Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

CHAPTER-5
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION, MODELING AND
SIMULATION OF COMPONENTS OF SMALL HYDRO-POWER
PLANTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Electric power supply acts as an engine that drives an economy. Sufficient power
supply is very vital for industrial development and economic growth of any nation.
Utilities in many developing countries are finding it difficult to establish and maintain
remote rural area electrification. The cost of delivering power up to such areas are
becoming excessively large due to large investments in transmission lines for locally
installed capacities and large transmission line losses. For these reasons, distributed
power generation has received attention in recent years for remote and rural area
electrification. Thus, suitable stand-alone SHPP using locally available water sources
has become a preferred option [82].(????)
Performance analysis of SHPP operation is a valuable tool for planning operations
and judging the value of physical improvement by selecting proper systems
parameters. Therefore, such investigations are essential and helpful in verifying the
emergency and safety conditions and in selecting the best alternatives in the early
phase of planning and design of small hydro power plants. To accomplish this task,
the performance analysis of SHPP has been carried out in this chapter. In performance
analysis first step is modeling of various components of SHPP which helps in finding
out the parameters of the control equipments like generator, governor, exciter etc. and
in determining the dynamic forces acting on the system which must be considered in
structural analysis of the penstock and their support. Dynamic response of hydraulic,
governor and electrical system associated with SHPP can be obtained by simulating
such model, which provides information about the performance of the entire system.
The modeling of various components of SHPP and necessary equations representing
their dynamic behaviour, simulation models and respective data with results have
been presented in this chapter. The run of river type SHPP has been assumed for
modeling.

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

5.2 MODELING OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF SHPP

Mathematical models are of fundamental importance to understand any physical
system. Mathematical modeling of various components of small hydro-power plant
has been carried out and are derived as follows:

5.3

PENSTOCK AND TURBINE MODELING

Hydro-turbines transform the water potential (mainly high pressure) into mechanical
shaft power, which is finally converted into electricity. The electrical power N
available of every turbine used is proportional to the product of total pressure head H
and volume-rate Q of the penstock, thus one may write:
N = gHQ;
where, is the total efficiency of the turbine (including the electrical generator), is
the water density and g is the gravity acceleration.
Two types of turbine models using non-linear model and travelling-wave model have
been employed and are as discussed in the following sub-sections:

5.3.1

Non-Linear Model

The linear model of the hydraulic turbine is inadequate for studies involving large
variations in power output and frequency. The block diagram in Fig. 5.1 represents the
dynamic characteristics of the turbine with a penstock, which is suitable for largesignal time domain simulation [19].(?????) The penstock is modeled assuming an
incompressible fluid and a rigid conduit.

Fig 5.1 Non-Linear Model of Turbine (Non-Elastic Water Column) (ENLARGE

AND IMPROVE THE DIAGRAM)
The mathematical equation representing the dynamic behaviour of the penstockturbine is given as:

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

X 10 2
X 10 2
1
f p
Gate
d X 10 1
=
dt
Tw

( )

[5.1]

Mechanical power output is given by:

2

X 10
Pmech =A t
( X 10Qnl )D . Gate . W [5.2]
Gate

( )

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

where,

fp is the friction loss coefficient,

At is the turbine gain constant,
Tw is the water starting time constant,
D is the diameter of the tunnel,
Qnl is the no load water flow-rate,

Pmech is the mechanical power,

5.3.2

Travelling-Wave Model

The modeling of the hydraulic effects using the assumption of inelastic water column is
adequate for short and medium length penstocks. For long penstocks, the travel time
of the pressure and flow waves, due to the elasticity of the steel in the penstocks and
the compressibility of water can be significant [19](????????). The non-linear model
of turbine-penstock incorporating water column travelling wave effect is shown in
Fig. 5.2.

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.2 Non-Linear Model of Turbine

(Including Water Column Travelling Wave Effects)(ENLARGE AND
IMPROVE THE DIAGRAM)
The necessary equations characterizing dynamic behaviour of the turbine are given as:
Assuming

tanh ( s T e )

sT e
1sT e

dX 10 X 10 V 1
=
[5.3]
dt
Te

V 2=Z 0 T e

V 1=Gate .

dX 10
dt [5.4]
1+V 2

1+ f p .Gate 2 [5.5]

Mechanical power output is given by:

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

V1
Pmech =A t
( V 1 Q nl )D .Gate . W [5.6]
Gate

( )

where,

fp is the friction loss coefficient,

At is the turbine gain constant,
Tw is the water starting time constant,
D is the diameter of the tunnel,
Qnl is the no load water flow-rate,

Pmech is the mechanical power,

Zo is the hydraulic impedance of the penstock,

Te is the penstock wave travel time,

5.4

GOVERNOR MODELING

The Hydro electric power plant consists of various equipments. Among these the
governor is considered as the backbone of the hydro electric power plant. The basic
function of the governor is to maintain the turbine speed constant under all working
conditions. The governor is highly helpful while considering the normal and grid
failure conditions. The grid frequency is an important power quality parameter. To
maintain grid discipline it is important to maintain frequency as near as 50 Hz. To
meet this requirement, governors are used in hydro electric power plants.
Two types of governor models using electro-hydraulic governor model and PID
governor model have been employed. They are as discussed in the following subsections:
5.4.1

Electro-Hydraulic Governor Modeling

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Modern speed governors for hydraulic turbines use electro-hydraulic systems.

Functionally, their operation is very similar to that of mechanical-hydraulic governors.
Speed sensing, permanent droop, temporary droop and their measuring and computing
functions are performed electrically. Regulation of the head is desirable under run of
river mode operation of hydro plants and hence, hydraulic governor [19] with head
controller [20] is used to control the speed of a turbine. Its block diagram is shown in
Fig. 5.3.
The necessary mathematical equations representing the dynamic behavior of electrohydraulic governing system are given as:
dX 13 X 12 X 13
=
[5.7]
dt
Tr

V 3=R p X 12 + Rt T r

dX 13
dt [5.8]

V 1=W ref W r V 3 + X 16 [5.9]

dX 11 V 1X 11
=
[5.10]
dt
Tp

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.3 Electro-Hydraulic Governor Model) (ENLARGE AND IMPROVE THE

DIAGRAM)
V 2=K s X 11
dX 11
dt =0 and

if

Ks

dX 11
dt

dX 11
dt =0 and

Ks

dX 11
dt

dX 12
dt =

V2

if

K s X 11 < Rmax

if

and K s X 11 > R min [5.11]

V 2=Rmax

> 0 and

K s X 11

Rmax

[5.12]

V 2=Rmin

K s X 11

< 0 and

Rmin

X 12 <

if

[5.13]

Gmax

and

X 12 >

Gmin

[5.14]
dX 12
dt = 0 and

if

dX 12
dt

>0 and

dX 12
dt = 0 and

if

dX 12
dt

X 12 =

X 12 =

<0 and

Gmax

X 12

Gmax

[5.15]

Gmin

X 12

Gmin

[5.16]

dX 14 X 12X 14
=
dt
Tg

[5.17]

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

dX 16
=K c [K t X 17 href ]
dt
[5.18]
The gate position is given by:
Gate = X14
[5.19]
where,

Wref is the reference speed,

Wr is the rotor speed,
Tp is the pilot valve time constant of hydraulic governor,
Ks is the servo gain of hydraulic governor,
Tg is the main servo motor time constant of hydraulic governor,
Rt is the temporary droop of hydraulic governor,
Tr is the reset time of hydraulic governor,
Rp is the permanent droop

Rmax is the maximum gate-opening-rate limit,

Rmin is the minimum gate-opening-rate limit,
Gmax is the maximum gate-opening-rate limit,
Gmin is the minimum gate-opening-rate limit,(NOT CLEAR??///)

5.4.2 PID Governor Modeling

Some electro hydraulic governors are provided with three-term controllers
with proportional-integral derivative (PID) action. These allow the possibility of
higher response speeds by providing both transient gain decrement and transient gain
increment. Without derivation action, it is equivalent to hydraulic governor. The
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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

proportional and integral gains can be adjusted to obtain desired temporary droop and
reset time. The derivative action is beneficial for isolated operations. Fig. 5.4 shows
the block diagram of the PID governor [19] with head controller [20].
The necessary equations representing dynamic behaviour of the PID
governing system is given:
V 1=W ref W r R p X 13+ X 16
[5.20]
dX 11
=V 1 K i
dt
[5.21]
dX 13 X 12 X 13
=
dt
Ta
[5.22]
dw r
R
dt
dx
dx
[ b 13 + 16 ]+ X 11
dt
dt
V 2=V 1 K p + K d

[5.23]

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.4 PID Governor Model)(ENLARGE AND IMPROVE THE DIAGRAM)

dX 12 V 2 X 12
=
dt
Ta
[5.24]
dX 16
=K c [K t X 17 href ]
dt
[5.25]
dX 14 X 13X 15T c X 14
=
dt
TcTd

if

X 14 <

if

dX 14
dt

Rmax

and

X 14 >

[5.26]
dX 14
dt =0 and

X 14=R max

> 0 and

[5.27]

141

X 14

Rmin

Rmin

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

dX 14
dt =0 and

X 14=R min

if

dX 14
dt

if

X 15 <

< 0 and

X 14

Rmin

[5.28]
dX 15
dt =
Gmin

X 14

dX 15
dt

dX 15
dt

X 15 =

>0 and

dX 15
dt = 0 and

if

Gmax

X 15

X 15 =

< 0 and

Gmax

[5.30]

Gmin

X 15

Gmax

[5.31]

The gate position is given by:

Gate=X 15
[5.32]
where,

and

[5.29]

dX 15
dt = 0 and

if

Gmax

Wref is the reference speed,

142

X 15 >

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Wr is the rotor speed,

Rp is the permanent droop
Rmax is the maximum gate-opening-rate limit,
Rmin is the minimum gate-opening-rate limit,
Gmax is the maximum gate-opening limit,
Gmin is the minimum gate-opening limit,(NOT CLEAR??////)
Kp Proportional gain of the PID governor,
Ki Integral gain of the PID governor,
Kd Derivative gain of the PID governor,
Tc is the Gate servo motor time constant of PID governor,
5.5 EXCITER MODELING
Three distinctive types of excitation systems are identified on the basis of excitation
power source. They are:
i) Type DC Excitation Systems which utilize a direct current generator with a
commutator as the source of excitation system power.
ii) Type AC Excitation Systems which use an alternator and either stationary or
rotating rectifiers to produce the direct current needed for the generator field.
iii) Type ST Excitation Systems in which excitation power is supplied through
transformers and rectifiers
The modeling of different types of exciters for alternators has been given as below:
5.5.1

Type DC1A Exciter Modeling

The type DC1A exciter model represents field-controlled dc commutator

exciter with continuously acting voltage regulators. The exciter may be separately

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

excited or self-excited. When it is self-excited, Ka is selected so that initially X7 is

zero. Fig. 5.5 shows the block diagram of the DC1A excitation system model [19].

Fig. 5.5 Type DC1A Excitation System Model(ENLARGE AND IMPROVE THE
DIAGRAM)

The necessary equations representing dynamic behaviour of DC1A excitation

system are given as:
dX 5 V ter X 5
=
dt
Tt
[5.33]
dX 9 X 8X 9
=
dt
Tf
[5.34]
V 3=K f

dX 9
dt

[5.35]
V 1=V ref X 5V 3
[5.36]
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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

dX 6 V 1 X 6
=
dt
Tb
[5.37]
V 2=X 6+ T c

dX 6
dt

[5.38]
dX 7 K a V 2 X 7
=
if X 7< V max X 7 >V min
dt
Ta

[5.39]

dX 7
dX 7
=0 X 7=V max if
>0X 7 V max
dt
dt

[5.40]

dX 7
dX 7
=0 X 7=V min if
<0X 7 V min
dt
dt

[5.41]

dX 8 X 7 AeBX K e X 8
=
dt
Te
8

[5.42]
The exciter output voltage

Efd

is given by:

Efd =X 8
[5.43]
where,

Vref is the reference voltage,

Vter is the generator terminal voltage,
Tt is the voltage time constant,
Tc is the transient gain reduction (tgr) time constant,
Te is the amplifier time constant,
Ke is the exciter gain constant,
A is the saturation constant,
Kf is the stabilizing circuit gain constant,
Tf is the stabilizing circuit time constant,

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Vmax is the maximum amplifier output,

Vmin is the minimum amplifier output,

Efd is the exciter output voltage,

5.5.2 Type ST1A(????) Exciter Modeling

The type ST1A exciter model represents a potential-source controlled-rectifier
system. The excitation power is supplied through a transformer from generator
terminals and is regulated by a controlled rectifier. The maximum exciter voltage
available from such a system is directly related to the generator terminal voltage. In
this type of system, the inherent exciter time constants are very small and exciter
stabilization as such is normally not required.
Fig. 5.6 shows the block diagram of the ST1A excitation system model [1].

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.6 Type ST1A Excitation System Model

The necessary equations representing the dynamic behaviour of ST1A

excitation system are as below:
dX 5 V ter X 5
=
dt
Tt
[5.44]
V 2=K Ir ( I fdI Ir )

if K Ir ( I fd I Ir ) >0

[5.45]

V 2=0

if

K Ir ( I fd I Ir ) <0

[5.46]
V 1=V ref X 5

[5.47]
dX 6 K a V 1 X 6
=
dt
Ta
[5.48]

V 3=X 6V 2

[5.49]
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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

The exciter output voltage, Efd is given by:

Efd =V 3 if V t V r max K c I fd > E fd >V t V r min

[5.50]

Efd =V t V r max K c I fd if V t V r maxK c I fd E fd

Efd =V t V r min if E fd =V t V r min

where,

[5.51]
[5.52]

Vter is the generator terminal voltage,

Tt is the voltage time constant,
Ka is the amplifier gain constant,

Kc is the rectifier constant depending on commutating reactance,

Ifd is the field current,

Iir is the feedback rate limit,

Vrmax is the maximum regulator output limit,

Vrmin is the minimum regulator output limit,
Efd is the exciter output voltage,

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

5.5.3

Type AC1A Exciter Modeling

The type AC1A exciter model represents a field-controlled alternator excitation

system with non-controlled rectifiers and it is applicable to brushless excitation
systems. This excitation system consists of an alternator main exciter with noncontrolled rectifiers. The exciter does not employ self-excitation and the voltage
regulator power is taken from a source not affected by external transients. A pilot
exciter supplies the exciter field.
Fig. 5.7 shows the block diagram of the AC1A excitation system model [1].

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.7 Type AC1A Excitation System Model(ENLARGE AND

IMPROVE THE DIAGRAM)
The necessary equations representing the dynamic behaviour of AC1A
excitation system are given as:
dX 5 V ter X 5
=
dt
Tt
[5.53]
BX 8

dX 9 K e X 8 + Ae + K d I fd X 9
=
dt
Tf
[5.54]
V 3=K f

dX 9
dt

[5.55]

V 1=V ref X 5V 3
[5.56]
dX 6 V 1 X 6
=
dt
Tb
[5.57]
V 2=X 6+ T c

dX 6
dt

[5.58]
dX 7 K a V 2 X 7
=
if X 7< V max X 7 >V min
dt
Ta
dX 7
dX 7
=0 X 7=V max if
>0X 7 V max
dt
dt

[5.59]

[5.60]

dX 7
dX 7
=0 X 7=V min if
<0X 7 V min
dt
dt

[5.61]

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

V 4 =X 7 if X 7 <V rmax X 7 >V rmin

[5.62]

V 4 =V r max if X 7 V rmax

[5.63]

V 4 =V r min if X 7 V rmin
dX 8 V 4 Ae
=
dt

BX 8

[5.64]

K e X 8 K d I fd
if X 8> 0
Te

[5.65]
dX 8
dX 8
=0 X 8=0 if
<0X 8 0
dt
dt
Efd

The exciter output voltage

[5.66]

is given by:

Efd =X 8 F ex
[5.67]
Fex =f (I n )

where
The value of

( I n ) is given by:
I n=

K c I fd
X8

[5.68]
where,

Vref is the reference voltage,

Vter is the Generator terminal voltage,
Tt is the Voltage time constant,
Tc is the Transient gain reduction (tgr) time constant,
Ka is the Amplifier gain constant,
Ke is the Exciter gain constant,
Te is the Exciter time constant,
A is the Saturation constant,
Kf is the Stabilizing circuit gain constant,
Tf is the Stabilizing circuit time constant,
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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Kc is the

Rectifier constant depending on commutating reactance,

Kd is the Ac exciter synchronous and transient reactance constant,

In

is the Rectifier load current,

Fex is the Rectifier regulation depending upon the input,

Vmax is the Maximum amplifier output,

Vmin is the Minimum amplifier output,
Vrmax is the Maximum regulator output limit,
Vrmin is the Minimum regulator output limit,
Efd is the Exciter output voltage,

Kd is the Damping constant,

The expression for the function

f ( I n)

characterizing the three modes of

rectifier circuit operation are:

Mode - 1:

f ( I n )=1.00.577 I n if I n 0.433

[5.69]

2
Mode - 2-: f ( I n )= 0.75I n if 0.433< I n 0.75

Mode - 3:

[5.70]

f ( I n )=1.732(1.0I n) if 0.75 I n 1.0

[5.71]

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

In

should not be greater than 1.0 but if for some reason it is, F ex should be set to

zero.
5.6

SIMULATION OF COMPONENTS OF SHPP

In the previous section mathematical modeling of various components of small

hydro-power plant has been carried out and simulation models and respective data
inputs are shown in section.
5.7

SIMULATION OF PENSTOCK AND TURBINE

5.7.1

Simulation of Non-Linear Model

The simulink model shown in Fig. 5.8 is in reference to Fig. 5.1 giving non-linear
model of the turbine .

Fig. 5.8 Simulink Block Diagram of Non-Linear Turbine

(Non-Elastic Water Coulmn)
5.7.2

Simulation of Travelling-Wave Model

The simulink model shown in Fig. 5.9 is in reference to Fig. 5.2 giving

travelling-wave model of the turbine.

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.9 Simulink Block Diagram of Travelling Wave Turbine Model(ENLARGE

AND IMPROVE THE DIAGRAM)

Penstock and turbine data are provided in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1
Penstock and Turbine data

Sr.

Description

Value

No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Penstock length Lp
Friction loss coefficient Fp
Turbine rating Pt
Rated head of turbine Hr
No-load water flow rate Qnl
Turbine damping constant

250.0 m
0.0 m/(m3/sec.)2
125kW
10.0 m
0.00 m3/sec
0.01

7.

Dt
Penstock cross section area

5.0 m2

8.

Ap
Acceleration due to gravity

9.8 m3/sec

9.
10.

g
Base head of turbine Ho
Rated water flow rate of

15.0 m
4.43 m3/sec

11.
12.

turbine Qr
Rated gate position Gr
Penstock wave velocity a

0.70 p.u.
1700 m/sec
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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

5.8

SIMULATION OF GOVERNOR

5.8.1

Simulation of Electro-Hydraulic Governor Model

Simulink model of the Electro-Hydraulic Governor is shown in Fig. 5.10 is in

reference to the Electro-Hydraulic Governor model shown earlier in Fig. 5.3 of this
chapter.

Fig. 5.10 Simulink Block Diagram of Electro-Hydraulic Governor(ENLARGE

AND IMPROVE THE DIAGRAM)

Electro-Hydraulic Governor data has been tabulated in table 5.2.
Table 5.2
Electro Hydraulic Governor data
Sr. No.
1.

Description
Pilot valve time constant of hydraulic governor

Value
0.05 sec

Tp

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

2.

Main servo motor time constant of hydraulic

0.20 sec

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

governor Tg
Temporary droop of hydraulic governor Rt
Maximum gate opening rate, Rmax
Maximum gate opening limit, Gmax
Heat float transducer gain, Kt
Servo gain, Ks
Permanent droop Rp
Reset time Tr
Minimum gate opening rate, Rmin
Minimum gate opening limit, Gmin
Rectifier constant depending on commutating

2.60
0.16
1.00 p.u.
0.15
4.00
0.04
10.00 sec
-0.16
0.00 p.u.
0.15

reactance Kc

5.8.2

Simulation of PID Governor Model

The Simulink model of the PID Governor is shown in Fig. 5.11 is in reference

to the PID Governor model shown earlier in Fig. 5.4 of this chapter.

Fig. 5.11 Simulink Block Diagram of PID Governor(improve the diagram)

PID Governor data here has been tabulated in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3
PID Governor data
Sr. No.

Description

value

1.

Proportional gain of PID governor Kp

3.00

2.

Derivative gain of PID governor Kd

0.2

3.

Gate servo motor time constant of PID

governor Tc

0.02 sec

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

4.

Maximum gate opening rate, Rmax

0.2

5.

Maximum gate opening limit, Gmax

.975 p.u.

6.

Head float transducer gain, Kt

0.15

7.

Integral gain of PID governor Ki

0.70

8.

Amplifier time constant Ta

0.05 sec

9.

0.02 sec

10.

Gate servo motor time constant of PID

governor Td
Minimum gate opening rate, Rmin

11.

Minimum gate opening limit, Gmin

0.00 p.u.

12.

Rectifier constant depending on

commutating reactance Kc

0.15

5.9

SIMULATION OF EXCITER

5.9.1

Simulation of Type DC1A Exciter Model

-0.2

The simulink model of DC1A is shown in Fig. 5.12. This is in reference to the
DC1A Exciter System shown earlier in Fig. 5.5 of this chapter.
Fig. 5.12 Simulation Block Diagram Of DC1A Exciter System(IMPROV ETHE

DIAGRAM)
DC1A Exciter data has been tabulated in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4
DC1A Exciter data
Sr.

Description

Value

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

5.9.2

Voltage time constant Tt

Amplifier time constant Ta
Minimum amplifier output Vmin
Stabilizing circuit gain constant Kf
Transient gain reduction time constant Tc
Amplifier gain constant Ka
Maximum amplifier output Vmax
Exciter time constant Te
Stabilizing circuit time constant Tf

0.2
0.01
-1.70
0.1
0.173
187
1.70
0.01
0.001

Simulation of Type AC1A Exciter Model

The simulink model of the AC1A Exciter System is shown in Fig. 5.13. This is in
reference to the AC1A Exciter System shown earlier in Fig. 5.6 of this chapter.

Fig. 5.13 Simulation Block Diagram of AC1A Exciter System

Table 5.5
AC1A Exciter data
Sr.

Description

value

No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Voltage time constant Tt

Amplifier time constant Ta
Minimum amplifier output Vmin
Minimum regulator output limit Vrmin

0.00001
0.02
-15.00
-6.60

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

5.10

Exciter time constant Te

Stabilizing circuit time constant Tf
Ac exciter synchronous and transient reactance constant Kd
Transient gain reduction time constant Tc
Amplifier gain constant Ka
Maximum amplifier output Vmax
Maximum regulator output limit Vrmax
Exciter gain constant Ke
Stabilizing circuit gain constant Kf
Rectifier constant depending on commutating reactance Kc

0.8
1.0
0.38
0.00001
200.00
15.00
7.30
1.00
0.03
0.05

SIMULATION RESULTS
The results of simulation as per data given in the previous section for two

different cases have been presented and summarized through two case studies
explained below:
Case-1
In this case, the generator has been connected to an Isolated Load with EHD
Governor System. It is shown in Fig. 5.14.

159

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Machine
Measurement
Demux

Fig. 5.14 Simulation Circuit for Isolated Generator with EHD Governor System
Initially the generator terminal voltage has been at 1000V r.m.s. and load at
1KW, 100VAR. The EHD governor and the DC1A exciter has been used for this case.
The results of simulation for this case are shown in Fig. from 5.15 to 5.28.
Some of the findings are:
i.

Fig. 5.15 shows that there is constant movement of water through

penstock.
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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

ii.

Mechanical energy used per unit time is shown in Fig. 5.16. It is

observed that while in the initial stages from 0 to 0.3 second there is an

iii.

increasing trend and later on it attains a constant value.

From Fig. 5.17 it is revealed that the terminal voltage increases from 0
to 0.95 during the time period of 0 to 0.07 second thereafter it becomes

iv.

constant.
Fig. 5.18 shows that the exciter voltage becomes constant after 0.25

v.

second.
The current developed in the armature of the stator with respect to time

vi.

is shown in Fig. 5.19.

From Fig. 5.20 it is observed that the field current shows an increase

vii.

from 1 to 1.25 with a time period of 0.5 second.

Fig. 5.21 shows that the electrical power per unit remains almost

viii.

constant.
The rotor speed at the starting has to be more in order to take up
inertia forces, but, at the later stage it goes down and then it attains a

ix.

constant value as shown in Fig. 5.22.

From Fig. 5.23 it is clear that, practical deviation of rotor speed shows

x.

reduction initially and then turns into constant value.

Rotor-angle deviation shows a decrease in its value from 0 to 0.15 in

xi.

0.5 second as shown in Fig. 5.24.

Fig. 5.25 emphasis that the value of rotor mechanical angle should be
3600 .

xii.

Fig. 5.26 obtained in respect of load-angle shows an increase in its

xiii.

value from 0 to 0.5 second.

Fig. 5.27 and 5.28 confirm that the line voltages and the currents in
conductors are at 120

phase apart.

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Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Result of Case I

1.07

G a te o p e n in g (p u )

1.06

1.05

1.04

1.03

1.02

1.01

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

Fig. 5.15 Gate Opening Vs Time Characteristics

0.35

M ech a n ical Po we r (p u )

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

Fig. 5.16 Mechanical Power Vs Time Characteristics

162

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

1.4

Terminal Voltage (pu)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

Fig. 5.17 Terminal Voltage Vs Time Characteristics

1.25

Exciter Voltage (pu)

1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

163

0.4

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.18 Exciter Voltage Vs Time Characteristics

Fig. 5.19 Armature Current Vs Time Characteristics

1.25

Field Current (pu)

1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05

0.95

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

Fig. 5.20 Field Current Vs Time Characteristics

164

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

0.25

Line Power (W )

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.45

0.5

Fig. 5.21 Electrical Power Vs Time Characteristics

Rotor Speed (pu)

0.98

0.96

0.94

0.92

0.9

0.88

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

165

0.4

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.22 Rotor Speed Vs Time Characteristics

0

Ro to r Sp eed Dev iatio n (p u )

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.08

-0.1

-0.12

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

Fig. 5.23 Rotor Speed Deviation Vs Time Characteristics

Rotor Angle Deviation (rad)

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12

-14

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

Fig. 5.24 Rotor Angle Deviation Vs Time Characteristics

166

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

400

Rotor M echanical Angle (deg)

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

Fig. 5.25 Rotor Mechanical Angle Vs Time Characteristics

14

Lo a d A n g le (d e g )

12

10

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

Fig. 5.26 Load Angle Vs Time Characteristics

167

0.4

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.27 Line Voltage Vs Time Characteristics

Fig. 5.28 Load Current Vs Time Characteristics

168

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Case-II
In this case, the generator has been connected to an Isolated Load with PID Governor
System. It is as shown in Fig. 5.29. Initially generator terminal voltage has been at 1000V
r.m.s. and load at 1KW, 100VAR. The PID governor and the DC1A exciter has been used for
this case. The values of parameters of the governor, the exciter and the hydraulic components
are same as in case-I. The results for this case are shown in Fig. 5.30 to 5.43.
The proposed model has been tested in order to ensure that good prediction is made to
PID governor settings and variations in parameters that yeilded comparable results with
EHD.
Effects of PID controller gain K p, Ki, and Kd on a modified system have been
summarized in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 Effects of Kp, Ki, and Kd on a system
Sr.
No.

Gain
response

Rise time

Overshoot

Settling time

S-S error

1.

Kp

Decreases

Increases

Small Change

Decreases

2.

Ki

Decreases

Increases

Increases

Eliminated

Kd

Small Change

Decreases

Decreases

Small
Change

3.

The above mentioned correlations shown in the Table 5.6 may not be exactly accurate,
because Kp, Ki, and Kd are dependent on each other and changing one of these gains can
change the effect of the other two. For this reason, the Table should only be used as a
reference when we determine the values for Kp, Ki, and Kd.
The predictions made in the values of the PID controller parameters are in good
agreement to consequence output with EHD Governor of the proposed SHPP model.

169

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Machine
Measurement
Demux

Fig. 5.29 Actual Simulation Circuit for Isolated Generator with PID Governor System
(ENLARGE AND IMPROVE THE DIAGRAM)

170

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Result of Case II(ENLARGE AND IMPROVE ALL THE DIAGRAMS)

1.07

1.06

Gate opening (pu)

1.05

1.04

1.03

1.02

1.01

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

171

0.4

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.30 Gate Opening Vs Time Characteristics

0.35

Mechanical Power (pu)

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

Fig. 5.31 Mechanical Power Vs Time Characteristics

172

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

1.4

Terminal Voltage (pu)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.45

0.5

Fig. 5.32 Terminal Voltage Vs Time Characteristics

1.25

Ex citer Vo ltage (p u )

1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

Fig. 5.33 Exciter Voltage Vs Time Characteristics

173

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.34 Armature Current Vs Time Characteristics

Fig. 5.35 Field Current Vs Time Characteristics

0.25

Lin e Po wer (W )

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

Fig. 5.36 Electrical Power Vs Time Characteristics

174

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Rotor Speed (pu)

0.98

0.96

0.94

0.92

0.9

0.88

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.45

0.5

Fig. 5.37 Rotor Speed Vs Time Characteristics

Rotor Speed Deviation (pu)

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.08

-0.1

-0.12

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

175

0.4

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.38 Rotor Speed Deviation Vs Time Characteristics

Rotor Angle Deviation (rad)

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12

-14

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

Fig. 5.39 Rotor Angle Deviation Vs Time Characteristics

176

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

400

Rotor Mechanical Angle (deg)

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

Fig. 5.40 Rotor Mechanical-Angle Vs Time Characteristics

14

12

Load Angle (deg)

10

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Time (sec)

0.3

0.35

177

0.4

0.45

0.5

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

Fig. 5.41 Load-Angle Vs Time Characteristics

Fig. 5.42 Line Voltage Vs Time Characteristics

Fig. 5.43 Load Current Vs Time Characteristics

178

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

5.11 FINDINGS
Investigations carried out in the simulation process revealed the following observations:
It is indicated from Fig. 5.30 that there is a constant movement of water through the
penstock.
Mechanical energy used per unit time as indicated by Fig. 5.31, shows that while in the
initial stages from 0 to 0.3 second, there is an increasing trend but later on it attains a
constant value.
Fig. 5.32 depicts that terminal voltage increases within a range of 0 to 0.95 during the time
period 0 to 0.07 second and thereafter it achieves a constant value.
Fig. 5.33 shows that exciter voltage achieves a constant value after 0.25 second.
The current developed in the armature of the stator attains a constant value within
0.05second which is shown in Fig. 5.34.
Fig. 5.35 indicates that field current shows an increased trend from 1 to 1.25 within a time
period of 0.5 sec.
Fig. 5.36 shows that the value of electrical power per unit almost remains constant.
The rotor speed as indicated by Fig. 5.37, is found to be more at the starting in order to
take up inertia forces but, at the later stage it goes down and ultimately achieves a constant
value.
Practical deviation of rotor speed shows initial reduction and then turns to be a constant as
shown in Fig. 5.38.
Rotor-angle deviation as indicated by Fig. 5.39, shows a reduction from 0 to 0.15 in
0.5 second.
0
Fig. 5.40 depicts that the rotor mechanical angle should be 360 .

Load angle as shown by Fig. 5.41 indicates an increase in its value from 0 to 120 within
0.5 second.
Fig. 5.42 and 5.43 confirm that the line voltages and currents in conductors are at 120 0
phase apart.

179

Performance Evaluation, Modeling and Simulation of Components of SHPP

5.12 CONCLUSION
A small hydro power plant (SHPP) model has been successfully simulated using
MATLAB/ Simulink. Simulations performed on the proposed control scheme using the
Simulink utility of MATLAB have demonstrated the efficacy of the proposed virtual SHPP
model. Servomotor as Governor using PID Controller is found to be best suited for speed
governing in SHPP. The values of proportional gain Kp and integral gain Ki of a PID
Controller has significant roles to play in determining the stabilizing time. So optimization of
these parameters is absolutely necessary. Increase in water starting time leads to increase in
perturbations due to response of the hydro turbine to water change which is just the opposite
to that required in the beginning.

180