalists argued in favour of the republic and against
In
the
United
lead
to
executive
that
States,
"ancient" idea of a democratic
despotism.
might
the concept
of democracy
-
Democracy,
after 1828
See
H.
Gustav
Blanke
had
despite
(1956),
a rather pejorative
the sympathies
43ff.
Supposedly,
image
at least until
sporadically
the reason
voiced
the Jacksonian
by Thomas
Jefferson.
for this is that democracy

/ Contributions
O. Hidalgo
Two
complementary
start
could
racy
overcoming
of
and,
the
and
second,
its triumphant
to happen
between
of the
was
183
of democ
the
historical
representation
the classification
of a particular
possibly
was
and
democracy
the
176-201
the concept
of them
beyond
concept
description
d'Argenson
before
First
advance.
antagonism
extension
to the
Marquis
had
things
the
government
The
form
author
who
of state
of society
as well.
and
prepared
antic
ipated both innovations in the middle of the eighteenth century. In his

Considerations sur le gouvernement (1764) he distinguished between a fausse
and a legitime democracy, the first one being anarchic and revolutionary,
the
second
its "true"
between
amalgam
became
and
focussed
he
Tocqueville30
the
already
in France
democratic
of democracy
d'Argenson
on
and
by elected
represented
being
concept
because
possible
order
version,
the
social
was
About
system.
stressed
one
the
with
the
decisive
representation
and
constitutional
hundred
years
before
progres
de
French
mon
historical
role
The
deputies.29
political
the state
neglected
concerned
also
and
of the
la
archy in repressing European feudalism and the privileges of the nobles

and in allowing the rise of civil society and social equality.31
royalist view on democracy
D'Argenson's
soon
after
the
French
Revolution
when
became
Thomas
politically efficient
Paine's
answer
to Edmund
Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) in The Rights of Man

(1791)
began to dissolve the idea that democracy and representative
must
government
remain
contradictio
in
In
adjecto?2
this
same
vein,
the distinction between the forma regiminis and the forma imperii, as it
was
expressed
by
Kant,
shifted
towards
the
that
interpretation
rather
than the republic, democracy
might be the forthcoming aim of history,
whether
Guizot)
became
in France
identified
(Constant,
or
in Germany
with the terreur of the Jacobins.
See William
Gorres).
(Schlegel,
Corbett's
History of the
American Jacobins Commonly Denominated

Democrates (1796).
29) Rene Louis
7f. A similar yet not so strict distinction
(1764),
d'Argenson
can be found
in the Deutsche Encyclopiidie from 1783.

30) The Considerations started
circulating
Palmer
in France after the 1730's.
See R.R.
1953:
205.
311 Rene Louis
32) Cf.
Zum
Dolf
d'Argenson
Sternberger
Frieden
(1764),
Ewigen
following
(1792) - insist on the compatibility
Johann Gottlieb
Fichte (1965a),
Kant himself confirmed
135ff.
Therefore
(1980).
Campe's
between
160; (1965b),
Fichte's
Zweitem
and
Schlegel's
receptions
a representative
democracy
and a republic.
431ff. and Friedrich Schlegel
this view in his Metaphysik
of Kant's
Versuch deutscher Sprachbereicherung
der Sitten (1797).

(1966),
See
12-17.
184
As
O. Hidalgo
this
a few
and

Aristotle's
occurred,
development
of one,
chy
/ Contributions
and
or many
most
receded
democracy
notably
into
the
the
criterion
quantitative
the
176-201
between
opposition
Later
background.
in the
rule
monar
nineteenth
century (and particularly after the 1848 Revolution) the question was not
longer if democracy was within the historic horizon, but simply what kind
of democracy lied ahead in the future: free or despotic, liberal or socialist,
monarchic
or republican,
a "democratic"
elitist,
All
dictatorship.
fact that
the
modern
society
and
queville,
changed
into
the
and
Sorel,
observe
normative
social
Pareto.
how
region,
liberal
strongly
racy is dominant
more
Europe
have
been
and
in
prevalent
(despite
democracy
as a constitutional
practice
Portugal,
gave
some
and
Italy,
rise
Western
to a host
and
social
order,
and
of empirical
Lipset).
describe,
inance
analyze,
of the
promoting
these
trait
and
forecast
formal-empirical
the
that
opinion
theories
have
democratic
processes
of democracy
as a polit
is the
and
of
the
during
Carl J. Friedrich,
common
in the social
paradigm
concepts
in
in
success
theories
twentieth century (Weber, Schumpeter, Popper, Downs,

Dahl,
democ
interruptions
additionally,
formal
for its
governments
and
epoch-defining
and,
country,
(and in Eastern
parliamentary
Spain).
to
remained
Europe
hesitations
The
to
able
out
If presidential
tradition.
Europe
Dewey)
each
stood
in Continental
ill-fated
Toc
tailored
is also
in
brand
today in North and South America
recently),
for
(Jefferson,
one
century,
Anglo-American
countries
to the
it, as for Nietzsche,
distinctively
to the republican
Germany,
ical
develop
the
other
connected
due
concepts
or to overcome
nineteenth
systems
While
France
aspects,
more
the
even
a synonym
theories
normative-empirical)
in
democratic
continent.
and
democratic
of democracy
Starting
available
become
increasingly
that
or perhaps
Mill, Proudhon,34 Marx, Mosca,
(or
reality
became
options
had
and
culture,33
von Stein, Lincoln,
organize
these
of democracy
concept
or anarchic,
grass-rooted
politics.
sciences
attempt
The
succeeded
upon
resting
to
dom
in
norms
and ideals lacking systematic reference to political reality were generally
33) In this
respect, the fundamental
heritage
occurred
identification
during
break between
the nineteenth
of democracy
century
with Protestant
means
most of all a peaceful
of democracy
(Constant,
Bluntschli).
equality
have been reflected in the use of the concept.

34) In
and Proudhon it is also possible
Tocqueville
democracy
the concept
handling
and Contract
to find the Kantian

of political
and its ancient

Since
Theory
(von
then the
Rotteck)
insight that modern
and social
conflicts
the former Kriegergesellschaft.

beyond
O. Hidalgo
undermined
tive
176-201
185
by empirical definitions.35 Nevertheless, there are still effec
normative
of democracy,
concepts
for example,
emphasizing,
or its bond to human rights (Habermas).
(Rawls)
lesser
/ Contributions
known
of
conceptions
be
democracy
justice
Neither should other

such
ignored,
as
those
that
criticize the lack of people's participation in contemporary liberal democ

racies (Barber, Bellah, Putnam) or that underscore its inevitable decline
due to the belief that democratic levelling is the conditio sine qua non of
totalitarianism (Lefort, Arendt). Furthermore, it is possible to find theories
that
combine
aspects
rather
empirical
other
that
concepts
empirical
also
2.
for example.
of
by
that
given
not
the
form
of democracy
risks
in the
and
Aporias,
context
that
today
and
reflections
world
political
inevitable
is an
as
quasi-normative
and
institutions
normative
best
social
It seems
democratic
critical
and
Paradoxes,
to formulate
renewed
only
its chances
used
as well
conceptions36
of a new
and
variety
empirical
are
construction
modernity,
reality
accompanied
the
and
that
concepts
inform
as
such
order,
of normative
on
the
is
concept
of dispute
object
the
societies
but
of globalization.
Contradictions
of Democracy
If we are to judge according to the large amount of different social and

political
named
systems
"democracies"
them
(among
the
democratic
peo
ple's republics of Korea, Laos and Algeria, the democratic republics of

Congo and East Timor, the people's republics of China and Bangladesh,
the democratic socialist republic of Sri Lanka, and the Islamic republics of
Iran
Pakistan,
would
call
and
itself
"anti-democratic"
value
legitimizing
there
Afghanistan),
is no
Since
today.
of democracy
is such
doubt
that
no
the
any
in the world
country
twentieth
country
the
century,
will
be
quick
to
call itself "democratic" in the sense that the ruler allegedly draws his legiti
macy from the people, regardless of the existence of individual rights, free
and
elections,
ingly,
the
the
political
countries
with
not
means
draw
of
35) Mostafa
36) Giovanni
attention
their
Rejai
is not
longest
the United Kingdom
Confederation,
do
power
the
to
official
(1967),
their
name,
under
control.
-
traditions
institutions
socialist
countries
and
in
31.
Sartori (1992),
Arno Waschkuhn
Interest
the
Swiss
and the United States of America -
democratic
whereas
people's
democratic
(1998).

society
particular
by
186
O. Hidalgo
/ Contributions
renounce
seldom
or have
of republic
concepts

such
renounced
and
a reference.
in order
monarchy
176-201
While
to define
the
a state
use
of the
a political
and
system demand the visibility of political institutions that have traditionally

been
associated
ently
is not
be
with
bound
to such
by hard
supported
whereas
phous;
of which
and
Whereas
the
hard
concept
call
democracy
first two
evolved
amor
as a republic
around
themselves
must
remains
a constitution
has
appar
concepts
of democracy
struggle
to
entitled
term
the
to identify
protracted
are
countries
strictures.
so
of the
employment
evidence,
it is not
a fierce
monarchy,
the
them,
or
the question
democracies.
Prior
to
1990, this issue was disputed between liberal and socialist regimes, nowa
the
days
same
to
be
the
between
happening
so-called
(with their offshoots in Latin America,
democracies
Eastern
seems
and
Europe)
from
systems
political
other
Western
India, Japan, and

of the
parts
world,
espe
cially in the Middle East and Asia.

In view of the above, this brief analysis might raise the suspicion that the
of the concept
abuse
ever,
the
conceptual
tions
are
inherent
that
ing
This
goes
are liable
to continuous
mutating
values
concepts
the
itself.
is a danger.
ideologists
shows
of democracy
history
reflect
they
and
parties,
to the concept
all political
since
by dictators,
and
that
different
collections
of a plurality
makes
it
and
chronic
to
impossible
diachronic
time,
and
dimensions
meanings,
that
of meanings?7
of a society.
but
it also
all
associations,
by
many
of which
Not
historical
boundaries
contains
thesis
of mean
only
concepts are always
is, formed
the
demarcate
in terms
change
does democracy fit the general insight that (political)

which
interpreta
the general
beyond
norms
How
reality
between
and
invite
syn
contradictory
us
to adapt
its
semantics to different historical entities. Below one finds a list of five of the
most
cussed
(1)
should
people
at length
over
remains
37) Reinhart
38) A
good
the concept
simply
Koselleck
Jean-Antoine
of democracy,
which
are
not
dis
article:
below.39
many
(1978),
In
this
respect,
the
sovereignty
of order,
the huge list of relevant aporias and paradoxes

in Paul B. Clarke and Joe Foweraker:
pertaining
for democracy
as a special
29.
can be found
et al. (2003).
Laponce
of the
form
a metaphor
concerning
of democracy
Dahl
aporias38
is obviously against the natural idea that the few above

the
overview
also in Robert
39)
in this
Democracy
rule
and
paradoxes
important
(1991).

(2001),
or
complete
although
With
achieve.
the
rulers,
the
remains
mately
guish
between
While
every
Thus
order
to avoid
such
and
conflicts,
and
only
anarchy,
and
The
pluralism.
and
democratic
the
is impossible
to
the
of
dismissal
into
theories
ulti
of democracy.41
democracy
and
hierarchy
horizontal
provides
institutional
opposition,
difference,
political
try to distin
necessary
balances,
187
representation
dimensions
guarantees
176-201
converted
vertical
the
as checks
and
democracy
modern
system
government
of control
elements
between
horizontal
subjects
is supposedly
democracy
unsolved.40
and
elections,
government,
contradiction
the
in
verticality
ized
representative
of
rulers
between
identity
concept
but
practice
/ Contributions
O. Hidalgo
between
however,
power
coming from above and legitimacy coming from below as underlined by

thinkers
such
as
Alexis
de
Tocqueville,
and
Ferrero,42
Guglielmo
Max
Weber's is not specifically democratic.

With
(2)
to the
respect
democratic
there
processes,
decision-making
is
a general competition between the principles of quality and quantity.

Although some new models of radical democracy (Barber, Lummis) deny
this
and
antagonism
intensity
how
strive
of participatory
to achieve
to widen
moments,
or at least
good
the
the
of democracy
scope
seems
problem
choices.
political
acceptable
as well
to be
as the
determining
The
vote
of the
majority might be seen as an indicator of the quality of a decision (or of a

politician) but what will happen, however, if the majority is wrong about
decisive
tasks
or
fundamental
of democratic
ffence
questions?43
will
theory
always
one
ocratic decision-making.
Should
it be bound
human
Radical
theorists
rights
ff ans
racy
Kelsen
itself.
a divine
stressed
This
and
democratic
and
led
was
(or
in
demagogues
Zolo
of border
a new
paradox.
to educate
the
Kelsen
decisions,
411 Giovanni
any
into
kind
necessary
quality
democracies
40) Danielo
that
also
legislator
quantity
ties
or religion?
volonte
declared
order
to
is actually
an act
(1998)
and Guiseppe
Sartori (1992),
prevent
of betrayal.44
most
important
for dem
necessarily
While
and
voting
violate
Rousseau
the people
Therefore,
volonte
de
from
Hattich
in
tous)
par
destroying
if democracy
is to be
(2006).
137f.
42) See Alexis

Ferrero (1944),
481.
333 and Guglielmo
(1954),
deToqueville
43) Bernd
and Claus Offe (1984).
Guggenberger
4'" Hans Kelsen
237. The paradox is also known as the Toleranzproblem
(2006),
racy. Manfred
that
to conciliate
for anti-democratic
majority
and
democ
claimed
in order
the
or by
Rousseau
Jean-Jacques
will
the
the
the boundaries
by the constitution
like
generate
that
Duso
of
be locating
(1965).

of democ
188
/ Contributions
O. Hidalgo
protected
aries
its own
against
and
values
located
human
racy
and
long
as a contradiction
measures
rights
(3)
we
dangers
beyond
from
in practice
eventually
even
the same
source
some
bound
that
agree
democ
As
(Habermas).45
to anti-democratic
appeal
for democracy.46
option
two
upon
the
176-201
accept
if we
is possible
a plausible
rests
Democracy
must
democracy
come
might
remains
always
fundamental
that
principles
are
often
following colliding trajectories: liberty and equality.47 When Goethe said:

and
"Legislators
same
time
absolute
are
revolutionaries
either
be
only
promise
achieved
as
camp
the
the
concerning
to challenge
needs
and
possible
itself
the
Hence
can
Right
extent
democracy
of freedom.48
principle
Left
between
controversy
a debate
of
be
persuasively
that
described
neither
although
they
between
struggle
a free society
On the other hand, the
equality,
given
the
that
indicating
since
by repression
at
liberty
he was
will necessarily display differences and inequalities.

classical
and
equality
or mountebanks,"
psychopaths
could
equality
who
show
for
respect
democratic
parties
all over the world is usually a quest for the right balance between liberty
and equality. In this respect, the liberal ideal combining social hierarchy
and political equality (Rawls) is one possible orientation among many.
than
to the
in addition
Moreover,
there
others,
undefined
is the
of what
question
one,
negative
us the
giving
or a defined
of happiness,
that
problem
kind
become
of freedom
our
securing
more
equal
an
is preferred:
to start
opportunity
one
positive
will
some
our
own
pursuit
in mak
participation
ing the laws we have to obey. The former type is supported by liberals like
Barber
jamin
like
Kant
reflection
of the
and
Constant
Benjamin
and
and
that
liberty
and
subjects
perennial
Rousseau.
attempted
and
equality
of democratic
persists in one of Habermas'
affirms that the "Verfassungswirklichkeit

Widerspruch
the latter
Berlin,
Jean-Jacques
Habermas,
upon
45) This
aporia
Isaiah
zur Idee der Demokratie."
by democrats
there
And
are
other
to combine
both
the
between
tension
as Ben
such
thinkers,
In sum,
aspects.
them
is one
theory.
earlier contributions
des biirgerlichen
An advanced
(1973),
Rechtsstaates"
discussion
about
316,
in which
he
was "seit je her in

the possible
anton
state can be found in Werner Kagi (1973).

ymy between democracy and the constitutional
46> For this see also Derrida's
112
"la
democratic
a venir." Jacques Derrida (2002),
of
figure
157.
47) See the famous
first chapter
of Tocqueville's
Democracy
Show a More Ardent and Enduring
Democratic
Nations
meditation
on the topic is offered in Ralf Dahrendorf
48) Norberto
Bobbio
in America
Love of Equality
Vol. 2, book
2 Why
than of Liberty. A
(1963).
(1994).

O. Hidalgo
Modern
(4)
/ Contributions
ancient
world
interest,"19
also
democracy
between
plex relationship
marks
even
a new
individuals
concerns
private
capable
terms
189
of the
and the collective. While
were
of turning
in
epoch
176-201
subordinated
strictly
into
slavery
to
a moral
com
in the
the
public
the
imperative,50
modern age has set itself apart by the protection of individual rights and of
the
of opinions,
pluralism
ern
democracies
homogeneity
more
than
some
require
in order
ambitions.
of
degree
to conserve
a crowd
just
and
aims,
public
political
of people.
The
Nevertheless,
mod
and
social
spiritedness
and
unity
represent
something
to bind
democratic
of how
question
even
individuals together is another problem for which several tentative solu

tions
have
been
such
attempts
state
and
offered.
under
the
several
race
nation,
as well
Theory
(partially
and
as
have
history
antagonistic)
ethnicity,
witnessed
such
concepts
and
religious
several
cultural
as
the
traditions,
rationality, ethical categories like justice, tolerance or solidarity, the civil

communication,
society,
consumer
seems
needs.
to
be
techniques
However,
not
precondition
for the
there
but
some
Furthermore,
a necessary
and
last
and,
a danger
economical
degree
of
for the
functionality
coexistence
peaceful
is always
least,
striving
success
and
also
homogeneity
of democratic
of majorities
in
that
social
and
to
minorities.51
political
forge
unity
and to solve essential social and political conflicts, the exact opposite might
be achieved through the elimination of a sense of indefiniteness and divi
sion
that
private
constant
49)
is inherent
and
to democracy.52
public
for democratic
challenge
Although
some ancient
the individual's
position
equality, Socrates
authors
schools
citizenship),
one should
also made
human
neither a theoretical
nor a practical
with modern
the prospect
Stoicism,
separation
that the aims
higher than the public need.

50) Alexander Demandt
(1993),
511 Herrmann Heller
(1971).
52) Claude Lefort
(1990).
between
represents
and Epicureanism
(Vittorio
and
Hosle
purposes
for a kind of world
only becomes
Hence
the individual
(1997),
emphasized
way of life, and the
called
of the individual
between
strengthening
for example,
of an apolitical
life after the first civil revolutions.
individualism
claims
ethical innovations
and Alcidamas,
not forget that the concept
able with a singular
a balance
striking
collective
important
like Antiphon
(sophists
of Cynicism,
was difficult to believe
and
theory.
and Aristotle considered
philosophical
comparable
Therefore,
individual
interests,
in Antiquity
identifi
there is
and his community
36fF.). For the ancients
of one single
man
could
51.

be deemed
it
O. Hidalgo
190
The
(5)
ment
/ Contributions
of the concept
dislocation
to a form
of democratic
of society
also
institutions
of democracy
leads
of moral,
larities. As indicated by Montesquieu

talities,
political
why
and
habits,
with
systems
has
democracy
what
democratic
them
from
viding
intellectual
societies
each
other.
cogent
But
once
as a result
again,
that
those
continues
to other
ress.
Thus
rate
key
we
however,
mately,
are
that
aspects
not
must
can
be
the
as
not
on
societies
one
must
be
eventually
able
participation
and
theory
system
solved.54
Given
solutions
can
and
leadership
will
have
the
diversity
hardly
be
will
to deal
persist
with,
of societies
universal.
This
even
and
movement
individuals
approach
cannot
this
that
incorpo
societies.
or
Ulti
not
the
and collectiv
each
also
prog
mind
might
whether
as problems
cultures,
in
keep
say
if they
always
equality.
generations)53
to certain
to
and
have
of democracy
application of the concept is justified.

The tensions between liberty and equality, individualism
ism,
answers,
In particular,
or that
differently
familiar
longer,
provisional
the extension
foreigners,
necessarily
of pro
of democratic
next
might
no
Yet there
and
evolve
reasons
to explain
task
or
yet,
and
distinguish
the
marginal
so forth.
overreach
as discussions
two
what
with
only
once
alleged
are
social
as a permanent
interpreted
and
all
of democracy.
dynamics
be
other
that
is still,
there
women,
people,
evaluating
is a process
what
dissimi
it is able
well
theory
incorporated
(children,
groups
when
democracy
also
to criticize
in the present
social
democratic
special
progressively
willing
concept:
respect
can
there
as
determine
of the
the poor
slaves,
been
This
even
of democracy
of inclusion
groups:
to
own.
common
heterogeneity
the particular men

endow
Thus
of govern
cultural
of nations
in
leaves
in this
democracy.
the history
This
criteria
of their
have
and
social,
a ubiquitous
such
a form
of the
and Tocqueville,
manners
a character
become
from
to understanding
as a result
176-201
democratic
ultimately
also
suggests
means
that
be
that
the
empirical variety of democratic political formations demands the acknowl

edgement that defining "what a democracy is" is a normative decision
reflecting different tentative solutions to the paradoxes of democracy. The
types
of policies
that
are
eventually
pursued
are
inevitably
a consequence
of this previous normative decision.
53) See for instance

54)
J. Roland
Bobbio
Pennock
(1988)
and Dryzek
(2000).
(1979).

3.
Conceptual
and
History
The
numerous
contradictions,
racy
mean
the
that
that
adjectives
increasing
differentiation
attribute
and
used
adjectives
and
paradoxes,
is rarely
aporias
restricting
qualified
by
meaning
Examples
stretching.55
of democracy
concept
democ
it is often
or normative
conceptual
the
to
proper
in isolation,
used
a descriptive
to qualify
191
176-201
Politics
Conceptual
concept
by special
of such
/ Contributions
O. Hidalgo
are
"authori
tarian," "neopatrimonial," "military-dominated," "parliamentary," "presi

dential," "federal," "guarded," "electoral," "protected," "illiberal," "restrictive,"
"tutelary,"
and
"one-party,"
or
"elitist";
also
"Western,"
"modern,"
"plebi
scitarian," "representative," "pluralistic," "socialistic," "liberal," and "delib

In
erative."56
the
noun
system
ies
this
reveals
it is important
respect,
the
intention
is in fact a democracy,
elections,
since
a
referenda,
to understand
to ensure
that
it displays
constitution,
the
that
referred
at least
one
usage
of
society,
or
of its many
civil
parties,
the
state,
rights,
prox
market
economy or also the pluralism of opinions and lifestyles. Meanwhile,

adjective
serves
adoption
of certain democratic practices. This is also why descriptive and
normative
the
purpose
democracy
in
this
just
that
the
in fact different
actors
or
rejection
the
For
construction.
conceptual
or
"authoritarian,"
"military-dominated,"
means
either
emphasizing
interfere
perspectives
example,
of
the
play
"parliamentary"
roles the
powerful
military, the (elected) political leader or the parliament. Most importantly,

the adoption of these adjectives normatively indicates whether the described
is more
subject
democratic
or less
tarian,", "neopatrimonial,"
"illiberal,"
mental
"restrictive,"
are
dealing
Hence
norm
with
in all of these
whose
cases
the concept
demands
551 David
Collier
56) David
and Steven Levitsky
Collier
& Steven
Giovanni
Sartori
(1970);
Levitsky
David
not mean that the adjective
"guarded," "protected,"
the concept
admitting
adjective.
are
always
detri
of a "parliamentary,"
rather
of democracy
an
confirms
the fact we
different
subtypes.57
itself
remains
a positive
it is hardly
Consequently,
(1997).
(1997)
Collier
Juan Linz (1978)
can more easily deteriorate
albeit
"authori
adjectives
or "defect"
democracy
democracies,
devaluation
Steven Levitsky (1997).

571 While the studies of
whereas
or "electoral"
true
the
example,
"one-party,"
of democracy
"federal,"
"presidential,"
For
"military-dominated,"
"tutelary,"
to the quality
so.
and Hubertus
and (1994)
into an authoritarian
"presidential"
Buchstein
and James E. Mahon
(1993);
48. See also
(2006),
David
Collier
suggest that a presidential
regime than a parliamentary
has an anti-democratic
connotation.

and
democracy
one, this does
O. Hidalgo
192
that
surprising
mize
states,
the
about
the
other
value
between
and
above?
and
a descriptive
legiti
organizations
or even
propositions,
to
serves
international
mentioned
adjectives
176-201
democratic
adjective
national
actions,
the
of a conflict
product
use
institutions,
techniques,
what
semantic
societies,
or to support
But
/ Contributions
human
Are
traits.
they
a normative
the
also
perspective?
Indeed they are. This becomes evident if the five aporias or contradictions
of the
of democracy
concept
are
considered:
popular
vs.
sovereignty
repre
sentation, quality vs. quantity, liberty vs. equality, individual vs. collective,
and, finally, the synchronicity between similarities and dissimilarities. In
to demonstrate
order
tives
that
this
cannot
decrease
or
antagonistic
be
increase
I shall
argument,
or
immediately
in
the
subtypes
democracy
that
stress
all
those
associated
unequivocally
of
quality
of democracy
that
out
point
can
be
one
side
only
adjec
with
the
rearranged
as
of a paradox
(or perhaps of several paradoxes). According to this criterion, the following

of concepts
pairs
direct
(or
vs.
radical)
the
and
time,
economy,
ideology,
with
dealing
issues
space
of government,
seem
to be
decision-making,
relevant:
democracy
representative
elitist vs. deliberative58 (or participatory) democracy

liberal vs. republican democracy
pluralistic (or market) vs. social democracy
ancient
All
tion
modern
vs.
vs.
Western
of these
democracy
non-Western
constructions
conceptual
democracies.
of existing
as well.
perspective
democracy59
This
occurs
of democracy
lar dimension
might
However,
they
include
is valued
level
a normative
that
(in
a particu
in each
or negatively
positively
descrip
empirical
include
always
at a theoretical
both
an
case)
and at a practical level (through the observation of democratic institutions

and habits that reflect a normatively constituted political culture). There
fore
direct
modern
or republican
social
or
also
58) For the

concept
of deliberative
and Robert Talisse
(2005).
the
591 Of
course, this list is incomplete
vs. majoritarian
democracy
the ancient
emphasize
or liberal
of representative
forms
republican,
democracy
forms
known
democracy,
and could
democracy,
of
be enhanced
(1989);
democracy
Jon Elster (1998);
with oppositions
vs. competitive
against
deliberative,
non-Western
see Joshua Cohen
or also consociational
heritage
whereas
democracy.

like consensus
/ Contributions
O. Hidalgo
stress
the
eral,
collective
pluralistic
underline
freedom
vice
type
the
against
and
more
Western
against
and
versa;

individualistic
the
while
ancient
and
and
modern
elitist
and
republican
193
of elitist,
concepts
Liberal
democracy.
equality,
176-201
lib
democracy
deliberative
are
democracy
sub
associated
with opposing notions of freedom, pluralistic and social democracy sug

gest a different concept of equality. Finally elitist, representative, and lib
eral democracy stand for the quality of democratic decision-making,
whereas
deliberative,
and
direct,
republican
democracy
the
emphasize
quantity of people participating.

In
this
tions
the
respect
of conceptual
evident
cross
relations
constructions
show
between
at least
the
two
different
opposi
first,
things:
that
one
adjective is hardly enough in order to produce an in-depth characterization

of
a democratic
and,
system,
that
second,
different
democratic
systems
have both similarities and dissimilarities (aporia no. 5) whereby the crucial
question is whether these dissimilarities include not only different norma
tive
decisions
choices
to
pertaining
ancient democracy
into
rights
the
concerning
aspects
would
today
to
diminish
which included
account
inherent
aporias
that
but
democracy
For
democracy.
also
example,
slavery and did not take individual

be
hardly
as a sound
deemed
democracy.
Likewise this can apply to the adjectives used to describe the decline of
radical
forms
of democracy
into
a tyranny
of the majority,
of social
democ
racy into socialism, or the serious lack of democratic legitimacy in liberal,

elitist
or representative
course
how
ferent
societies
between
and
regimes60
that
nothing
habits,
and
racies
might
that
with
we
our
empirical
racy
cultures.
From
civilization
else
but
So
practices.
are
be
almost
never
norms.
and
becomes
or Islamic
might
Western
means
concepts
of democracy
seem
the
even
and
Yet,
dominated
although
we
our
result
describing
evaluations
prove
perspective
accentuated
of view,
must
always
that
relative
in spatial
the
not
or totali
forget
of global
must
concept
comparisons.
For this difference, see Juan Linz (2000).

the
democracy
values,
democ
keep
in
interaction
to the
that
decisions,
evaluating
the
of dif
proximity
of non-Western
we
is of
problem
existence
authoritarian
of normative
for Westerners,
but
difficult
of the
view
the appreciation
impossible
normative
more
has
point
democracies
obvious.
quite
most
in view
a Western
the long-term
simply
These
the
Ffowever,
systems.
Asian
existing
tarian
fact
to treat
in
mind
accordance
between
of democ
the
O. Hidalgo
194
But
what
Hitherto
are
that
does
we
not
made
/ Contributions
all of this
have
only
been
serve
mean
or
how
conceptual
different
to
attempts
societies
to strengthen
of a democratic
for the
discussing
descriptions
by democratic
but
are
or
system,
to
stress
the
efficacy,
either
constructions
decisions
normative
normative
the functionality,
of democracy?
history
conceptual
grasp
also
176-201
decisions
or simply
themselves
the
or
homogeneity
legitimacy
plurality,
the
position of individuals or of the collective, the role of cultural identity and

so on. Thus the role conceptual history plays in this whole game is firstand
foremost
to
reveal
the
conceptual
of
politics
This
democracy.
us
brings
back to the initial question of whether conceptual history might help us to

arrive
at a normative
It is now
of democracy.
perception
to answer
possible
that this is indeed the only possible perception since the contradictions
and
inherent
aporias
kind
to
of democracy
not
the
is an
the
allows
Conceptual
of the
use
itself
feature
essential
of democracy
concept
other.61
of democracy
concept
contention
the
over
is essentially
democratic
to subsume
concept
also
history
that
of the
require
that
it is
Rather
contested.
moment
different
quite
one
choosing
shows
and
historical
is what
realities
under its semantic field.

An additional
unveils
the
question that arises is whether conceptual
issues
and
that
categories
inform
normative
democracy or whether it is also a form of conceptual

Mehring
argued,
some
noting
surprising
history simply
of
perspectives
politics. As Reinhard
methodological
between
analogies
Reinhart Koselleck and Carl Schmitt, in the writing of a history of (politi

cal) ideas there seems to be a kind of blending of Begrijfssoziologie, Begriffs
geschichte, and Begrijfspolitik into each other.62Although conceptual history
should
try to
reveal
the
concepts
to exert
political
tic
it almost
goes
uses,
6,1 Here
I have in mind
power,
Max
analysis of cultural life or [...]

vidual
realities" or precisely
an "objective"
Weber
point
assumed)
of conceptual
strategies
and
saying
Weber's
statement
social phenomena"
on "normative
the
first what democracy
"should"
mean.
And
history
may
also
scientific
but only knowledge
on "indi
ideas".
See Max
Weber
by separating
which
(Peirce),
(Niklas
of seman
that there is no "truly objective
it matters little if social phenomena

communication
of
potential
purposes
conceptual
of view turns out to be possibly
or of social
the
politics,
polemic
that
without
as facts are merely a result of our interpretation

(Habermas)
also
depending
(1991),
49 and 61f. So
facts and norms
might be called
(like
or even treated
interest"
of our "realization-leading
- in
any case, we must decide
Luhmann)
by all means
this sort of definition
normative process which I call conceptual politics.

621 Reinhard
Mehring (2006).

is part of a
O. Hidalgo
a claim
include
/ Contributions
for the
normative
however,
importantly
ducted
it must
to the
according
methods
not
176-201
of particular
prevalence
which concept
perhaps already by deciding

Most
195
conceptions
might be worth analyzing.
be forgotten
of conceptual
that
history
the
con
analysis
the
require
use
of
concepts per se, almost all of which might be "political,"63 which means
that
these
which
concepts
means
not
cepts
only
become
might
that
contain
they
have
a history
but
possible
tinction
between
In
the
yet it is impossible
semantic
includes
ics
is more
concept
absolute
than
the
and
make
as
history
con
all,
con
"leading
and by formulating "prerequisites of

it may
the
be
to make
possible
normative
fundamental
normative
evident
much
captures
words,
analytic
also
way
After
a clear
dis
of concepts
application
to act only as an observer of history and of changing
Even
uses.66
an
other
a normative-political
for polemics.64
potential
they
cepts of the historical movement"

futures."65
in
charged
the
approach.
when
more
it comes
than
of
critique
one
As
to
normative
discussed
above,
democracy.
In
of the
four
concepts
this
this
dynam
the
sense,
fundamental
criteria
of
the Lexikon der Geschichtlicben Grundbegriffe,b7which describes the seman

tics
in toto -
of modernity
ceptual
democratization.
of democracy,
history
which
requires
It also
the
that
signifies
consideration
the
of the
con
most
diverse spatial and temporal perspectives in order to become intelligible,

cannot
release
itself
from
modern
claim
democracy's
to
be
the
exclusive
form and method capable of generating legitimacy. Therefore the concep

tual
4.
history
of democracy
is also
part
of democratic
history.
Conclusion
In his posthumously published book, Begriffsgeschichte.Studien zur Seman

tik und Pragmatik der politischen und sozialen Sprache (2006), Koselleck
emphasized
that
"the
historian
does
research
on
concepts,
in which
social
63) HorstGiinther
102.
(1978),
64) See Reinhart Koselleck
87fF.; (1972), XXf.; (1979).
(1967),
65) Reinhart Koselleck
327ff.
XVII, (2000),
(1972),
66) See Reinhard
41. Hence the author's aim is also to extract a practical
Mehring (2006),
from Koselleck's studies focussing on a subversive
proposition
critique of modernity whose
semantics
and concepts
are analyzed
46.
only with superficial objectivity (2006),
the
other
three
criteria
are
According
"temporalization"
(Verzeitigung),
icization" and "ideologization"
of all modern concepts. See Reinhart Koselleck (1972),
671
to Koselleck,

"polit
46.
O. Hidalgo
196
and
political
tions
and
torical
to
/ Contributions
are
processes
even
the
understand
recorded
conceptual
of perceptions
and
veritable
over
persisting
."68 Hence
centuries
transformations

the
of
course
historians
genera
research
the
of semantics
receptions
of concepts
meaning
176-201
and
make
to
his
in order
sure
their
usage remains critical and historically informed.

In
the
case
specific
semantic
of democracy,
because
change
it is even
the concept's
more
inherent
to analyze
important
contradictions
and
aporias
require a special type of conceptual history. Paradoxically, the fact that

democracy is necessarily an "unfinished journey" (John Dunn) is what
be
might
status
the
best
within
that
guarantee
The
semantics.
political
the
maintains
concept
fact
that
the
its
hegemonic
of democracy
concept
is still in use in scientific discourse as well as in everyday language is far

from
"an
being
determination
success.
of the concept
The
to
seems
in the
exception
eternal
have
seems
question
been
of language."69
history
to be
the most
the
concerning
translated
into
the
for its
constitution
political
about
question
under
reason
important
best
the
Rather,
the
best
kind
of
democracy. Therefore the symbiosis between "social history" and "history

o ( linguistic
meaning"70
obviously
cerning a possible "post-democracy"

will be futile.
However,
conceptual
that
proves
debate
current
con
Ranciere, Crouch, Jorke)
(Guehenno,
also
history
the
that
suggests
is not
democracy
simply
label that could be used in order to legitimize any political or social system.
we
Although
into
cannot
the
structure
persuasion
used
is the
shows
in
the
impossible
tion
best
the
concept
must
This
crossed.
available
the
to escape
of the
a form
are
for
search
and
concept
and
problem
always
best
politics.
aporias
is much
also
inherent
that
become
to the
the
lack
over
the
concept
of standards
that
nor
points
it is
Nevertheless,
best
interpreta
that
of democracy
interpretation
history
different
boundaries
of
a strategy
reference
necessary
contest
the
than
conceptual
of democracy
the
it is embedded
in which
democracy
establish
It is less
more
What
agendas.
interpretation
for the
of conceptual
tradictions
political
of the
because
politics,
democracy
advance
framework
search
conceptual
of concepts,
to
decisions
mative
escape
cannot
be
is ultimately
than
the
us
from
prevent
con
for
mulating a valid single idea of democracy. Instead, we must always keep in

681 Reinhart
Koselleck
365.
(2006),
691 Hubertus
Buchstein
70> Karlheinz
Stierle (1978),
(2006),
48.
184.

mind
O. Hidalgo
/ Contributions
the
sides
that
should
many
Rene Louis
Aristides,
P. Aelius.
Aristotle.
1994.
today"71
de. 1764.
each
definition
a preliminary,
political
197
of "what
decision.
Politik. Reinbek:
Works, 2 Vol. Leiden:
Brill.
Rohwolt.
Uber die Teilhabe
Starke Demokratie.
1994.
de la France. Amsterdam.
sur legouvernement
Considerations
The Complete
1981.
Barber, Benjamin.
merely
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Conceptual History of Democracy

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Conceptual History of Democracy

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Berghahn Books

Conceptual History and Politics: Is the Concept of Democracy Essentially Contested?

This content downloaded from 14.139.235.3 on Wed, 29 Oct 2014 07:11:39 AM

to the History of Concepts

History and Politics:

The concept of democracy has been associated at different points in history

interest for all individuals.1

There are also countless other forms of govern

and Josiah Ober

Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2008

This content downloaded from 14.139.235.3 on Wed, 29 Oct 2014 07:11:39 AM

to the History of Concepts 4 (2008)

merit which adopt patterns, (sub-) types, and varieties of decision-making

tions and qualifications.

Most traditionally, one can speak of democracies

democracy. Finally, considering how democracies have evolved worldwide,

If a typology is plausible (a difficult task as it is, since nowadays the basic

sideration W. B. Gallie's classical statement that democracy - like justice or

which lack unique standards of definition.3 Furthermore (and fortunately)

deeper problem, namely, the

versions. This approach

This content downloaded from 14.139.235.3 on Wed, 29 Oct 2014 07:11:39 AM

to the History of Concepts 4 (2008)

ceptual history of democracy

might function as a basis for any kind of

tive theories. This presents the political philosophers

like to discuss, briefly, democracy as a historical concept, before showing

by the Athenians in order to define their political system after 462/461

his writings on Quentin

both the method

31, as well as the analogy

argue that the historical

City and the first republics

racies avant la lettre which

to their own conceptions

For the conceptual

by which he wants to characterize

to turn the history of concepts

see also Kari Palonen

India but these examples

are at best democ

makes them irrelevant for this article.

This content downloaded from 14.139.235.3 on Wed, 29 Oct 2014 07:11:39 AM

to the History of Concepts 4 (2008)

((tovapyia, oXtyapyta) and kratia (hripoKpaxta), respectively.14

an attempt to identify political reality in ancient Athens. Today one can

This content downloaded from 14.139.235.3 on Wed, 29 Oct 2014 07:11:39 AM

5-7 and 24; (1291b),

13) Kurt A. Raaflaub

10) See Aristotle

and foreigners from citizenship. This con

to the History of Concepts 4 (2008)

and to call for the rule of the best (aptaxot),

Their concept of respublico. -

including democracy only as a supplement.

form of democracy, which is supposed

or of the ones distinguished

from Polybius to Machiavelli.

but merely did emphasize

and Pericles, who linked justice

the unity of the city against the menace

citizens and nobles

the political and moral concept of aristocracy

like Pindar and Plato innovated