LXXXVI.

The Armed Stalemate

A. Introduction
1.
Germany and its allies called the Central Powers
2.
Entente governments termed the Allies
3.
A short war expected at first
4.
German disadvantage of fighting on two fronts to be offset by possession of good rail lines,
which facilitated military maneuvers
5.
German war plan was called the Schlieffen Plan
B. The War on Land, 1914 1916
1.
On August 3, 1914, Germans launched 78 infantry divisions in West, opposed by 72 French
divisions, 5, British, and 6 Belgian
2.
Germans swept irresistibly forward and planned for conquest and annexation of large parts
of Europe
3.
a hitch occurred when the Russians fulfilled the terms of their alliance
a.
Russians pushed two armies into Germany, penetrating into East Prussia
b.
Moltke withdrew forces from German right wing in France
c.
Germans continued in west, but striking arm was weakened and lines of
communication were overextended
4.
French commander Joffre counterattacked at right moment
a.
battle of the Marne changed character of the war
b.
Germans had to retreat, and had to give up hope of quick defeat of France
c.
Each side tried to outflank and destroy each other
d.
Great victories over Russia (battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes) in the east
were small consolation to reverses in the east
5.
the war of movement settled into a war of position
a.
basic soldier was more important than ever since airpower was just beginning, and
cavalry units disappeared
b.
most deadly new weapon was machine gun, which made it impossible for foot
soldiers to advance across open fields without overwhelming artillery preparation
c.
result was long stalemate of war in the trenches
6.
Germans put main effort into attempt to nock out Russia in 1915
a.
pressed into Russian empire and inflicted huge losses
b.
Russian army continued to fight
c.
British and French launched naval attack on Turkey, aiming at Constantinople by
way of the Dardanelles, in an attempt to open communications with Russia
i.
gave up enterprise as failure after a year of fighting and heavy
losses
7.
Both sides turned again to north France in attempt to break deadlock
a.
Allies planned great offensive along river Somme
b.
Germans prepared attack around Verdun
c.
Germans attacked Verdun in February
i.
French commander put General Petain in charge of defense
ii.
Did not commit main reserves, holding them for offensive on
Somme
iii.
Petain and troops had to endure full weight of German army
iv.
Battle lasted six month and drew admiration of world,
becoming legend of determined resistance (they shall not pass)
d.
during fighting at Verdun, Allies opened offensive on Somme in July
i.
brought up unheard of amounts of artillery and British army
ii.
idea was to break through the German line by stupendous
pressure
iii.
after months of battle, nothing of any value had been gained
iv.
battle of Somme saw first use of tank by British
C. The War at Sea
1.
both sides looked to sea to end stalemate
a.
British imposed strict naval blockade on Germany
b.
Went against current international law that allowed for importation of
noncontraband
i.
contraband = munitions and certain specified raw materials which
might be used in the manufacture of military equipment
ii.
noncontraband = foodstuffs and raw cotton
c.
if international law were observed, blockade would have been ineffective, so allies
ignored it
i.
Allies announced new international law and eventually abolished distinction between contraband
and noncontraband
ii.
British navy stopped all goods of whatever character destined for
Germany
d.
United States protested against regulations, supporting right of neutrals
i.
Upheld idea of freedom of the seas

ii.

D.

International law was eventually changed, and contraband and

freedom of the seas were never heard in WWII
2.
Germans tried to stop British shipping
a.
used submarine to this purpose
b.
German government in Feb 1915 declared waters surrounding British
Isles to be a war zone, in which Allied vessels would be torpedoed and neutral vessels would be in grave
danger
i.
Ocean liner Lusitania was torpedoed off Irish coast
ii.
1200 people died, 118 were Americans
iii.
loss of life shocked U.S. and President Wilson told Germans
another act would be considered deliberately unfriendly
iv.
Germans refrained for two years from full use of submarines
to avoid trouble
3.
Battle of Jutland confirmed allied access to sea
a.
German admirals wanted to break from minefields on German shores, but could not
fight superior British Grand Fleet posted at Scapa Flow
b.
Hoped to pick off small formations of British ships and obtain enough power to
loosen British blockade
c.
Trapped into major engagement in which British Grand Fleet took them by surprise
d.
Lost less tonnage than British and proved themselves proficient in naval combat,
but failed to undermine British sea power
Diplomatic Maneuvers and Secret Agreements
1.
both sides looked for new alliances to end war
2.
new prospect was Italy, which had drifted from Triple Alliance
a.
Both sides sought Italian support
b.
Country divided over idea of war
i.
Catholic and socialist leaders recommended peace
ii.
Extreme nationalists saw chance to obtain irredenta
irredenta = border regions in which
Italians lived, but which hand not been incorporated in time of Cavour
c.
Italy eventually joined with Allies in the secret treaty of London
i.
If allies won, Italy received the Trentino, south Tyrol, Istria
and city of Trtieste, and some of Dalmatian islands
ii.
If Germanys African colonies taken, Italy would get
territorial increases in Libya and Somililand
d.
Italy opened up front against Austria-Hungary in May 1915
3.
Allies planned for partition of Ottoman Empire
a.
Britain and France gave up opposition to Russian
domination of the Straits
v.
Allowed Russian annexation of Constantinople, along with
Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles
b.
another agreement gave Mesopotamia to Britain, Syria and southeastern Asia Minor went to France,
Kurdistan and Armenia went to Russia, and Italy got small portions of something
4.
Each side
tampered with minorities and discontented groups living within domains of the other
a.
Germans promised independent Poland, stirred up nationalism in Ukraine, raised
pro-German Flemish movement in Belgium, persuaded Ottoman Sultan to proclaim holy war in North
Africa
b.
Sir Roger Casement landed in Ireland and precipitated the Easter Rebellion of
1916
5.
Zimmerman
telegram
a.
German secretary of foreign affairs, Arthur Zimmermann, sent dispatch to German
minister at Mexico city, telling him what to say to Mexican president
b.
Said if U.S. went to war with Germany, Germany would form alliance with Mexico
and Japan if possible, enabling Mexico to get back its lost territories
c.
Telegram intercepted and decoded by the British, who passed it on to Washington
d.
Shocked the public in the United States
ii.
Allies appealed to
nationalist discontent by promising restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France, independence of the
Poles, national independence for Czechs, Slovaks, and Yugoslavs
iii.
British aroused hopes for Arab independence within Ottoman
Empire
6.
Zionists saw in collapse of Ottoman the opportunity to
realize dream for Palestine
a.
Balfour note of 1917 had British
government promise support for idea of Jewish homeland in Palestine
7.
years disastrous for Armenians also
a.
had developed aspirations for national
state of their own which conflicted with Turkish plans

b.

Turks ordered deportation of

Armenians from war zone as potential sympathizers

c.

Hundreds of thousands of Armenians

perished in action

d.
8.

Left with no state of their own, except

fro small Armenian republic, which was taken by Soviet Union
Allies did not intend that Germany should get colonies

back
9.

10.

11.

12.

Imperialist competition accelerated in China

a. Japanese saw opportunity in European war and had been allied to Britain
b.
Declared war on Germany in 1914
c.
Overran German concessions in China and German islands in the pacific, Marshals
and Carolilnes
d.
Presented its Twenty-One Demands on China
i.
China obliged to accept
ii.
Japan turned Manchuria and North
China into an exclusive protectorate
Germans had their own expansionist aims
a. Bethmann-Hollweg, chancellor, drew up list of German war aims, which were unaltered until end of war
b.
Called for enlarged German empire dominating central Europe
c.
Annexations or satellites in both western and eastern Europe
d. Lithuania and other parts of Baltic coast to become German dependencies
e.
Large sections of Poland were to be annexed and remainder to be joined with
Austrian Galicia to form German-dominated Polish state
f.
Belgium to become German dependency, and French Lorraine was to be added to
Alsace-Lorraine
g.
Colonial adjustments including acquisition of central Africa were projected
Developments troublesome at the later peace conference
a.
no thought of controlling anarchic nationalism or
preventing war on the part of the Allies
b.
pushed to consider it by Woodrow Wilson
Wilson hoped to stay neutral in war
a.
attempted to mediate in 1916
b.
entered into confidential discussions
with both sides, but both hoped for victory on their own terms so negotiation was fruitless
c.
urged true neutrality of thought and
feeling, or a settlement that should be a peace without victory