SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 14: HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE POWDERS

EXERCISE 14.1
Determine, by calculation, the likely fate of a 20 m particle of density 2000 kg/m3
suspended in the air inhaled by a human at a rate giving rise to the following
velocities in parts of the respiratory system:

Part

Mouth
Pharynx
Trachea
2 main bronchi

Number

Diameter
(mm)

Length
(mm)

1
1
1
2

20
30
18
13

70
30
120
37

Typical air
Typical
velocity (m/s) residence time
(s)
3.2
1.4
4.4
3.7

0.022
0.021
0.027
0.01

EXERCISE 14.1 SOLUTION:

We will assess the likelihood of the 20 m particles depositing due to inertial
impaction, diffusion and sedimentation.
Inertial Impaction:
Firstly we calculate the dimensionless ratio known as the Stokes Number.
Stk =

x 2 pUp

(Text Equation.14.4)

18D

The greater the value of this ratio is above unity, the greater will be the tendency for
particles to impact with the airway walls and so deposit. The farther the value is
below unity, the greater will be the tendency for the particles to follow the gas.
We will assume that the relevant particle velocity Up is equal to the air velocity. For
20 m particles this will be a reasonable assumption.

(20 10 )
Thus, Stk =

6 2

2000 Up

18 18.4 10 6 D

= 2.415 10 3

Up
D

Applying this equation to the different areas of the respiratory tract:

Part
Mouth
Pharynx
Trachea
2 main bronchi

Stokes Number
0.386
0.113
0.59
0.69

The vales of Stokes number in the trachea and main bronchi are near enough to unity
to expect deposition of a substantial proportion of the 20 m particles by inertial
impaction.
SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 14: HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE POWDERS

p.1

Brownian Motion:
To assess the importance of diffusion for a 20 m particle, we calculate its likely
random displacement using Text-Equation 14.5:
Root mean square displacement in time t, L =

6t

(Text-Equation.14.5)

where is the diffusion coefficient given by:

=

kT
3x

for a particle of diameter x in a fluid of viscosity at a temperature T.

k is the Boltzmann constant, which has the value 1.3805 x 10-23 J/K.
Assuming the air temperature is 30C,
=

(1.3805 10 ) 303 = 1.21 10

3 (18.4 10 ) (20 10 )
23

12

And so, from Text-Equation 14.5, the displacement in 1 second,

L = 6(1.21 10 12 ) 1 = 2.7 10 6 m
The typical diffusion velocity of the 3 m particle is therefore 2.7 x 10-6 m/s
Sedimentation:
To determine the importance of sedimentation, we need to calculate the particles
terminal velocity. This is the maximum velocity that the particle would reach due to
sedimentation. For particles of the size of relevance here, falling in air, the drag force
will be given by Stokes Law (Text-Equation 2.13) and the terminal velocity will be
given by Text-Equation 2.13, reproduced below:

x2 ( p f )g

UT =
18

(Text-Equation 2.13)

Assuming the air temperature is 30C,

(20 10 ) (2000 1.2) 9.81 = 0.0237 m/s

=
18 (18.4 10 )
6 2

UT

We can estimate the residence time that would be required in each part of the
respiratory system for motion by sedimentation to result in deposition. This will be
the time required for the particle, moving at its terminal velocity plus diffusion
velocity, to travel a distance equivalent to the part diameter. (In this case, the
diffusion component is actually negligible compared to the sedimentation
component). In the table below the required residence times are compared with the
actual residence time.

SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 14: HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE POWDERS

p.2

Part

Required
Actual residence
residence time (s)
time (s)

Mouth
Pharynx
Trachea
2 main bronchi

0.84
1.27
0.76
0.55

0.022
0.021
0.027
0.01

We conclude that deposition of the 20 m particles by sedimentation is unlikely to be

significant in these parts of the respiratory system.
So, on balance, the likely fate of the 20 m particles is that they will be deposited by
inertial impaction in the trachea and main bronchi.
EXERCISE 14.2
Given the following information, in which region of the respiratory tract is a 3
3
m particle of density 1500 kg/m most likely to be deposited and by which
mechanism? Support your conclusion by calculation.
Part

Diameter
(mm)

Length
(mm)

Typical air
Typical
velocity (m/s) residence time
(s)

Trachea
Bronchioles
Terminal
bronchioles

18
2
0.7

120
20
5

4.4
0.6
0.2

0.027
0.032
0.023

Alveolar ducts

0.8

0.0023

0.44

Alveoli

0.15

0.15

0.00004

EXERCISE 14.2 SOLUTION

We will assess the likelihood of the 3 m particles depositing due to inertial

impaction, diffusion and sedimentation.
Inertial Impaction:
Firstly we calculate the dimensionless ratio known as the Stokes Number.
Stk =

x 2 pUp
18D

(Text Equation.14.4)

The greater the value of this ratio is above unity, the greater will be the tendency for
particles to impact with the airway walls and so deposit. The farther the value is
below unity, the greater will be the tendency for the particles to follow the gas.
We will assume that the relevant particle velocity Up is equal to the air velocity. For 3
m particles this will be a reasonable assumption.
SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 14: HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE POWDERS

p.3

(3 10 )
Thus, Stk =

6 2

1500 Up

18 18.4 10

= 4.08 10 5

Up
D

Applying this equation to the different areas of the respiratory tract:

Part

Stokes Number
9.9 x 10-3
1.2 x 10-2
1.16 x 10-2

Trachea
Bronchioles
Terminal
bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveoli

1.17 x 10-4
1.08 x 10-5

The values of Stokes number in all parts is substantially less than unity and so the 3
m particles are most unlikely to be deposited by inertial impaction.
Brownian Motion:
To assess the importance of diffusion for a 3 m particle, we calculate its likely
random displacement using Text-Equation 14.5:
Root mean square displacement in time t, L =

6t

(Text-Equation.14.5)

where is the diffusion coefficient given by:

=

kT
3x

for a particle of diameter x in a fluid of viscosity at a temperature T.

k is the Boltzmann constant, which has the value 1.3805 x 10-23 J/K.
Assuming the air temperature is 30C,
=

(1.3805 10 ) 303 = 8.04 10

3 (18.4 10 ) (3 10 )
23

12

And so, from Text-Equation 14.5, the displacement in 1 second,

L = 6(8.04 10 12 ) 1 = 6.94 10 6 m
The typical diffusion velocity of the 3 m particle is therefore 6.9 x 10-6 m/s
Sedimentation:
To determine the importance of sedimentation, we need to calculate the particles
terminal velocity. This is the maximum velocity that the particle would reach due to
sedimentation. For particles of the size of relevance here, falling in air, the drag force
will be given by Stokes Law (Text-Equation 2.13) and the terminal velocity will be
given by Text-Equation 2.13, reproduced below:

SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 14: HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE POWDERS

p.4

 x2 ( p f )g

UT =
18

(Text-Equation 2.13)

Assuming the air temperature is 30C,

(3 10 ) (1500 1.2) 9.81 = 4 10

=
18 (18.4 10 )
6 2

UT

m/s

We can estimate the residence time that would be required in each part of the
respiratory system for motion by a combination of sedimentation and diffusion to
result in deposition (assuming, in the worst case, that diffusion moves the particle in
the same direction as sedimentation). This will be the time required for the particle,
moving at its terminal velocity plus diffusion velocity, to travel a distance equivalent
to the part diameter. (In this case, the diffusion component is actually negligible
compared to the sedimentation component). In the table below the required residence
times are compared with the actual residence time.

Part
Trachea
Bronchioles
Terminal
bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveoli

Required
Actual residence
residence time (s)
time (s)
44.3
4.9
1.72

0.027
0.032
0.023

1.97
0.37

0.44
4.0

We conclude that deposition of the 3 m particles by sedimentation is likely to be

significant in the alveoli and may occur to some extent in the alveolar ducts.

EXERCISE 14.3
Compare the Stokes numbers for 2, 5, 10 and 40 m particles of density 1200 kg/m3
in air passing through the nose. What conclusions do you draw regarding the
likelihood of deposition of these particles in the nose?
Data:
Characteristic velocity in the nose: 9 m/s
Characteristic diameter on the airway in the nose: 6 mm
Viscosity of air: 1.81 10 5 Pas.
Density of air: 1.21 kg/m3
EXERCISE 14.3 SOLUTION:

The Stokes Number is:

SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 14: HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE POWDERS

p.5

Stk =

x 2 pUp

(Text Equation.14.4)

18D

We will assume that the relevant particle velocity Up is equal to the air velocity. The
is a reasonable assumption for particles up to 40 m .
Thus, Stk =

x 2 1200 9
18 18.1 10

6 10

= 5.52 10 9 x 2

Applying this equation to the different particle sizes:

Particle size, x
( m )
Stokes
Number, Stk

10

40

0.022

0.138

0.55

8.84

The greater the value of this ratio is above unity, the greater will be the tendency for
particles to impact with the airway walls and so deposit. The farther the value is
below unity, the greater will be the tendency for the particles to follow the gas.
So, the 40 m particles are highly likely to be deposited in the nose, the 10
m particles may be deposited and the 2 and 5 m particles are unlikely to be
deposited.

EXERCISE 14.4
Carrier particles are used in dry powder inhalers. What is a carrier particle? What is
the role of a carrier particle? Why are carrier particles needed in these inhalers?

See text.
EXERCISE 14.5
With reference to the control of dusts as a health hazard, explain what is meant by the
hierarchy of controls.

See text.
EXERCISE 14.6
The required dose of a particulate drug of particle size 3 m and particle density 1000
kg/m3 is 10 micrograms. Estimate the number of particles in this dose and the volume
occupied by the dose, assuming a voidage of 0.6.
[Answer: 0.25 mm3; 7x105]
EXERCISE 14.6 SOLUTION:
Assuming that 3 m represents the equivalent sphere diameter, then the mass of one

particle =

3
x p = 3 10 6 1000 = 1.414 10 14 kg
6
6

SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 14: HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE POWDERS

p.6

Number of particles in the does of 10 micrograms =

10 10 9
= 7.07 10 5
14
1.414 10

Mass of dose expressed in terms of volume, particle density and voidage:

M = p (1 )V

Volume of dose, V =

(Text-Equation 7.24)
9

M
10 10
3
3
=
= 2.5 10 11 m (or 0.025 mm )
p (1 ) 1000 (1 0.6 )

SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 14: HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE POWDERS

p.7