Unit 8 Ecology Chapter Objectives

Ch 50 Intro to Ecology
1. Define ecology.
Scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments
2. Distinguish between abiotic and biotic components of the environment.
Abiotic components are nonliving chemical and physical factors, such as temperature, light, water, and
nutrients
Biotic components are living factors, such as the organisms that are part of any individuals environment
3. Describe the problems caused by introduced species and illustrate with a specific example.
The African Honeybee is an aggressive subspecies of honeybee that was brought to Brazil to breed a
variety that would produce more honey. They escaped by accident and have been spreading throughout
the Americas and driving out established colonies of Italian honeybees.
4. Explain how habitat selection may limit distribution of a species within its range of suitable habitats.
Some organisms are physically able to disperse but the distribution of a species may be limited by the
behavior of individuals in selecting habitat
The European corn bearers larvae will only feed on corn because the females are attracted by volatile
odors produced by the corn plant
5. List the four abiotic factors that are the most important components of climate.
Temperature: it affects biological processes and the inability of most organisms to regulate body
temperature precisely. Cells may rupture if the water they contain freezes and proteins of most
organisms denature at very high temperatures
Water: the availability differs among habitats. Freshwater and marine organisms face problems of water
balance if their intracellular osmolarity does not match that of the surrounding water
Sunlight: Shading by a forest canopy makes competition for light in the understory intense.
Photoperiods are also important to the development and behavior of many organisms
Wind: this amplifies the effects of environmental temperature by increasing heat loss due to evaporation
and convection. It also contributes to water loss by increasing the rate of evaporation and it can inhibit
the growth of limbs on the windward side of trees
6. Explain, with examples, how a body of water and a mountain range might affect regional climatic conditions.
They create a climatic patchiness on a regional scale, and smaller features of the landscape contribute to
local climatic variation
Ocean currents heat or cool overlying air masses. For example, the cool climate produced by the cold
California current flows southward along the western United States and supports a rain forest ecosystem
dominated by large coniferous trees in the Pacific Northwest
During days when the land is hotter than the ocean, air over the land heats the rises, drawing a cool
breeze from the water across the land. At night, air over the warmer ocean rises, establishing a
circulation that draws cooler air from the land out over the water and replaces it with warmer air from
offshore
South-facing slopes receive more sunlight than nearby north-facing slopes and are usually drier.
Therefore, these slops have more drought-resistant vegetation
7. Distinguish between macroclimate and microclimate patterns

Environments can affect microclimates by casting shade, affecting evaporation from soil, and changing
the patterns of wind
Microclimates can be a forest floor or even under a certain rock
Cleared areas experience greater temperature extremes because of greater solar radiation and wind
currents from the ocean
Low-lying ground is usually wetter than high ground and tends to be occupied by different species of
trees within the same forest

8. Explain how biotic and abiotic factors affect the distribution of biomes
Fire and the frequency it is set by storms. Ground water, water table, soil type, fertility, pH, moisture
retention and aeration are effected by landforms (plateau, mountain, valley) and their slope ( < 3% to >
10%). Climate variables that produce soil temperature, days of cloud cover versus days of sun for
amount of sunlight and its influence, that create patterns of rainfall, humidity, dew point plus first & last
frost dates for growing/dormancy or rainy/dry seasonality. Typical wind speeds and their direction effect
how soil erodes and is deposited as much as water flow. Latitude, altitude and how this effects the
annual season. Focus on the limiting factors of the air supply, precipitation, soil types, & light. Wave
action changes the amount of O2 dissolved in the water and the shape of the shore by wear. Reef/shore,
wave interactions and lagoon/inlet formations. Chemistry of pollutants, water pH, and salinity.
Temperature of air and water and their interactions, thermal clines. Volcanoes are abiotic. They can
cause a change in geology by overlaying soil with a sterile layer of mud, ash or lava. This alters soil &
removes habitat. Air borne particles can radically effect climate.
Biotic factors Biotic factors are the living components that affect an organism. What it eats, what eats
it. Activities like how it reproduces. Things like gestation time and parental care are biotic factors. How
the community members interact: social, herd forming, pair bonding, or primarily solitary. What
diseases is it subject to and parasites. How mobile is it, what territory is able to cover. If it is a plant
what defenses does it have against herbivory: thorns, toxins, tough bark, sticky resins, gums or latex?
How does the plant store water, protect itself from UV, disperse seeds. Plants form intricate soil
symbiosis with fungi and bacteria in the rhizosphere or the root zone. Some soil biotic factors are the
direct and indirect interactions between plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and other resident
microorganisms that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Protozoan predation, and bacterial parasitism
play a role. The community of soil dwelling organisms from microbes up through arthropods to
tunneling mammals is called the edaphon.
Ch 51 Behavioral Biology
1. Define behavior.
What an animal does and how it does it
2. Distinguish between proximate and ultimate questions about behavior. Ask a proximate question and an
ultimate question about bird song
Proximate questions are mechanistic, concerned with the environmental stimuli that trigger a behavior,
as well as the genetic and physiological mechanisms underlying a behavioral act
Ultimate questions address the evolutionary significance of a behavior
3. Define fixed action patterns and give an example
Fixed action patterns, or FAP, are a sequence of behavioral acts that is essentially unchangeable and
usually carried to completion once initiated
A FAP is triggered by an external sensory stimulus known as a sign stimulus. Some moths instantly fold
their wings and drop to the ground in response to the ultrasonic signals sent out by predatory bats

4. Define imprinting. Suggest a proximate cause and an ultimate cause for imprinting in young geese.
Learning that is limited to a specific time period in an animals life and that is generally irreversible
Lorentz study the geese spent time with him and they learned to follow him instead of recognizing the
other brother/sister siblings and the original mother
5. Explain how innate behavior and various types of learning increase fitness
Genes contribute to innate behavior and environment contributes to learned behavior. Environmental
factors modify behavior. Innate behavior is inborn and cannot be modified
6. Explain how habituation may influence behavior
Associative learning ability of many animals to learn to associate one stimulus with another
Classical conditioning learning to associate an arbitrary stimulus with a reward or punishment
Operant conditioning animal learns to associate one of its own behaviors with a reward or punishment
and then tends to repeat or avoid that behavior
7. Describe how associative learning might help a predator to avoid toxic prey.
A predator may associate a feature on the toxic prey with punishment
8. Explain optimal foraging theory.
The basis for analyzing behavior as a compromise of feeding costs versus feeding benefits
It views foraging behavior as a compromise between the benefits of nutrition and the costs of obtaining
food, such as the energy expenditure or the risk of being eaten by a predator while foraging
According to this theory, natural selection should favor foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of
foraging and maximizes the benefits
9. Explain how behavioral ecologists carry out cost-benefit analyses to determine how an animal should forage
optimally.
Reto Zach conducted a cost-benefit analysis of feeding behavior in crows
The crows eat molluscs called whelks but must drop them from the air to crack the shells
Optimal flight height correlated with fewer drops, indicating a trade-off between energy gained (food)
and energy expended.
10. Explain how predation risk may affect the foraging behavior of a prey species
Predation affects where the animals feed and when they feed
Animals will feed where this a smaller risk of predation
11. Define and distinguish among promiscuous, monogamous, and polygamous mating relationships.

12. Describe how the certainty of paternity influences the development of mating systems
Promiscuous: Having many sexual relationships, or many partners
Monogamous: The habit of having only one mate at a time
Polygamous: (Of an animal) typically having more than one mate
13. Describe various forms of animal communication
Singing by male birds is an example of signaling. It tells others to stay out of the territory and has the
effect that other males are less likely to encroach on the males territory

Pheromones are chemical signals that animals communicate by odors

Worker bees vibrate their wings and walk in a certain direction to signal nearby food

14. Explain the role of altruism and inclusive fitness in kin selection
Inclusive fitness - the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing offspring and
helping close relatives produce offspring
Reciprocal altruism - altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals can be adaptive if the aided
individual returns the favor in the future
Natural selection favors altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of
relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist
Ch 52 Population Ecology
1. Describe how density, dispersion, and demographics can describe a population
Density is the number of individuals per unit area or volume
Dispersion is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the geographic boundaries of the
population
o Clumped dispersion individuals are aggregated in patches
o Uniform dispersion there is evenly spaced and a pattern of dispersion may result from direct
interactions between individuals in the population
o Random dispersion the position is independent from all other positions
2. Describe the characteristics of populations that exhibit Type I, Type II, and Type III survivorship curves
Type I relatively flat at the start, reflects low death rates during early and middle life, then drops
steeply as death rates increase among older age groups
Type II intermediate, with a constant death rate over the life span
Type III drops sharply at the left of the graph, reflecting very high death rates for the young, but then
flattens out as death rates decline for those individuals that have survived to a certain critical age
3. Define and distinguish between semelparity and iteroparity. Explain what factors may favor the evolution of
each life history strategy.
Semelparity big bang reproduction (one time)
Iteroparity repeated reproduction
The critical factor in evolutionary dilemma is the survival rate of offspring. If their chance of survival is
poor or inconsistent, repeated reproduction will be favored
4. Explain, with examples, how limited resources and trade-offs may affect life histories.
Trade-off: Usually the animal with more children will die sooner than the animal with less children
because the animal with more children is using more energy and resources to reproduce, support, and
take care of itself
5. Compare and contrast exponential and logistic models of population growth
Exponential model: J-shape
Logistic model: sigmoid S-shaped, carrying capacity
6. Distinguish between r-selected populations and K-selected populations.
r-selected populations: Density-dependent selection, it selects for life history traits that are sensitive to
population density

K-selected populations: Density-independent selection, it selects for life history traits that maximize
reproduction

7. Explain how density-dependent and density-independent factors can control population growth
Density-dependant birth rate decreases when a population increases
Density-dependant death rate increases when a population increases
8. Explain, with examples, how biotic and abiotic factors may work together to control a populations growth
Biotic: Predation and competition can cause a decrease in population
Abiotic: Severe weather can cause extreme decreases
9. Describe boom-and-bust population cycles, explaining possible causes of lynx/hare fluctuations
Boom-and-bust cycles are influenced by complex interactions between biotic and abiotic factors.
Ch 53 Community Ecology
1. Contrast a fundamental niche and a realized niche.
Fundamental Niche: A species' ideal environment
Realized Niche: A species' actual environment
2. Describe the role of competitive exclusion in interspecific competition
Two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist in the same place.

3. Explain how interspecific competition may lead to resource partitioning.

Interspecific competition (when species compete for a resource in short supply) may lead to resource partitioning

4. Define and compare predation, herbivory, and parasitism.

Predation (+/-): Interaction where one species (the predator) kills and eats the other (the prey)
Herbivory (+/-): Interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga
Parasitism (+/-): Interaction where one organism (the parasite) derives nourishment from another organism (its h
5. Describe the symbiotic relationships of parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
Parasitism (+/-): One organism (the parasite) derives nourishment from another organism (its host)
which is harmed in the process
Mutualism (+/+): An interspecific interaction that benefits both species
Commensalism (+/0): One species benefits and the other is apparently unaffected
6. Distinguish between a food chain and a food web.
Food Chain: The path of energy and nutrients from the non-living environment, through the living
environment, and back to the non-living environment
Food Web: A branching food chain with complex trophic interactions
Summarize two hypotheses that explain why food chains are relatively short.
The Energetic Hypothesis: Length of food chain is limited by inefficient energy transfer (More support)
The Dynamic Stability Hypothesis: Long food chains are less stable than short ones
7. Describe the impact of keystone species on community structure

Dominant: Most abundant and exert powerful control over the occurrence and distribution of other
species; They are either possibly the most competitive in exploiting resources or are most successful at
avoiding predators (Ex. Humans)
Keystone: Not necessarily abundant in a community; They exert strong control by their ecological roles
and niches (Ex. Sea Stars)

8. Compare and contrast primary and secondary succession

Primary Succession: Where no soil exists when succession begins (Volcanoes and the Beginning of the
Earth)
Secondary Succession: Begins in an area where soil remains after a disturbance (Glacier Retreating)
9. Describe how species that arrive early in succession may facilitate, inhibit, or tolerate later arrivals
No two species can coexist for long in the same ecological niche in the same area, so a species in one
niche will inhibit the establishment of a newly arriving species attempting to use the same niche
However, species also create niches by their very presence, so for instance the growth of a climax forest
tree species might facilitate the establishment of a newly arriving species adapted to utilize that tree,
such as a squirrel that lived in its branches and ate its nuts
Other species whose niche was neither facilitated nor harmed by the arrival of a particular new species
would simply tolerate it.
10. Describe patterns of species richness along an equatorial-polar gradient, and on islands
Generally declines along an equatorial-polar gradient because of old age
Ch 54 Ecosystems
1. Explain how energy flows through the ecosystem in both food chains and food webs
primary producers primary consumers (herbivores) secondary consumers (carnivores) tertiary
microorganisms and other detritivores
2. Describe the fundamental relationship between autotrophs and heterotrophs in an ecosystem.
autotrophs (primary producers) convert sunlight into organic chemical energy
heterotrophs utilize stored energy in autotrophs by eating them

3. Explain how the first and second laws of thermodynamics apply to ecosystems.
first law: law of conservation: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. for all ecosystems, we ca
second law: energy conversions cannot be completely efficient. energy will be lost as heat in any conversion proc

4. Explain how decomposition connects all trophic levels in an ecosystem.

detritivores make vital chemical elements available to producers
organic material that makes up the living organisms in an ecosystem is recycled by decomposition
detritivores break down organic material + recycle the chemical elements in inorganic forms to abiotic reserves (
5. Compare and contrast gross primary productivity and net primary productivity
gross primary productivity (gpp) = total primary production
net primary productivity (npp) = gpp - r
o where r = energy used by the primary producers for respiration
o measurement that represents the storage of chemical energy that will be available to consumers
in an ecosystem

6. Describe the four nutrient reservoirs and the processes that transfer the elements between reservoirs
1) organic materials available as nutrients
o living organisms, detritus
2) organic materials unavailable as nutrients
o coal, oil, peat
3) inorganic materials available as nutrients
o atmosphere, soil, water
4) inorganic materials unavailable as nutrients
o minerals in rocks
7. Describe the carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous biogeochemical cycles
8. Describe the impact of biogeochemical cycles (such as the carbon and nitrogen cycles) on individual
organisms, and/or populations and ecosystems
Nitrification: ammonium is fixed into nitrates by bacteria, which is then absorbed by plants
Assimilation: plants absorb nitrates from the soil into their roots nitrogen used in amino acids,
nucleic acids, and chlorophyll
9. Describe how agricultural practices can interfere with nitrogen cycling
substantial fraction of terrestrial nutrients isnt recycled natural store of nutrients is exhausted
cultivation (breaking up+mixing soil) increases decomposition rate of organic matter, releases N
o nitrogen removed from the ecosystem when crops are harvested
nitrates continue to be leached from ecosystem bc no plants to take them up
humans have doubled supply of fixed nitrogen b/c 1) industrial nitrogen fixation for fertilizers 2)
increased cultivation of legumes w/nitrogen fixing symbionts 3) burning
also atmosphere warming
10. Explain how cultural eutrophication can alter freshwater ecosystems
runoff from cultural eutrophication overloads freshwater w/inorganic nutrients
o explosion in biodensity of photosynthetic organisms
shallow areas overrun w/ weeds, algae, cyanobacteria
photosynthetic organisms die, detritivores use all oxygen, all die k
11. Describe the causes and consequences of acid precipitation.
causes:
o burning wood/combustion of coal+fossil fuels release sulfur and nitrogen oxides that react w/h20
in atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acid
o acid falls back to earth as acid precipitation
consequences:
o lowers pH of aquatic ecosystems
fishies die
affects soil chemistry of terrestrial ecosystems
calcium + nutrients leach from soil, deficiencies affect plant health, limit growth
12. Explain why toxic compounds usually have the greatest effect on top-level carnivores
Ch 55 Conservation Biology, p. 1224 - 1232
1. Explain the value of biodiversity, and the major human threats to biodiversity
2. Describe how human activity is changing the earth.

Wetland Biome
General definition: A land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally. The primary factor
distinguishing it is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants adapted to the unique hydric soil.
Rainfall: The amount of rainfall varies widely according to its area. In Scotland and Ireland, wetlands receive up
to 60 inches per year. In Southeast Asia, they can receive up to 200 inches. In North America, they might
receive up to 7 inches.
Temperature: Temperature also varies according to its area. Some wetlands are in temperate zones and so the
summers are warm and the winters are cold, but not extreme. In the tropic zone, the wetlands are warm year
round. Polar climates affect wetland temperatures drastically, such as in Siberia.
Location: Wetlands are usually located near rivers or large water sources. The most notable ones are in South
America, Europe, river deltas in Africa, lakes in Australia, and numerous rivers in Southeast Asia.
Flora: 1) Submerged water plants found completely underground, 2) floating water plants small roots and
found in slow moving water with lots of nutrients, 3) emergent water plants, 4) surrounding trees and shrubs
many species of trees, such as cypress and mangrove, grow here
Fauna: 1) Fish most dependent on wetlands than any other habitats, 2) amphibians frogs are a good indicator
of ecosystem health due to the absorption of minerals into their skin, 3) reptiles alligators and crocodiles are
common, especially in the Everglades, 4) mammals Florida Panther, 5) monotremes platypus is prevalent, 6)
lots of insects and bugs
Trophic levels:
1. Primary producers algae, higher plants
2. Herbivores microcrustacea, fish, birds
3. Carnivores invertebrates, fish, birds
4. Detritivores invertebrates, fish
Tropical Savannas Biome
Definition: Tropical savannas or grasslands are associated with the tropical wet and dry climate type
Rainfall: Annual precipitation averages between 30 and 50 inches. For at least five months of the year, during
the dry season, less than 4 inches a month are received
Temperature: Mean monthly temperatures are at or above 64 F
Location: East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania), Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Honduras
Flora: fire resistant and drought tolerant shrubs, and highly elevated grass.
Fauna: The dominant fauna in the tropical savanna are the hoofed mammals which include antelope, buffalo,
wildebeest, zebra, rhinos, giraffes, and elephants which are the herbivores. The dominant mammal carnivores
are lions, cheetahs, leopards, and hyenas
Trophic levels:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Primary producers trees, grass, forbs

Herbivores giraffe, wildebeest, rhino, elephant, antelopes
Carnivores Lions, leopard, cheetah, hyenas
Decomposers insects, mushrooms and bacteria