PHYSICS REVISION GUIDE

Ch1: Physical Measurement

SI units: metre, kg, second, ampere, Kelvin, mole, candela.
Derived: volume, density.
1.2 Measurement
Uncertainty = 0.5x the smallest value.
Random error: lots of slightly different readings.
Experimental error: problem with measuring device/method.
Percentage uncertainty = uncertainty/value
Adding values = add uncertainties.
Ch2: Mechanics
2.1 Kinematics
Velocity = displacement per unit time.
Speed = distance travelled per unit time.
Relative velocity = subtract the vectors.
Acceleration = velocity/time
Average velocity = displacement/time
SUVATS:
a = (v - u)/t
s = (u + v)t/2
s = ut + 0.5at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
Positive displacement/velocity = body moving right.
2.2 Free-Fall Motion
On Earth, bodies fall with an acceleration of 9.81ms-2.
When falling, air resistance will push you up more and more until you
cannot go faster.
Area beneath a velocity-time graph = displacement.

2.4 Projectile Motion

SUVAT for horizontal motion: R = v cos t

SUVAT for vertical motion: h = v2sin2/2g and t = 2vsin/g
2.5 Forces and Dynamics
Gravitational force: W = mg. (W = weight).
Free body diagrams show the forces acting on objects.
2.6 Newtons First Law of Motion
First law: A body will remain at rest of moving with constant velocity
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Examples: mass on a string (T = mg), parachutists (force up = force
down), car (force left = force right).
Translational equilibrium: all forces are balanced.
2.7 Force and Acceleration
Momentum, = mv.
Impulse: movement due to the effect of something.
Impulse is the change in momentum.
Newtons second law of motion: the rate of change of momentum of a
body is directly proportional to the unbalanced force acting on that body,
and takes place in the same direction.
So, F = ma.
2.8 Newtons Third Law
Newtons third law of motion: if body A exerts a force on body B then
body B will exert an equal and opposite force.

Example: a box on the floor, water hitting a wall.

Law of conservation of momentum: in a system of isolated bodies, the
total momentum is always the same.
Area under a force-time graph = impulse.
2.9 Work, Energy, Power
Work done = force x distance moved in direction of force.
In general: Work = Fcos x s

( is the angle between s and F).

Work done by a varying force: use average force, or find the area under a
force-distance graph.
F/s = K (spring constant).
Gravitational potential energy (PE): the energy a body has due to its
position above the Earth. PE = mgh.
Law of conservation of energy: energy can be neither created or
destroyed - only changed from one form to the other.
Elastic collision: when both momentum and KE are conversed.
Inelastic collision - momentum/KE not conserved. For example when two
bodies stick together (energy is taken to squash them together so KE is
lost).
Sharing of energy: when a body explodes, the smaller part gets the most
energy.
Power: work done per unit time (J/s or W).
Efficiency: (power in/power out) x 100

(for a percentage).

2.10 Uniform Circular Motion

Time period (T) - time for one cycle.
Angular displacement () - the angle swept by a line.
Angular velocity () - 2/T
Frequency (f) - 1/T.
All bodies moving in a circle accelerate towards the centre.
Centripetal force, F = mv2/r = m2r
on a bend, wall of death).

(e.g. ball on a string, car

Ch3: Thermal Physics

3.1
The mole: 6.022 x 1023 atoms/molecules of an element.
Internal energy: the material of the object takes energy, molecules vibrate
more. The total internal energy of a substance is the total PE and random
KE of the molecules.
Heat flows from hot to cold between two touching bodies until a thermal
equilibrium is reached.
C to K: add 273.
3.2 Thermal Properties of Matter
Thermal capacity (c): the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
of a substance by 1C. Unit: JC-1. Given by: C = Q/T
Specific heat capacity (C): the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1C. Unit: JC-1.
When matters change state, the energy used enables the molecules to
move more freely (KE is the same), so temperature does not change.
Boiling takes place throughout the liquid, at the same temperature.
Evaporation takes place at the surface only, at all temperatures. Faster
molecules escape, average KE decreases, temperature decreases.
Specific latent heat (L): the amount of heat needed to change the state of
1kg of the material without a change in temperature. Unit: JKg-1. L = Q/m.
Solid to liquid: latent heat of fusion.
Liquid to gas: latent heat of vaporisation.
3.3 Kinetic Model of an Ideal Gas
- Molecules are perfectly elastic
-Molecules are perfect, tiny spheres
-Molecules are identical
-There are no forces between the molecules, except when they collide, so
they move with constant velocity
-The molecules are very small; their total value is much smaller than the
volume of the gas

The temperature is a measure of the average KE of the molecules of an

ideal gas.
Increase in temperature and decrease in volume always increases
pressure. Pressure = force/area.
Doing work on a gas = increase in KE = increase in temperature and
pressure.
3.4 Thermodynamics
Absolute zero: the temperature of the gas when the pressure is zero. The
point at which the molecules stop moving. -273C, 0K.
A fixed point used to define the temperature scale is something
observable. The one used to define the absolute temperature scale is the
triple point water - the temperature at which it exists as a solid, liquid
and gas at equilibrium (0.01C).
Equation of state for an ideal gas: PV = nRT.

(R = 8.31).

Isobaric: constant pressure.

Isochoric: constant volume.
Isothermal: constant temperature.
Adiabatic: no heat exchanged (Q = 0).
A real gas: forces between molecules as the pressure/volume decreases.
This makes them change to a liquid, unless the temperature is very high.
3.5 Thermodynamic Processes
A thermodynamic system is a collection of bodies that can do work on
each other and transfer heat. In IB we only use the gas piston example.
Work done = P x V.
Gas does work = pushes piston out = positive.
Work done on gas = piston drops down = negative.
Area under a pressure-volume graph = the work done.
First law of thermodynamics: if a gas expands and gets hot, heat must
have been added. This is a statement of the principle of energy
conservation.

Q = U + W.
added).

(U is internal energy, Q is amount of heat

Isobaric: temperature, internal energy and work done decrease. Q is

negative.
Isochoric: volume stays the same, temperature and internal energy
increase. Q is positive.
Adiabatic contraction: volume is reduced, work done is negative,
temperature/internal energy increase.

A-B: isochoric temperature

rise (gas gets hot, heat
added).
B-C: isobaric expansion
(heat added = increase in
internal energy and
volume).
C-D: isochoric temperature
drop (gas gets cold and
loses work to
surroundings).
D-A: isobaric compression (heat lost = work done on the gas, volume
decrease).
Net work done = difference between work done on gas and work done by
gas. Equal to enclosed area on the diagram.
A-B: isothermal (work done by gas =
heat gained).
B-C: adiabatic (gas does work and
cools down).
C-D: isothermal (work done so it cools
down).
D-A: adiabatic (work done on gas, gas
gets hotter).

3.6 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Second law: it is not possible to convert heat completely into work.
This implies that thermal energy cannot spontaneously transfer from a
region of low temperature to a region of high temperature. Heat flows
from hot to cold. Particles fly in random directions. Molecules start
ordered, but start to collide and become disordered.
Rewritten: in any thermodynamic process, the total entropy always
increases (e.g. a fridge: food gets colder, more ordered. Room is given
heat, less ordered).
Entropy of a system = the amount of disorder in the system/the spreading
out of energy.
(JK-1)

Change in entropy, S = Q/T

Ch4: Simple Harmonic Motion and Waves

Cycle: 1 complete oscillation (2 for a circle).
Equilibrium position: the place it would rest if undisturbed/displacement =
0.
Amplitude (x0): maximum displacement.
Time period (T): time taken for 1 cycle.
Frequency (f): number of complete cycles in one second.
Angular frequency (): = 2f. (2rads s-1 is one revolution per second).
SHM: acceleration is proportional to the distance from a fixed point.
Acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point. a = -2x.
Displacement-time graph: x = x0 cos t
Velocity-time graph: v = -v0 sin t
Acceleration-time graph: a = -a0 cos t
Speed = circumference/time period = 2r/T, but 2r/T = , so speed = .
Centripetal acceleration= v2/r
Acceleration = -2x

= 2r2/r

= 2r

Maximum velocity = x0
V=

x x

4.2 Energy Changes During SHM

KE is max when displacement is zero (it is stationary at x0). KEmax =
0.5m2x02 or 0.5m2(x02 - x). PE = 0.
PE is max when the bob is at the highest displacement. PE =
0.5mv02cos2t = 0.5m2x2.
If KE and PE graphs are added together, it gives a constant value known
as the total energy. ET = m2x02.
4.3 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
In oscillating systems there is always friction and sometimes air
resistance. The system has to do work against these, resulting in a loss of
energy. This is called damping (for example, dampers in a cars
suspension to absorb the shock of a bump).
Light damping: small opposing forces, gradual energy loss, amplitude
decreases over time.
Critical damping: resistive force is so large it returns to its equilibrium
position.
Natural frequency: the frequency the oscillation is naturally at.
Forced oscillation: when the system is forced to oscillate at a different
frequency.
Resonance: an increase in amplitude that causes the system to oscillate at
its natural frequency.
Out of phase: two identical waves moving at different times.
Phase difference: the amount they are out of phase by. If completely, it is
.
4.4 Wave Characteristics
Wave pulse: when a disturbance can be seen travelling from one end to
the other.

Continuous progressive waves move with SHM in the shape of a sine

curve.
Transverse waves: disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of the
waves.
Longitudinal waves: disturbance is parallel.
v = f
= f).

(velocity = distance/time, therefore v = /1/f

All electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed in free space.
4.5 Wave Properties
Wavefront: line joining points that are in a phase.
Rays: shows the direction of the waves. Always at a right angle to waves.
Circular wavefront: caused by a point disturbance.
Plane wavefront: extended disturbance.
Reflection: wave hits barrier and bounces back. The normal is drawn at 90
degrees. The angle of incidence = angle of reflection. The incident and
reflected rays are in the same plane as the normal. In a change of
medium, some waves pass through (transmitted) and others are reflected.
Refraction: there is a change in velocity when there is a change in
medium. Wave hits boundary at an angle and there is a direction change.
Snells Law: sin i / sin r = v1/v2
refraction)

(angles of incidence and

The ratio is called the refractive index. Larger = larger angle.

Diffraction: takes place when a wave passes through a small
opening/aperture. If the path difference = d, then the phase angle,
d/

Coherent waves = identical waves.

A polarized wave travels in one direction.
4.6 Standing (Stationary) Waves
Peaks move up and down but do not progress = a standing wave. Occurs
when identical waves travelling in opposite directions superpose.

Node: place on the wave that doesnt move at all.

Anti-node: max amplitude.
<---- IN AIR
First, f1 = v/2L, = 2L.
Second, f2 = v/L, = L
Third, f3 = 2/3L
Frequency spectrum: highest
at 100Hz, 200, 300, 400
(decreases).

<---- IN A CLOSED PIPE

F1, = 4L.
F2, = 4/3L
F3, = 4/5L
Frequency spectrum: only add
numbers formed.

<--- IN AN OPEN PIPE

F1, = 2L
F2, = L

F3, = 2/3L

4.7 The Doppler Effect

Wavelength ahead becomes squashed as source catches up with it.
Observed frequency, f1 = e/1

= cf0/c - v

Waves behind source, f2 = cf0/ c + v

Moving observer: velocity of sound is faster when closer.
Approaching f1 = (c + v)f0 /c
Receding f2 = (c - v)f0 /c
Doppler effect applies to electromagnetic radiation too. If relative
velocities are smaller than the speed of light then f = v/c x f0 (v =
relative speed of source and observer, f0 = original frequency).
Red shift: light moving away has a longer wavelength, which is red.
Doppler effect is used in speed cameras. It reflects electromagnetic
radiation off the car, and the frequency of the reflected beam is used to
calculate the cars speed.
4.8 Diffraction at a Single Slit
Huygens Construction:

Narrow slit: one wavelet goes through, circular.

Wide slit: all wavelets go through, sum of all
wavelets.

Waves passing through a small slit will propagate.

Central maximum: directly

ahead of the slit. If point is a
long way away then the
wavelengths are parallel and
in phase, so it is brighter
(high intensity).
First minimum: wave travel at
an angle, so they dont all
travel the same distance
(cancel each other out, low intensity).

2
b
2

Angles are small; in radians sin = , so =

Deriving first minimum angle: sin =

4.9 Resolution
The Rayleigh Criterion: 2 points will be resolved if the central maximum of
the diffraction pattern formed of one point, coincides with the first
maximum of the other (when they overlap they look like one).
If the distance between the central maxima is less than half the width of
the maxima, the points will not be resolved. The width is defined by the

1.22
position of the first minimum,
=
, or for an aperture:
.
b
b
Increasing resolution - use different radiation wavelength.
CDs: pits are 5x107m wide. 780nm laser. Any smaller and the difference
between pits and gaps arent recognised. To solve, use laser of 640nm.
Electron microscope: closest points that can be resolved are 200nm apart.
Decreasing wavelengths doesnt work, not visible enough. Use electrons
(0.02nm) instead - can see up to 0.1nm.
Radiotelescopes: detects radiation from space. 20cm wavelengths
(radiowaves), so telescopes must be huge (e.g. Lovell telescope has 76m
diameter).
4.10 Polarization

When a transverse wave is polarized, the disturbance is in only one plane

(i.e. through a slit), is polarized. Through a slit is vertical, so they cannot
pass through horizontal slits.
To polarise light, pass it through a Polaroid (type of plastic).
Brewsters Law: when the angle between the reflected ray and refracted
ray is 90 degrees, polarization is 100%.
Brewsters Angle,

= tan-1n, when n = refractive index (sin i / sin r).

When light passes through a polarizer, intensity decreases by 50%. If it

then passes through a second polarizer (an analyser), the intensity
reduction depends on the angle between the polarization planes of the
two polarizers. If parallel, all is transmitted. Perpendicular, none is
transmitted. Between 0 and 90 degrees, some is transmitted.
Passing through an analyser, only the component of amplitude in the
direction of the polarization plane passes through: A0 cos .
Intensity (I) is proportional to A2, so if original intensity is (I0) then: I = I0
cos2 (Maluss Law).
4.11 Uses of Polarization
Optically active substances can rotate the plane of polarization (e.g. if
put between 2 planes, it will allow light to pass through).
Angle of rotation is related to concentration of the sugar solution. To find
concentration, rotate analyser until you find max brightness. Analyser
angle gives angle of rotation allowing concentration to be calculated.
Angle of rotation is affected by stress (amount of force) a material is
subjected to. Coloured patterns are revealed when viewed in a polarized
light, allowing for stress analysis.
LCDs: each pixel is made of liquid crystal. They rotate the plane of
polarization through 90 degrees when a battery is not connected to them.
If the liquid crystal is placed between two crossed polarizers then it goes
dark when a battery is connected.
A picture is made by applying a potential difference (connecting a battery)
to selected pixels.
Ch5: Electrical Currents
The flow = the current. The charge flows. Unit of charge is coulomb (C).
Charge flows from + (higher PE) to - because electrons are negative.

Current is flow of charge (A) = charge/time.

Potential difference: the amount of work done per unit charge (V) in taking
a small +ve charge from A to B. V = W/q.
Resistance (R) doesnt let as much current flow. R is proportional to L/A.
Resistivity () is the constant of proportionality, so: R = L/A.
Ohms Law: V = IR.
Ohmic conductor: graph of VI is a straight line. Non-ohmic conductors:
graph of VI is not straight.
On an ohmic VI graph, resistance is found by 1/gradient. V/I for non-ohmic
conductors.
5.2 Electric Circuits
Emf (electromotive force) is the amount of chemical energy converted to
electrical energy per unit charge (V).
P.d. across a resistance is the amount of electrical energy converted to
heat per unit charge (V).
Resistance of the cell = internal resistance. Converts the electric energy
to heat, less to be converted in the resistor, so p.d. of resistor is greater
than the emf of the cell.
Current from battery = I = / R + r
In a perfect battery, power = chemical energy converted to electrical
energy per unit time = I.
Power dissipated is the amount of electrical energy converted to heat per
unit time. P = VI.
Power can also be: P = I2R and P = V2/R.
In a series circuit, R = R1 + R2 + R3...
In a parallel circuit: R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3...
P.d. of cells in series: V1 + V2...
Ideal voltmeter: infinitely high resistance (doesnt take current).
Ideal ammeter: zero resistance (doesnt change current in the circuit).
Electrical sensors: a device whose electrical properties change with
changing physical conditions.

Thermistor: resistance decreases as temperature increases.

Light sensor (LDR): more light means lower resistance.
Strain gauge: thin metal wire. If stretched the cross-section is smaller,
giving a higher resistance.
Potential dividers vary p.d. (have two series resistors).
R2
R 1+ R 2

Vout = Vin x

For example, an automatic light switch: no light on the LDR = more

resistance = more Vout = activates electronic switch to turn lights on
(needs min. P.d.).
Strain gauges can be used to measure how much a building is stretched
by using Vout. For example, underneath a bridge.
Ch6: Fields and Forces
Newtons universal law of gravitation: everything in the universe is
attracted to everything else. (Every single point pass attracts every other
point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation.)
Universal gravitational constant, G = 6.67x10-11
F=

m1 m2
r

(Spheres follow the same

rule.)
Gravitational field strength, g, is the measure of how much force a body
will experience in a field (force per unit mass experienced by a small test
mass). g = F/m. For Earth it is 9.81.
g = G x M/r2 for a sphere.
For addition of fields, use Pythagoras between two points. For example:
(The red line).

6.2 Gravitational Potential

Gravitational potential: the work done per unit mass taking a small test
mass from a position of zero potential to point P.
Gravitational potential energy is the PE gained by an object as its height
above the ground increases (position in gravitational field). gh = PE/m.
Equipotential: travelling along a field perpendicular to the field (no work
done, no change in PE). V/h = g. Or potential gradient = field strength.
If the lines of equipotential are closer, the field is stronger.
Integrating distance from M vs Force graph gives:
W = -GMm/R, so potential (V) = W/m = -GM/r
Positive gradient and negative field strength gives: g = -v/x. Wells
prove this.
Adding potentials=( -GMA/rA) + (-GMB/rB)
Lines of equipotential for two objects:

6.3 Escape Speed

Escape speed: the speed needed for an object to reach a distance at
which it is no longer attracted back to the earth.
PE = -GMm/r
Loss of KE = gain in PE
1/2mv2 = -GMm/R2 - -GMm/RE
Substitute R2 for infinity: 1/2mv2 = -GMm/RE
Rearrange: Vescape =
6.4 Orbital Motion

2 GM
RE

(for Earth it is 11km/s-1)

Gravitation provides the centripetal force for circular orbital motion.

Equating the two equations for centripetal force:
m2r = GMm/r2
Substituting in = 2/RT:
T
2

r = GMm/r

Rearrange: T2/r3 = 42/GM

(M = mass of the sun).

So for planets orbiting the sun, T2/r3 is a constant, or T2 r3 (Keplers

third law). Closer planets to the sun have a shorter time period.
Orbiting bodies: PE = -Gmm/r, KE = 1/2mv2
Equating: GMm/r2 = mv2/r
Rearrange and multiply by 0.5: KE = GMm/2r
Total energy is PE + KE = -GMm/r + Gmm/r
Total energy = -GMm/2r
Earth
satellites:
closer ones
have a shorter
time period.
Lower orbits
have lower
energy (lower
PE), but
greater KE
because of
this. So:

Weightlessness: in deep space, gravitational fields cancel out due to

distance. In free-fall with a room, the only force on you is weight. In orbital
motion around earth, the pulling force on you and satellite towards Earth
is equal.

6.5 Electric Force and Field

Electric force: the attraction/repulsion between objects.
Law of conservation of charge: charge can neither be created nor
destroyed.
Coulombs Law states that the force experienced by two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of their charge, and inversely
proportional to the square of their separation.
F = KQ1Q2/r2

(k = 9x109).

Electric field: a region of space where a charged object experiences a

force due to its charge.
Electric field strength is a measure of the force that a positive charge
would experience per unit charge per mass if placed in a field. Field
strength: E = F/q.
Field lines are in the direction a positive charge would move.
In a uniform field, E = F/q between two charged plates.
Close to a sphere of charge, E = K x Q/r2.
Addition of field strength: use Pythagoras.
6.6 Electric Potential
Electric potential at a point is the amount of work per unit charge needed
to take a small positive test charge from a plane of zero potential to a
pont.
Electric potential energy: moving a positive electron in a field increases
KE and therefore PE, giving it energy.
Electric potential energy, VB = Eh
Electronvolt: the energy gained by an electron accelerated through a
potential difference of 1V.
E = V/h gives field strength and potential gradient.
Potential due to a point charge: W = kQq/r and potential V = kQ/r.
Potential gradient is related to field strength by: dV/dx = -E.

Equipotential for a dipole:

6.7 Magnetic Force and Field

Moving charges give rise to magnetic fields.
A magnetic field is a region of space where a small test magnet
experiences a turning force.
Magnetic field lines show the direction a north pole would face.

Magnetic flux density (B): how strong a field is. Measured in Tesla (T).
Fields caused by currents: use grip rule. Fingers curl in direction of field
(ring hand), thumb shows current direction. Works only for coils/solenoids.
Force on a current-carrying conductor: force depends on field strength
(flux density), uwire length, current.
F = BIL.
Left hand rule: FFC. Right hand rule: MFC.

Charges in magnetic fields: the sum of all forces on electrons = the total
force on a wire. Direction on a force charge is perpendicular to the
direction of motion, creates circular paths.
The force on charge q moving with velocity v perpendicular to field B is
given by: F = Bqv.
6.8 Electromagnetic Induction
A conductor in a magnetic field will have different charges at the end due
to the electrons moving in the direction of the force, and causing the
lattice atoms to become positive. Creates a p.d. between two ends; B
pushes electrons left, E pushes them right.
Current flows from high to low potential.
Connect a battery and a current will flow.
Induced emf: the amount of mechanical energy converted to electrical
energy per unit charge.
Max p.d. is when the magnetic force pushing electrons left equals the
electric force pushing them right.
FB = FE
Velocity is v, field strength is B: FB = Bev
Electric force is due to E, and E = -dV/dx. The field is uniform so potential
gradient = V/L, so:
FE = EE = Ve/L
Ve/L = Bev
Induced emf = Blv
In a non-perpendicular field, emf = Bsin x Lv
Faradays Law: the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux. E =
d/dt.
Magnetic flux: a measure of the strength of a magnetic field over a given
density.
Flux density

number of field lines. Tesla metre2.

Flux cut per unit time = emf = BLv.

Magnetic flux linkage: the total flux passing through a circuit formed by a
closed conductive loop.

Lenzs Law: the direction of the induced current is such that it will oppose
the charge producing it. E = -dN/dt.
6.9 Alternating Current
A coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field: emf is reduced when the coil
cuts the field, and the current in the coil stays the same but changes in
the resistor circuit after each half revolution (due to slip ring moving).
Induced emf = flux,
With N turns: N
Substitute: N

= BAcos

= BANcos
= BANcost

To find peak value, E0 = BAN

Increasing angular speed: shorter between peaks, higher peaks. (Faster =
faster change of flux = greater emf).
Alternating current (AC) rotating coil. Direct current (DC) - a battery.
For AC calculations we use root mean square (rms) as it is a sort-of
average.
Rms the square root of the mean of the squares.
Emf from AC varies sinusoidally (sine curve), so the rms emf and current
will be the same as the root of the mean of the squares in a sine function.
IRMS = I0/

(I0 = peak current).

Power in AC circuits: Irms x Vrms

Transformer: primary coil is connected to an AC to make a changing
magnetic field in the coil. Makes the iron core temporarily magnetic
causes changing magnetic field and emf in secondary coil.
NP/NS = VP/Vs
Power in = power out (for an ideal transformer as they have 100%
efficiency), so:
VpIp = VsIs

(they are rms values).

6.10 Transmission of Electrical Power

Electricity is transferred via electrical cable. Some is lost due to
resistance: R = L/A.

To reduce power loss, we reduce the current by stepping up the voltage

before transmission, or we add more cables in parallel to decrease
resistance.
Power lines carry large AC currents which radiate magnetic fields. These
can induce small currents in human bodies, however it is less harmful
than the Earths magnetic field (unless sat on the power lines).
Ch7 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Thomson model: the plum pudding model. Positive pudding with negative
plums (electrons).
Rutherford model: like a mini solar system. The flaw was that the electrons
would radiate electromagnetic waves, lose energy and spiral into the
nucleus.
Atomic spectra: give atoms energy and they produce light as the electrons
travel up the shells. Split up the light to find the different wavelengths.
Electrons only have certain amounts of energy in the first place
(quantized). This is shown by the atomic spectrum as it only releases
certain amounts of energy (the thin lines). This means that only certain
energies are possible for different elements (proves energy levels)
discrete.
This means light must be quantized, as it is not a continuous wave.
7.2 Quantum Nature of Light
Photoelectric effect: electrons are only emitted if the light source is very
bright. If it is dim, we expect no electrons to be emitted. If some are, there
is a time delay as they collect energy. Lower frequency light will work if
still bright enough.
Zinc plate experiment: a zinc plate on an electroscope with UV light
shining on it. Lost electrons means less charge, so electroscope leaf
should fall during the photoelectric effect. But: when dim, there was no
time delay, but fell slower. Lower frequency (despite intensity) did not
emit any electrons.
These are explainable if light is quantized.
Quantum light model: made up of packets of energy called photons. E =
hf for photon.
UV has a high frequency, so it gives enough energy to the zinc plate to
emit electrons. Lower intensity means less photons, means less rapid

electron loss (but no delay). Low frequency means low energy photons,
means it cannot free electrons.
Millikan created an experiment to find the KE of electrons. He created and
electric field and increases the energy until no electrons could pass
through. He used this stopping potential to find the fastest KE:

KE loss = PE gain
1/2mv2 = VSe
KEMAX = VSe
Higher intensity = higher current, same potential. (More plates but the
same energy amount VS).
Threshold frequency: the frequency at which photoelectrons are liberated.
Max photoelectron KE = energy of photon energy needed for release
KEMAX = hf

( = work function.)

OR KEMAX = hf hf0
For photon frequency, change in energy E = hf (for energy levels).
Absorption spectrum: has white lines in the rainbow where electron has
absorbed the frequency needed for them to escape. Proves electron
energy levels.
7.3 Wave Nature of Light
Electron gun: filament is made hot by AC current. Electrons are liberated.
They accelerate towards anode by accelerating p.d. Pass through with
constant velocity:
V=

2 Ve
m

Phosphorescence: light emitted by electron when going down energy

level(s).
De Broglie Hypothesis: all matter has a wave-like nature. = h/
For example, electrons passed through a thin film of graphite create a
diffraction pattern (wave-like property).
Probability waves: diffraction maps out all the possible results.

Davidson-Germer experiment: a beam of electrons reflected off a nickel

crystal. Angle of max intensity can be explained in terms of constructive
interference between De Broglie waves reflected off layers of atoms
(supports De Broglie hypothesis).
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: we cannot know momentum and
positive accurately. We can either: pass through a small slit (know definite
location, but it will be diffracted momentum?) or pass through a large slit
(definite momentum, will not deflect, so no definite location).

For momentum and displacement: x > h/4

For energy and time: E t > h/4
7.4 Quantum Atom Models
Electron in a box: an electron isnt free to move outside the atom. To
model this, think of a string clamped at both ends. It can only have certain
frequencies (the harmonics), like an electron can only have certain
energies. To create a quantum model, think of it as a probability wave
trapped in a box.
Schrodingers Model: he realised the electrons position probability was not
as simple as the sine wave used previously. The wave function is called
Schrdingers equation () and the probability of finding the electron is 2.
His model predicted the most likely electron position. It showed that some
energy transitions are more likely, and why some spectral lines are
brighter.
For Hydrogen:

7.5 Nuclear Structure

Nuclide: proton/neutron combination that forms a nucleus.
Nucleon: a particle in the nucleus
Isotope: same proton number, different neutron number.
Ions: different number of electrons.
Nucleon number (A): protons + nucleons.
Proton Number (Z) protons.
Mass of the nucleus: found using mass spectrometer. Projected at right
angles to a uniform field; path radius mass. m = BQr/v.
The ion experiences two forces (magnetic force and electric force) so v =
E/B.
Counting the number of dots on the photographic plate is the number of
ions.
Charged particle scattering experiment: like Geiger-Marsden experiment.
Deflected alpha particles hit a nucleus. The KE can be calculated, and
distance too. To find the nucleus size, they fired faster alphas until they no
longer returned. The faster ones got the closest.
Nuclear force: very short, short range force holding nucleus together
(same for all nucleons).
Binding energy: the amount of work required to pull apart a nucleus. E =
mc2. The energy is converted to mass (not KE, as the nucleus is not
moving).
The binding energy curve of a nucleus is found by the difference between
the mass of the nucleus and mass of the parts (the mass defect).

Large nuclei are less stable as they have more protons pushing the
nucleus apart. All systems will try to reach the lowest possible energy. BE
is released when a nucleus is formed, so changing to higher BE means
energy is released (so higher BE = good/more stable).
Nuclear mass is measured in (u). 1u = 931.5MeV.
BE = mass defect.
BE per nucleon = mass defect/nucleon number.
7.6 Radioactive Decay
Alpha particles (42H): very ionizing, short (5cm) range, ~5MeV energies.
Alpha decay emits 2 protons and 2 neutrons. DISCRETE.
Beta Minus Decay: not very ionizing, about 30cm range. Emits 1 neutron
and gains a protons. Emits a beta-minus particle (e) and antineutrino (v).
CONTINUOUS.
Beta Plus Decay: a beta plus is a positive electron (positron). A proton
changes to a neutron, a neutrino is produced. Loses a proton, gains a
neutron, emits a beta plus particle and a neutrino. CONTINUOUS.
Gamma Radiation: electromagnetic radiation, no change in particles.
DISCRETE.
Decay chain: when something decays into another radioactive nucleus,
and then decays again.
The neutrino was made to explain beta decay, as beta cannot have a
range of energies.

Health: radiation sickness can affect the nervous system and can cause
hair loss, sickness, bleeding, diarrhoea and death. Long term exposure can
cause cancer and genetic mutation.
7.7 Half Life
Radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process and the rate of
decay decreases exponentially with time.
Half-life: how long it takes for half of the nucleus to decay.
Rate of decay

dN/dt = -N

number of undecayed nuclei, so:

( is the decay constant).

Integrate between time 0 (N = N0) and time t (N = NR):

Nt = N0 et

(The exponential decay equation.)

The radioactive decay law is an exponential function. The decay constant

tells us how quickly a material will decay. A large decay constant = a
shorter half-life.
and half-life: t1/2 is half-life, N0 is original number, so:
t1/2 = N0/2, substitute in N0/2 = N0 et
Cancel: =

et

Take ln: ln(1/2) = -t1/2

Same as: ln(2) = t1/2
At = A0 et
Measuring half-life: measure activity over a period of time, or change the
number of nuclei.
Potassium-Argon dating: rock is heated and releases Argon. The half-life is
1.26x109 years.
Carbon dating: use C14/C12 to get: % now = % originally x
= 10-10%.

et . Original %

7.8 Nuclear Reactions

Transmutation: changing a nucleus by adding nucleons.
Artificial/induced transmutation: for example, nitrogen to carbon.

N + 10n
proton.)
14

14

C+

1
1

(Nitrogen absorbs a neutron and emits a

Nuclear fusion: nuclear fusion is the main source of the suns energy. It is
the joining of two small nuclei to form one big one. Greater mass =
greater BE (shown by graph).
Nuclear fission: nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei. The total BE
increases again.

DEFINITIONS
Newtons first law: A body will remain at rest of moving with constant
velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Newtons second law of motion: the rate of change of momentum of a
body is directly proportional to the unbalanced force acting on that body,
and takes place in the same direction. F = ma.
Newtons third law of motion: if body A exerts a force on body B then
body B will exert an equal and opposite force.

Gravitational potential energy (PE): the energy a body has due to its
position above the Earth. PE = mgh.
Law of conservation of energy: energy can be neither created or
destroyed - only changed from one form to the other.
Elastic collision: when both momentum and KE are conversed.
Power: work done per unit time (J/s or W).
Thermal capacity (c): the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
of a substance by 1C. Unit: JC-1. Given by: C = Q/T
Specific heat capacity (C): the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1C. Unit: JC-1.
Specific latent heat (L): the amount of heat needed to change the state of
1kg of the material without a change in temperature. Unit: JKg-1. L = Q/m.
Absolute zero: the temperature of the gas when the pressure is zero. The
point at which the molecules stop moving. -273C, 0K.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: work cannot be completely transferred
into heat/in any thermodynamic process, the total entropy always
increases (e.g. a fridge: food gets colder, more ordered. Room is given
heat, less ordered).
Entropy of a system = the amount of disorder in the system/the spreading
out of energy.
Potential difference: the amount of work done per unit charge (V) in taking
a small +ve charge from A to B. V = W/q.
Emf (electromotive force) is the amount of chemical energy converted to
electrical energy per unit charge (V).
P.d. across a resistance is the amount of electrical energy converted to
heat per unit charge (V).
Power dissipated is the amount of electrical energy converted to heat per
unit time. P = VI.
Newtons universal law of gravitation: everything in the universe is
attracted to everything else. (Every single point pass attracts every other
point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation.)
Gravitational potential: the work done per unit mass taking a small test
mass from a position of zero potential to point P.

Gravitational potential energy is the PE gained by an object as its height

above the ground increases (position in gravitational field). gh = PE/m.
Escape speed: the speed needed for an object to reach a distance at
which it is no longer attracted back to the earth.
Electric field: a region of space where a charged object experiences a
force due to its charge.
Electric field strength is a measure of the force that a positive charge
would experience per unit charge per mass if placed in a field. Field
strength: E = F/q.
Electronvolt: the energy gained by an electron accelerated through a
potential difference of 1V.
A magnetic field is a region of space where a small test magnet
experiences a turning force.
Induced emf: the amount of mechanical energy converted to electrical
energy per unit charge.
Threshold frequency: the frequency at which photoelectrons are liberated.
Nuclear force: very short, short range force holding nucleus together
(same for all nucleons).
Binding energy: the amount of work required to pull apart a nucleus. E =
mc2. The energy is converted to mass (not KE, as the nucleus is not
moving).
Transmutation: changing a nucleus by adding nucleons.