Central Ground Water Board

Ministry Of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation

Govt. of India

A Review of Studies on
Vedic River Saraswati

December 2014

A Review of Studies on
Vedic River Saraswati

Contents
1. Introduction

1-2

2. Review of Vedic Literature

3-4

3. Review of Modern Literature

5-31

A. 1800-1900 A.D.

B. 1901-2000 A.D.

C. 2001-2014 A.D.

21

4. Review of Studies Carried out by Various Organisations

32-68

4.1 Archaeological Studies

33

4.2 Study carried out by CGWB

39

4.3 Study carried out by ONGC

52

4.4 Study carried out by NRSC

56

1
INTRODUCTION

Rivers, since time immemorial have been the lifeline of human civilisation. There are
many testimonies that ancient civilistaions flourished along the rivers. India, a land of many
rivers (Fig. 1) is no exception. Of all the rivers, the Saraswati which has been incessantly praised
in the literature of the Vedic period is believed to be in existence and a great civilisation
developed on the banks of this Vedic River Saraswati. There is plethora of literature starting
from the Vedic period to the recent years that deal with various aspects of the Vedic River
Saraswati. This report embodies a review of literature regarding existence, evolution and
disappearance of Vedic river Saraswati.
The review in this report is divided into three sections. i. Review of literature of the Vedic
Period, ii) literature of the modern period, which includes review of literature spanning over
three centuries and iii) a review of findings of studies carried out by various organisations.
Considering the volume of literature available on the subject, this review cannot be claimed to be
complete, however, care has been taken to cover literature from all possible areas

Fig.1.1: Major Rivers and river basins in India

2
REVIEW OF VEDIC LITERATURE
Often enough it seemed as though, like the river Saraswati, the
lost stream of the old Sapta Sindhavas, the river of Indian
thought had disappeared beneath the surface or had become lost in
shallow marshes and morasses...But, sooner or later, we see the
stream reappear, and then old ideas resume their way
H.H.Gowen in History of Indian Literature (1931)

Vedas are considered the oldest texts available to the mankind. It is considered a phenomenon of
oral communication that ancient texts of 20000 verses were preserved through all these years of
history. The credit goes to the scholars who against all odds preserved the texts with the right
phonetic accents and accuracy to this day. Later many scholars
have scripted the traditional text of the Vedas (Ref. The Holy
Vedas by Pandit Satyakam Vidyalankar, clarion Books, 1983).
There are four Vedas Rigveda, Samveda, Atharva Veda and
the Yajurveda.
As summarised by Danino, 2010, in forty five of its hymns, the
Rigveda showers praise on the River Saraswati; her name
appears 72 times and three hymns are wholly dedicated to her.
In one of its very rare geographical descriptions, the Nadistuti
Sukta, a hymn (sukta) in praise of rivers, invokes turn by turn
nineteen major rivers of the Vedic world.
O Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri (Sutluj), Parushni
(Ravi), hear my praise! Hear my call, O Asikni (Chenab),
Marudvridha (Maruvardhvan), Vitasta (Jhelum) with
Arjikiya and Sushoma.

Fig. 2.1: Cover page of the book

Holy
Vedas
by
Pandit
Satyakam Vidyalankar, clarion
Books, 1983

First you flow united with Trishtama, with Susartu and Rasa and with Svetya, O
Sindhu (Indus) with Kiubha (Kabul) to Gomati (Gumal or Gomal), with Mehatnu
to Krumu (Kurram), with whom you proceed together.
(10.75.2-6: As translated by Danino, 2010)
It describes major rivers from east to west. Here and as per other descriptions of rivers including
Saraswati, it appears that the Rgiveda clearly states Sarasvati Flows between the Yamuna and
Sutlej. In addition to above there are other descriptions referring Sarasvati. Based on rigvedic
description, a reconstruction of the rivers is given in Fig.1.2.
Fig.2.2:
Reconstruction of
possible hydrography
of the Saraswati
Basin during the
Vedic periods
(adapted from
Danino, 2010)

Testimony of Disappearance of Saraswati in Ancient Literature

There are unmistakable testimonies of disappearance of Saraswati in the Ancient Text. As
discussed above, the Rig Veda talks incessantly about the Great Saraswati River with reference to
the river in other texts like the Mahabharata, Bramhanas. It is also evident in the folklore.
However, the later Vedas (Yajurveda, Samveda and Atharvaveda) do not add significantly to the
description of Saraswati except the Yajurveda, which describes Saraswati as having five
tributaries. Probably this indicates that the river flow was insignificant during this period.
Bramhanas, the next generation of the Vedic literature are also part of the Hindu Sruti Literature
that was preserved only though oral communications. The Panchavasma Bramhana tells us that the
river Saraswati disappeared into the desert. In the Bramhanas it is mentioned that the river
disappears at a place called Vinashana.

3
REVIEW OF MODERN LITERATURE
There are many scientific literature in the form of books, publications in Journals, Conference
volumes, Scientific reports etc dealing with the Vedic River Saraswati. In the last two centuries
lots of researches have been carried out on this intriguing river Saraswati, covering various
aspects like civilisation existed along its course; its palaeo course; the source and debouching
points or the most intriguing part i.e. the reason of disappearance of the river. A Survey of
Literature is present below.

A. 1800-1900 A.D.
1. HH Wilson (1840) who translated the Vishnu Purana mentioned that the Holy land of Manu
and the Puranas was between the Drihsadwati and Saraswati Rivers and that various adventure of
the first princes and most famous sages occurred in this vicinity

2. Max Muller (1859), in his History of Ancient Sanskrit

Literature suggested that the Vedic description of land of
seven Rivers referred to seven rivers the Indus, the five
rivers of the Punjab and the Saraswati. The five Rivers being
Sutlej, the Beas, the Ravi, Chenab and the Jhelum. In his
opinion the Saraswati in the east and the Indus in the west
thus bracket the Land of the Seven Rivers- the Vedic
heartland.
Fig.3.1: Scanned cover of the book
titled A history of ancient Sanskrit
Literature by Max Muller, 1859.
(Adapted
from
https://archive.org/stream/historyofancien
t00mluoft#page/n5/mode/2up-accessed
on 20th Dec 2014)

3. CF Oldham (1874):
An anonymous paper published in the Calcutta Review in
1874 is attributed to C F Oldham. RD Oldham in his paper
in 1887 as detailed below refers to this anonymous paper,

which he informs is by C F Oldham, a surgeon-major in the Indian Army. The idea that the
-

Hakra-Nara had been the Sutlejs original bed had been borrowed from this anonymous paper by
C F Oldham.
4. M Monier-Williams (1875), author of a SanskritEnglish dictionary, endorsed the description of Sapta
Sindhava given by Max Muller as described above.

5. Marius Fontane (1881), in a book in French

Language titled Inde Vedique (Vedic India) along
with description on views of indologists of the time
included a map of the Land of seven rivers, where
saraswati was clearly identified with the Ghaggar
(Fig. 3.3)

6. RD Oldham (1886)
Oldham as a deputy superintendent of the Geological
Survey of India surveyed the area from Bahawalpur
region to the Hissar district. In his paper in the
Fig. 3.2: Scanned first page of the
anonymous paper published in Calcutta
Review as described under point 3.
Journal of Asiatic Society of
Bengal, he rejected theories of the
days that attributed the loss of the
Saraswati to diminished rainfall,
pointing out that this would have
affected all rivers equally. Instead
he proposed that the Lost River
Fig.3.3: Sapta Sindhu, as depicted by Marius Fontane
(1881) in a book in French Language titled Inde Vedique of the Indian desert was none
(Vedic India). Noteworthy is that the Saraswati is shown to other than the Sutlej, and that it
flow between Yamuna and Sutlej and it is identified with
was lost when the river turned
Ghaggar.
westwards to join the Beas. Oldham also suggested that the Yamuna after leaving the hills

divided its waters and that the portion which flowed to the Punjab was known as the Saraswati
while that which joined the Ganges was called the Yamuna.
7. H G Raverty (1892)
Raverty in his paper made a few conclusions relevant to
the Saraswati i.e. i. Sursuti is the name of a river, the
ancient Saraswati ii. Sutlej was a tributary of Hakra and
flowed down to Rann of Kachchh through the Eastern
Nara. iii. The Hakras drying up, which according to
Raverty took place in the fourteenth century CE,
reduced a vest extent of once fruitful country to a
howling wilderness, and this several flourishing cities
and town became ruined or deserted by their inhabitants.

8. C F Oldham (1893)
Fig.3.4 Scanned first page of the paper
by RD Oldham as described in point 6

C F Oldham in his paper titled The Saraswati and the

Lost River of the Indian Desert mentioned that the one of the hymns of Rig Veda clearly places
the river Saraswati in between Yamuna and Sutlej. He had no doubt, that the lost Rig Vedic river
flowed in the bed of todays Ghaggar. The paper also included a map, which clearly shows that

B. 1901-2000 A.D.
9. A A Macdonell and A B Keith (1912) in their authoritative index of Vedic names mention that
the Saraswati comes between the Jamuna and the Sutlej.

10. F E Pargiter (1922) in his book titled Ancient Indian Historical

Tradition, which records a landmark study of Indians ancient
history derived from the dynasties listed in the Mahabharata and the
Puranas provides a reconstruction of the Saraswati River (Fig. 3.7)

11. H H Gowen (1931) in his book History of Indian Literature

also mentions Saraswati and that it was a river that has disappeared.

12. Louis Renou (1947) in his book

on

classic

India

mention

Fig. 3.5: Scanned cover

page of the book by
Macdonell and Keith

that

Saraswati as the true lifeline of Vedic geography and that it is

assumed to be found in the Sarsuti, located between the Sutlej and
Jamna. Renou provides several maps. One of them as reproduced
from Danino, 2012 is shown in Fig.3.8

Fig. 3.6: Scanned cover

page of the book by
Pargiter, 1922

Fig 3.7: Map of rivers by F E Pargiter, 1922

13. Thomas Burrow (1963): in a paper titled

On the significance of the term arma-,
armaka- in early Sanskrit Literature published
in the Journal of Indian History mentioned
that the Ghaggar is the ancient Saraswati.

14. Arthur L Basham (1966) in his book

Wonder That Was India points out that the
during the Rig Vedic period the focus of the
Aryan Culture was along the upper course of
Saraswati. Saraswati as described by Basham
is now an insignificant scream losing in the
desert of Rajasthan, but then (in Vedic times)
Fig.3.8: map of Saraswati by Louis Renou as

it flowed broad and strong.

given in his book on Classic India (1947).

(reproduced from Danino, 2012)

15. Jan Gonda (1975), an expert of Vedic

literature mentions that most of the hymns seem to have been composed in the country around the
River Saraswati. He also mentioned that to the east the Aryans had not expanded beyond the
Yamuna.

16. Ghose et al. (1979, 1980): Based on the study of aerial photography and LANDSAT
imagery, they have suggested that the Saraswati River flowed along NE-SW through the
Rajasthan desert and that the Luni was one of its tributaries. The authors invoke this hypothesis
to explain the present valley segment of the Luni between Pachpadra and the Rann of Kachchh.
The river later shifted westward, severed its connection with the Luni and flowed through
channels through the desert terrain in Jaisalmer district. Only later the river occupied the HakraNara-Wahind-Raini course. The authors observe that the Saraswati was forced to shift its course
westward at least four times by aeolian sand encroaching on its southerly course to flow to the
west. These courses are

The oldest course was Nohar-Surjansar- Samrau-Pachpadra

The Second course was Sirsa-Lunkarnansar-Bikaner-Samrau-Pachpadra

The third course was Nohar-Rangmahal-Suratgarh-Anupgarh-Skhi-Hakra-Nara

The fourth course was Jakhal-Sirsa-Hanumangarh-Pilibangan-Suratgarh-AnupgarhSakhi-Hakra-Nara

The fifth course was the shift at Anupgarh-Fort Abbas to join the Indus drainage basin
rather than drain independently into the Rann of Kachchh.

17. Yash Pal et al., (1980) provided detailed sketch of the palaeo channels of Sutlej, Yamuna,
Ghaggar, Drishadvati, Chautang and other river systems originating in the Himalayan foot hills
and flowing through Rajasthan to meet Rann of Kachchh. Authors opined that Sutlej formed part
of Sarasvati river system, in the past, as evidenced by the presence of a palaeo channel of Sutlej
near Ropar that further down joined Ghaggar at nearly right angle near Shatrana. They also
traced three palaeo channels Yl, Y2, Y3 of palaeo Yamuna (Drishadvati). The first two channels
joined Ghaggar at Shatrana and Suratgarh, and the third joined Chambal past Bharatpur. They
opined that Yamuna probably joined Sarasvati before joining Ganga through Chambal.

Fig.3.9: Detailed delineation of the present rivers and the palaeochannels of the Sutlej
and Yamuna joining the old bed of the Saraswati (After Yash Pal et. al., 1980)

10

18. Bryson R A and Swain AM (1981) Holocene variations of Monsoon rainfall in

Rajasthan. Quat. Research, 16, 135-145
The study reports that the climate was very wet in the period roughly 8500 4000 years
BP in Rajasthan. This is evident from the prolific growth of plants whose pollens lie
buried in the sediments of the Didwana and Lukaransar Lakes. The terrain was covered
by Savannah Trees.

Fig. 3.10: Variations of rainfall in Rajasthan during the Holocene Period (Bryson and
Swain, 1981)

19. Kar and Ghose (1984): They traced the former courses of Drishadvati, a major
tributary of the Saraswati. Starting from the Siwalik, its course was traced through the
Markanda up to Gadauli and in the vicinity of Jagdhauli and then it followed the course
of the Chautang up to Jind and Narnaund. Thus, it flowed through the Hansi-Hakra

11

branch of the Western Yamuna Canal up to Hisar. Numerous channels, possibly

representing shifting courses, connect it to Nohar, Bhadra and Hanumangarh. At
Hanumangarh, most of the old courses join the Saraswati. However, some of these
courses show the Drishadvati traversing the Thar Desert in north-south direction. Authors
were able to trace only segments of these courses on band 7 of LANDSAT MSS imagery
as all these courses are buried under recent deposits including Aeolian sand. According to
the authors occurrence of sub-surface water at shallow depth enabled deciphering of the
courses. The easternmost course of the Drishadwati is traced through the districts of
Churu, Sikar and Nagaur. It flowed through the present dry valley of the Jojri through
Khedulil and Mokala up to Plundla. From Plundla, the Jojri is traceable up to its
confluences with the Luni through Pipar and Risalpur but is completely an under fit
stream. Upstream of Plundla, the valley is fairly wide but at many places blocked by
heavy drifts of aeolian sand in the form of dunes and sheets. They have cited litho logs of
well sections at four selected sites along the courses of the Drishadvati at Sardarshahar
and Churu (Churu district) and at Marwar and Degana Railway Station (Nagaur district),
which show the presence of thick alluvium underlain by coarse riverine material. The
authors noted that a number of tributaries arising from the Aravalli joined the
Drishadvati during its course through the desert, northern most being the Kantli, which
joined it, either near Raigarh or near Dudwa Khard. As the Drishadvati moved westward,
it lost the supply of the Aravalli streams, which got choked up by the advancing aeolian
sands and got lost on the way. Kar and Ghose (1984) opined that the imbalance between
load and stream capacity were responsible for dwindling supply and the adverse climatic
changes in the past which were the main cause for desiccation of the Drishadvati River.
20. V S Wakankar (1987): Excerpts from Manthan (March 1987) published by
Deendayal Research Institute, New Delhi in Radhakrishna BP and Merh S S (eds) Vedic
Saraswati-Evolutionary History of a Lost River of North-western India.
It is a misconception that Vedic Aryans came from Central Asia and entered and
occupied Punjab and then spread over the whole peninsula. Based on recent findings
regarding various species of human beings, he believes that the upper Sarasvati region
forms the nucleus of human evolution. Other major conclusions of his analysis are as

12

follows.
1.

The Harappan and pre-Harappan civilizations developed along Sarasvati and

hence instead of calling it Indus-Harappan, it should be called as the Vedic
Sindhu-Saravati culture.

2.

Most of the Rishi Ashrams traditionally known to us through Mahabharata,

were lined along Sarasvati and the antiquity of these connected sites goes back
to Harappan and pre-Harappan periods.

3.

Shatachidra Kumbi (perforated pottery jar) is connected with the Vedic ritual
to worship Vedic deity Suniwali and Vedic god Rudra. They are found at all
sites along the Sarasvati.

4.

Fire altars or Yajnya Kundas found at Kalibangan, Harappa, Mohen-jo-Daro,

Lothal, Surkotada and other Harappan sites, indicate close association with
Vedic ritualism.

5.

Horse remains in the form of bones and terra cotta, have been found from
ancient mounds on the bank of Saravati.

6.

Vedic culture started with Mesolithic settlements with hunting-gathering

economy, which further developed into rural agricultural communities of
Vedic times.

7.

These rural settlements, because of fertile soil and irrigation channels,

developed into the urban centres of the Harappan period.

8.

There was a narrow sea right up to Bikaner, which disappeared in Vedic

times.

9.

The site of Harappa is connected with the battle of ten kings and the Vedic
clan of Chayamanas was ruling during Harappan times.

10.

The very first agricultural activity to grow barley, started in the Vedic
Sarasvati region; the Kalibangan (Bikaner) pre-Harappan cultivated fields
prove that.

11.

The pre-Harappan settlements in upper Yamuna River show that it had its
close relationship with Sarasvati region and witnessed the decline of Harappan
settlements as Sarasvati lost her mighty water supply.

21. Raghav and Grover (1991) have delineated three palaeo-courses of the Kantil River
in parts of Jhunjhunu and Sikar districts using LANDSAT TM imagery and aerial
photographs. The river Kantli rises from the Khandela hills (Sikar district). At present, it

13

flows over a distance of 100 km only in rainy session through the district of Sikar and
Jhunjhunu. It enters Churu district and lost in the Sandy terrain. It used to flow in SW-NE
direction and was once a tributary of the Yamuna (the Drishadvati) before the latter
joined the Ganga system. Ganeshwar, where large copper hoard of probably preHarappan period have been found is located along the Kantil River in Sikar district.
Several tectonic lineaments observed in the area seem to have controlled shifting of the
channels.

22. Ramasamy et al. (1991): The authors used LANDSAT MSS and TM data and
observed that the river Saraswati flowed close to the Aravalli hill ranges, met the Arabian
Sea in the Rann of Kachchh. It gradually drifted towards northwest and then finally lost
in Anupgarh plains. The authors suggested that the upheaval along the trace of Aravalli
hills to the foothills of Himalaya would have made the Saraswati drift along northwestwards from its earliest course along the Aravallis. Subsequent Luni Sukri
cymatogenic arching would have accelerated the north-westerly drift. If the Saraswati
was flowing into the Hakra Nara bed, the westward shift of the Indus might have also
led to the disorganization of the Saraswati system and its final burial in Anupgarh plains.
Other observations made by the authors include-

The meanders of Yamuna in Agra and Dehradun area coincide with the Luni-Sukri
graben, suggesting control by Pleistocene tectonism on river migration. Yamuna seems to
have migrated 40 100 Km towards east due to rise in Aravalli hills.

Shifting of courses by main rivers leads to the disorganization of the tributaries.

The rivers like the Sahibi, the Banganga and the Kantli, which were tributaries of
the Yamuna in north-eastern Rajasthan, now fail to reach Yamuna. Now these
rivers flow in a disorganized manner and often cause flood havoc.

The Indus has migrated towards northwest in the northern part and towards the
west in central and southern parts.

The authors also confirmed the findings of Yash Pal et al. (1980) and Sood &
Sahai (1983) that tectonism was primarily responsible for the drying up of the
mighty Saraswati.

14

23. Singvi A K and Kar A (Eds) 1992, Thar Desert in Rajasthan- Land Man and Environment,
Geol Soc. Of India Bangalore

As reported in this paper succession of sediments in the floodplains of the Saraswati River
revels, among other things, a history of tectonic movements that overtook the land and caused
drastic changes in the drainage and in the pattern of sedimentation. The study showed presence
of Himalayan- derived sediments in the Ghaggar channel upstream of Kalibangan. Clay deposits
in the upper part of the succession i.e. in the terminal phase of the Saraswati, represent the
ponding of the river.

Fig.3.11: Succession of sediments in the floodplains of the Saraswati River (Singvi and Kar,
1992)

24. S. Kalyanaraman (1997)-SARASVATI RIVER (circa 3000 to 1500 B.C.), Sarasvati Sindhu
Research Centre, Chennai (1997)

15

The Book provides salient aspects of the Vedic River Saraswati. One of the rare books which
describes the belief of Saraswati in Allahabad. As mentioned in the book Yamuna captured
Sarasvati at PaontaSaheb and carried her to Prayag, Allahabad to join the Ganga; hence the
myth of the sangamam of the three rivers, Sarasvati, Yamuna and Ganga.

25. Radhakrishna BP and Merh S S (1999): Vedic Saraswati-Evolutionsry History ofa Lost
River of Northwestern India. It is a compilation of papers presented in the seminar on Drainage
Evolution of Northwestern India with particular reference to the Lost River Saraswati.
The papers presented at the Sminar, together with information from published literature having a
bearing on the problem, have been assembled together in this volume and are arranged in three
major sections:
i.

Vedic Antecedents

ii.

Drainage Evolution

iii.

New Approches

Edotorial comments on each section highlight the

importance of each contribution. Papers are so selected as
to provide a good cross section of prevailing views.
26. Nair AR, NAvada SV and RAo SM (1999) Isotope
study to investigate the origin and age of ground water
along palaeochannels in Jaisalmer and Ganganagar
districts of Rajasthan. In Radhakrishna B P and Merh S S
(EDs) Vedic Saraswati: Evolutionary History of a Lost
River in Northwest India, Geological Society of India,
Bangalore.
The study shows that the stable isotope composition of

Fig. 3.12:Scanned cover page of the

Geological Society Memoir 42
edited by Radhakrishna and Mehr

the fossil water is different from that of the local meteoric

water. It suggests that the water encountered in the palaeochannel has its source at some distant
place. In addition to this, low concentration of tritium rules out any recent recharge.

16

Fig.3.13. Isotopic composition of water in the palaeochannels (Nair et al., 1999)

17

27. Malik JN, Merh S S and Sridhar V., 1999 palaeodelta complex of Vedic Saraswati and
other ancient rivers of North-western India. Memoir Geological Society of India

As per the above paper, the northern part of the Great Rann, comprises delta of not just one river
(Indus/Nurat) but also the site of three deltaic river mouths. The three deltas of the Great Rann
relate to those of Proto-Shatadru (Hakra), Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers. At present only a
part of the original delta complex has survived.

Fig. 3.14: Schematic map showing formation and deposition of the delta complex at around 4000
Ka with gradual withdrawal of high sea of the Mid Holocene (6 to 4 Ka) by the major rivers that
extended upto the Kachh Mainland (Malik et. al., 1999)

28. A V Sankaran (1999): (Saraswati-the ancient river lost in the desert, Current Science vol 77,
No. 8. Pp.1054-1060) The paper reviews the views of different authors from various disciplines.
It summarises the studies as follows

18

Saraswati emerged as a mighty riverduign the warm spell that succeeded the Pleiostoce
glaciations some 10,000 years ago. After glorious existence for some 4000 years, the river
declined and gradually vanished. Spells of intermittent tectonic activities associated with the rise
of Himalayas, neotectonicsm in the Cutch region, climate chage and desertification induced by
variations in earthe orbit and tilt, diminishing supply of waters diue to river piracy, all appear to
have had vital roles in the downfall of Saraswati River.

Fig 3.15. Geological and Climatologic evenets (Sankaran 1999)

19

29. V M K. Puri (2000): In a book titled Discovery of Source of Vedic Saraswti In the
Himalayas published by Akhil Bhartiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana has conluded that Drainage
analysi, basin identification, glaciological and terrace studie suggest taht Veic SAraswati
originated from a group of glaiers in Tons fifth order basin at Naitwar in Garhwal Himalaya (Fig.
3.16)

Fig. 3.16: Origin of vedic Saraswati River from Himalaya (after Puri, 2000)
In early stages, it occupied the present day drainage of Tons river upto Paonta Doon and took a
westerly swing after receiving nourishment from Aglar, Yamuna and Giri. wWeest of Paonta, it
followed a westerly and southwesterly course along Bata valley and entered plains at Adi Badri.
It continued to follow almost southwesterly course and traversed through Haryana, Rajasthan
and Gujarat for nearly 1000 Km and joined the Arabian Sea.

20

C. 2001-2014 A. D.
30. B B Lal, 2002, The Saraswati Flows on the continuity of Indian Culture-Aryan Books
International, New Delhi. The book provides a detailed account of archaeological evidences that
point towards existence of a great civilisation along the Vedic river Saraswati.

31. K S Valdiya (2002). Saraswati, The River that Disappeared, ISRO and Universities Press
(India) Limited Distributed by Orient Longman Private Limited.

The book provides a complete account of River Saraswati including different evidences that
indicate that the palaeochannels of the Vedic Saraswti exist in the North Western India. It also
includes detailed model depicting the probable causes of disappearance of River Saraswati. The
probable causes of disappearance of River Saraswati as described by Valdiya (2002) is described
with the figures 3.18 A, B and C. Descriptions are given in the figure captions.

Fig. 3.17 : As described by Valdiya (2002) the configuration of present river channels and river
channels in the Vedic Time are as depicted in this figure. The changes in river courses due to
various tectonic activities resulted in disappearance of the Vedic River Saraswati.( Valdiya
,2002)

21

Fig. 3.18A: A NNW-SSE-trending fault passing by Paonta Sahab tore apart the Siwaliks causing
the Eastern block to move north relative to the Western Block. This tectonic disturbance possible
forced the Tons headwaters of Saraswati to deviated southwards from its earlier westerly course
in the Siwaliks. .( Valdiya ,2002)

22

Fig. 3.18 B: Northern Branch of Chambal River started extending upstream following
accentuated headward erosion eventually leading to capture of the flow of the SW flowing
branch of Saraswati. This is the present day Yamuna, which joins Ganga .( Valdiya ,2002)

23

Fig. 3.18 C. As the Aravalis kept on rising and as the land to the west sank, the Satluj changed
its course abruptly, making a sharp U-turn at Ropar. This further decreased the flow in the
Saraswati .( Valdiya ,2002)

32. Gupta et al., (2004) studied satellite imagery of North Western region and arrived on a very
interesting conclusion that river Sarasvati flowed eastward more or less parallel to the river Indus
and shifted its course within a much narrower zone of less than 40 km. The major (western most)
channel of river Sarasvati remained more or less constant and unchanged and is considered to be
the actual Rig Vedic Sarasvatiriver. They further reported that river Sarasvati never took a course
to join river Luni. Luni has been from time to time joined by other streams/rivers (of much
lower significance than Sarasvati, e.g. Drishadvati) which drained along the Aravalli hills. Also
river Sarasvati never shifted its courses drastically and continuously from east to west, as
suggested by some of the earlier workers. Their study would be helpful in providing a logical
solution for the existing controversy regarding continuous west-ward shift of river Sarasvati from
initial position near Aravalli hills to final position along the Hakra-Nara (closer to north-western
Indian border).

24

33. S. Kalyanaraman 2008 Vedic River Saraswati and Hindu Civilization Saraswati Research
and Education Trust, Chennai , Aryan Books International, New Delhi It is a compilation of
multidisciplinary papers presented at the Conference held from 24th to 26th October 2008 on
Vedic River Saraswati and Hindu Civilisation based on research and studies carried out during
the last 50 years which throw a new light on the origins of civilisation and accounts remarkable
cultural continuum in India, exemplified by Hindu civilization as a linguistic area.

34. A R Chaudhri (2008): Civilisation along the

Saraswati

River-

Scientific

Approach,

in

Kalyanaraman S (eds), Vedic River Sarasvati and Hindu

Civilisztion, Aryan Books international and Sarasvati
Research and education trust.
The

authors,

on

the

basis

of

sedimentological

investigations report three significant signatures of the

presence of palaeochannels along the Vedic tract of the
esstwhile Saraswati River. I) Water oozing out of Kapil
Muni temple sarovar ii) Chyavan Giti Kund at Kalayat
Fig. 3.19: Scanned cover page of the
Book by S Kalyanaraman (2008)

in Jind

and iii) presence of buried river bed

at Bhor Sayidan in Pehowa district. (Fig. 3.20). He

estimated the width of the river to be nearly 2 Km.

Fig.3.20: Buried river bed at Bhor

Sayidan near Kurukshetra. The
estimated width of this river is
over 2 Km. (After Chaudhri, 2008)

25

35. Bhadra et al., (2009) Based on study of satellite data and topomaps coupled with other
evidences arrived at the conclusion that Saraswati Nadi of Haryana is the tributary to the Vedic
Saraswati River. Climatic and tectonic changes coupled with decreased rainfall and
anthropogenic interventions / encroachments of the river course have been the major reasons for
desiccation and obliteration of SaraswatiNadi of Haryana. Factors such as (a) continuity of
drainage lines of SaraswatiNadi up to the Somb River in topomaps, (b) low topography and little
height variations of the area where AdiBadri and Rampur Herian village (the origin place of
SaraswatiNadi) are located, (c) the configuration of tributaries of Somb River, (d) strong N-S
trending image anomaly, protruding southward from AdiBadri area to Rampur Herian, indicate
towards feasibility of upstream drainage of River Somb to join with SaraswatiNadi. All these
evidences indicate that higher reaches of AdiBadri as the source (origin) place of SaraswatiNadi
sometimes in the past (historic/pre-historic period).

Fig.3.21:

Location of pilgrim sites along the palaeochannel of Vedic River Saraswati

(Bhadra 2009)

26

Fig.3.22: IRS P6 LISS III image of

Feb2004 showing Markanda-Bata
divide and its mis-fit wide valley
around Paonta Sahib. Movemet
along the NNW-SSE trending
Yamun Tear Fault was possibly
responsible for the diversion of
Yamuna towards South.

36. Saini et al (2009). H. S. Saini, S. K. Tandon, S. A. I. Mujtaba, N. C. Pant and R. K. Khorana.

Reconstruction of buried channel-floodpalin systems of the northwestern Haryana Plains and
their relation to the Vedic Saraswati. Current Science, Vol 97 No. 11 pp. 1634-1643.

Based on the collection of subsurface lithofacies data from well logs, this study attempts to map
the buried channel-floodplain systems of a part of the northwestern Haryana Plains and provides
evidence of buried major sand bodies at various depths; these belong to at least two separate
phases of fluvial activity. The younger phase of fluvial activity includes the previously mapped
palaeochannel segment between Tohana and Sirsa that was considered as a part of the lost
Saraswati1. The recognition of major palaeochannel belts in the subsurface provides definite
proof of the presence of a strong fluvial regime sometime in the past. Based on OSL dating, it is
inferred that these relatively older palaeochannel belts pre-date the Last Glacial Maximum and
are related to the later part of the wetter MIS 3; and the younger fluvial activity, recognized in a
limited part of the area, is dated between ~6.0 and ~2.9 Ka BP. The analysis of these subsurface
data suggests the existence of integrated drainage networks in the northwestern Haryana Plains
in the 2030 Ka time interval.

27

Fig. 3.23: The subsurface reconstruction of northwestern Haryana plains showing the identified
courses of buried channels (BCH-1, 2 and 3) and the associated floodplains (FP-1 and 2).
Locations of sections with number of samples (in parentheses) dated by OSL are also shown.
(After Saini et al., 2009)
37. Danino M (2010) The lost River-On the trail of the Sarasvati, Penguin Books, Mumbai.
The Book based on findings of different researches from different fields, attempts to popularise
the findings of these studies

28

Fig.3.24: Closer view of the ten main channels in the Ghaggar System (their Seasonal waters are
today largely diverted to irrigation) (Danimo, 2010)

38. Saini and Mujtaba (2010): Luminescence dating ofthe sediments from a buried channel
loop in Fatehabad area, Haryana: Insight into vedic sarawati river and its environment.
Geochronometria, 37 pp. 29-35
Optically Simulated Luminescence (OSL) dating is a dating technique used to estimate ages of
ancient material including sediments.

In this paper Geomorphology and sedimentary

composition of an archeologically important palaeochannel segment of the Vedic Saraswati

River in northwestern Haryana have been evaluated and its temporal relation with the
surrounding upland examined with the help of OSL dating. Sediment composition and OSL ages
suggest that the channel received enough water supply between 5.9 and 4.3 ka ago, and even
before. Several lakes and ponds had developed during this period in the surrounding areas. It was
a wet phase in this area as well as in Rajastahn. After ~4.3 ka, the river got starved of regular
water supply, became sluggish and finally dried up. Reduced water supply, indicative of

29

decreased rainfall, occurred between 4.3 and 3.4 ka ago. The environmental history of the
channel might have influenced the Harrapan archeology of the area.

39. Sinha, R., Yadav, G. S., Gupta, S., Singh, A. and Lahiri, S. K., 2012 Geo-electric
resistivity evidence for subsurface palaeochannel systems adjacent to Harappan sites in NW
India. Quaternary Int., doi:10.1016/J.Quaint.2012.08.002.

The study included geophysical instigations and provided characteristics of sedimentation along
the palaeochannels of Saraswati.

Fig. 3.25: Block Diagram by Sinha et al., 2012 showing the palaeochannels of the Saraswatiincluding the one abandoned by the Satluj and the extent of fluvial sediments filling their
channels. (After Sinha et al., 2012)

30

40. Sanjeev Sanyal (2012) Land of seven rivers: History of India's Geography, Penguin Books
India Pvt. Ltd.
To quote the author in this book Early history o India has
two parallel sources, but there is a greatdeal of
disagreement about how they fit together. On onehand
there is the archaeological evidence ofsophisticated cities
of the Harappan Civilisation (also called Indus Valley or
Indus Sarasvati Civilisation), on the other hand there is the
literature of the vedic tradition. Not withstanding the
difference, the two sources agree on the drying of a great
river that the Rgi Veda calls Saraswati.
The book also mentions that while the rigvedic text speak
Fig. 3.26: Scanned cover page of
the Book by Sanjiv Sanyal, 2012

incessantly aboyt Saraswati, the texts of next generation

repeatedly mention how the Saraswati Dried up. The

Pachvasma Brhman tells that the river disappeared into the desert. There are many legends and
foll tales about how the river dried up or sank underground. The author also goes on to add that
physical surveys and satellite photographs confirm that the Sutlej and the Yamuna were once
tributaries of the Saraswati.

31

4
REVIEW OF STUDIES CARRIED OUT
BY VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS
Many studies have been carried out by different organisations mostly with regard to specific
aspects like Palaeochannels, archaeology, geology, ground waer prospects/movement etc.
Following is a list of organisations which have carried out study in some or the other form
related to palaechannels of the vedic river Saraswati.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii)
(xiv)
(xv)
(xvi)
(xvii)
(xviii)
(xix)
(xx)
(xxi)
(xxii)
(xxiii)
(xxiv)
(xxv)
(xxvi)
(xxvii)

Space Application Centre (SAC)/ISRO Ahmedabad.

Regional Remote Sensing Centre (RRSC-W)/ISRO Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) - Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Ground Water Department (GWD), Govt. of Rajasthan - Jodhpur
DefenceLabarotary Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
State Remote Sensing Application Centre (SRSAC) Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
J.N.V University Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
Haryana State Remote Sensing Centre (HRSAC) Hissar, Haryana.
SaraswatiNadiShodhSansthan Jagadhri, Haryana
Sarasvati Sindhu Research Centre Chennai, T.N.
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) Mumbai
Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), Government of Rajasthan
Geological Survey of India, Western Region Jaipur, Rajasthan.
B.M. Birla Science and Technology Centre Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Western Region Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Institute for Sustainable Development Research Studies Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Institute of Environmental Studies Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) Jodhpur and Dehradun
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad
Geological Society of India, Bangalore
M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat
Department of irrigation Govt of Haryana
Water and Air, Pollution Control Board Haryana
Tourism Department Haryana.
Development Boards (Kurukshetra and Pihowa)
HUDA (Haryana Urban Development Authority)

Summaries of studies carried out by CGWB, ONGC and NRSC are included in this review.
In addition to this an account of Archaeological evicdences primarily based on the
excavations of Archaeological Survey of India are included in this review.

32

4.1 Archaeological Studies

Many archaeological evidences primarily gathered by Archaeological Survey of India point
towards existence of a great civilization along the vedic Saraswati. Many independent
researchers have analysed these arcaheological finds to draw conclusions regarding
civilization along vedic river saraswati. The review given below is based on the studies
reported by independent researchers and as compiled by Sharma et al., 2014.

The pre-historic remains in the Saraswati basin were for the first time brought to light
in the early 1940s with the investigation of Hakra valley by Stein (1942). Steins work was
further extended by Ghosh during (1950-52) during survey of the dried up course of
Saraswati and Drishadvati in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan (Ghosh et al., 1979, 1980).
Kar and Ghosh (1984) have carried out an intensive survey of the Saraswati basin within
Haryana since 1960. In northern Haryana, important Harappan sites were discovered at
Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Kunal, Bidarna, Balu and others (Chakrabarti and Saini, 2009,
Kalyanraman, 1999; Lal, 2002, 2009; Valdiya, 2002). Late Harappan and Painted Grey Ware
(PGW) materials were recovered from Kurukshetra, Mirzapur (Kurukshetra district) and
Bhagwanpura (Hissar district). Recent excavations at Bhagwanpura and Kasithal
(Kurukshetra district) have yielded evidence of a partial overlap between the late Harappan
and PGW culture. The Ghaggar-Hakra palaeochannel course has been associated with
extensive Bronze-age Harappan civilisation archaeological sites that are located with the
channel. The abrupt abandonment of urban centres at ~3500 BP has been explained as a
consequence of river diversion, although alternative explanations for cultural decline have
also been offered (Sinha et al., 2013).

The explored area has been seen to be rich in archaeological sites which may be
classified as Harappa, PGW and Early Historical with the addition of the well-known PreHarappa. The remains of the prominent PGW settlements are often overlaid by those of the
succeeding early historical (Rang Mahal) culture. The Rang Mahal culture is named after the
site of Rang Mahal about 3Km up Suratgarh. A general dissection followed the decay of the
Rang Mahal culture as indicated by a scatter of pottery in the dry riverbed and also on the
sand dunes.
A steady flow of water, followed by dessication and then utter dryness of the river is
clearly indicated by the archaeological evidences. Eastward diversion of water to the Ganga
33

system is indicated in 1750 B.C. (end of Harappa culture), resulting in a dry phase (partly
coinciding with the PGW period), a recurrence of the wet phase in the early centuries A.D
(Rang Mahal period) and then by another desiccation. Thus, the PGW sites are generally
small and are sometimes situated in the riverbed itself indicating a scanty flow. Radiocarbon
dating indicates that Kalibangan, the Mature Harappan settlement located on the bank of the
ancient river Saraswati was abandoned around 1900 B.C. because of the drying up of the
river.
More than 1200 settlements of the Stone Age and Harappan civilizations are found along the
river course implying the availability of year-round supply of water, which only perennial
rivers could have provided. Joshi et al. (1984) have compiled the data on Harappan, Early
Harappan (Pre-Harappan) and Late Harappan sites in India. A summary of the sites in the
Saraswati valley is given below (Table-1).
Table-1: Number of archaeological sites in NW India (Joshi et al., 1984)
State
Early Harappan
Harappan
Late Harappan
(2500-2200 B.C.)
(2200-1700 B.C.)
(1700-1000 B.C.)
Punjab
23
32
102
Haryana
103
44
297
Rajasthan 8
28
The archaeological studies reveal the following information: (a) No Early Harappan
or Harappan sites occur along the present Sutlej or the Yamuna channel, (b) There is fairly
good distribution of Early Harappan and Harappan sites along the Ghaggar Hakra bed and
(c) No Late Harappan sites are found in Rajasthan along the Saraswati bed which must have
dried up during that period forcing eastward or westward migration (Joshi et al. 1984;
Mughal, 1982; Rajani and Rajawat, 2011).

4.1.1. Archaeological Studies in Rajasthan

More than 1200 of the 1600 settlements, including many prosperous towns of
Harappan culture (5000-3500 B.P.) have been discovered in the Saraswati river basin
(Valdiya 2002, Mughal, 1981). Out of the archaeological sites discovered by the
Archaeological Survey of India in the Sarasvati river basin (Possehl, 2000), 54 sites of EarlyHarappan and Mature Harappan period are falling in the western Rajasthan (Table-2). These
have been plotted on to the palaeo channel map prepared from WiFS data, to observe if any
correlation exist between the two types of data. It is observed that most of the archaeological
sites of Harappan period discovered in Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts fall along the
34

Ghaggar River , indicating Ghaggar to be the palaeo Sarasvati course (Gupta et al., 2001,
2003).

Table-2: Number of archaeological sites in NW Rajasthan (Possel, 2000)

Site
Site Name
Site
Site Name
Site
Site Name
1
Akalgarh
9
Chak 02
17
Chak 087
2
Bhaironura
10
Chak 03
18
Chak 088
3
Bingee
11
Chak 07
19
Jogiasson
4
Binjor One
12
Chak 043
20
Jogiason Chak One
5
Binjor Two
13
Chak 050
21
Kalibagan
6
Binjor Three
14
Chak 072.3
22
Satuki East
7
Binjor Four
15
Chak 075
23
Satuki West
8
Bugia
16
Chak 080
24
Sullewala

4.1.2 Archaeological Studies in Haryana and Punjab:

The locations of archaeological sites, discovered till 2000 in Haryana (Possel, 2000) and a
few recently discovered archaeological sites have been plotted and overlaid on the mapped
river courses for age determination. The archaeological sites are classified into four

Fig.4.1: IRS-WiFS image showing Harappan Sites along Ghaggar River in Ganganagar and
Hanumangarh Districts of Rajasthan
categories viz. Mature Harappan, Sothi Harappan, Late Harappan and Post to Harappan
(Table-3). In northern Haryana, mostly Late Harappan sites have been found to lie in
35

Yamunanagar, Kurukshetra and Kaithal districts (Fig.4.2). However, clustered Mature

Harappan/Sothi Harappan sites are found to occur in Jind and Karnal districts, where many
palaeochannels have been demarcated.

Table-3: Classification of Archaeological sites in Haryana (Valdiya, 2002, p.38)

Classes ((Period, B.P)*
Remarks
Post to Harappan
Represents all the sites which are post to Harappan
(3500 to Medieval)
period. It includes OCP, PGW, Pre-Historic, Buddhist,
Medieval, etc.)
Late Harappan
Mostly Post-Urban Harappan
(3900-3300)
Harappan Sothi-Siswal
Sothi-Siswal sites have distinct Hakra culture but
(~Mature Harappan)
resembles Mature Harappan culture
Mature Harappan
Exclusive Harappan sites
(4600-3900)
Criterion: The archaeological sites, reported in Possel (2000) and other sources are plotted on
the map. It is observed that archaeological assemblages (cultures) of many periods are found
over a single site. To plot on the map, only the oldest period out of many cultures present over
a site, has been considered for a particular class. Other lower period cultures are not depicted
on the maps.
Apart from the Harappan sites, archaeological sites of Late-Harappan to Medieval
period have been discovered in Adi Badri, Sandhya, Kapal Mochan, Mustafabad, Bilaspur,
Sadhaura, Thanesar and Pehowa which lie mostly along the course of Saraswati Nadi.
Although catchment area of Markanda River is larger than that of Saraswati Nadi, but the
number of archaeological sites are much more along the Saraswati Nadi. This indicates
towards higher level of historical significance of Saraswati Nadi in the region than that of
Markanda River. Recently, an archaeological site (12th Century old Painted Grey Ware i.e.
Post-Harappan) has been discovered at Bhor Saidan village which lie on the bank of
Sarraswati Nadi in the west of Kurukshetra (Purohit, 2006). All these evidence indicate
flourishment of Mature Harappan to Post-Harappan culture along the Saraswati Nadi.

The delineation of the palaeochannels of Saraswati & Drishadwati in the northern

parts of Haryana got a big boost by the discoveries of Harappan sites. The excavations are
done by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) & various other scholars. It provides a good
evidence of the presence of an ancient civilization which is known as Harappan Civilization
or Indus Valley Civilization.

36

Fig. 4.2: Archaeological Sites and Paleochannels in Northern Haryana

Most of the sites of this civilization have show a common characteristic like
a)

Presence of house made of bricks,

b)

Well planned city,

c)

Ploughed agricultural field, etc.

There are more than 400 archeological sites spreads all over Haryana especially in the

northern part. Some of these belong to Harappan age & some to Post Harappan age. These
Archeological sites are present in cluster, which are called Economic Pockets by Joshi et al.
(1984). Most of the sites are falling on or nearby the paleochannels. Most of the green and
yellow spots representing the Mature Harappan sites are found at the SW part of Haryana, i.e.
Jind, Hisar, Fatehabad and Sirsa districts. But the Post-Harapppan sites represented as brown
spots are present in the eastern and NE part of Haryana i.e. Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Karnal,
Ambala and Yamunanagar. This probably shows the shifting of the people from W to E with
loss of river. Similarly, location of a large number of archaeological sites along the Sutlej
palaeochannel in eastern Punjab indicates close affinity between ancient civilizations with the
Saraswati River.

4.1.3 Archaeological Study in Gujarat

37

Available archaeological sites of Pre, Mature and Post Harrapan ages have been
plotted in Kachchh, Mehsana, Patan, Jamnagar, Rajkot and Surendranagar districs of northern
Gujarat. Plots of archaeological sites of Mature Harappan period in Kachchh district
(Desalpur, Dholavira, Gunthai, Kanthkot, Kerasi, kotada, Lakhpat, Luna etc.) clearly
indicates close association of important civilization along the bank of Saraswati
palaeochannels (Fig.4.3).

Fig.4.3: Archaeological Sites and the Palaeochannels in Northern Gujarat

38

4.2 Study carried out by CGWB

4.2.1 Introduction
Central Ground Water Board, Western Region has carried out detailed studies on to trace the
existence of palaeochannels in Western Rajasthan.
State Ground Water Department, Rajashan and Regional Remote Sensing Service
Center(RRSSC), Jodhpur demarcated palaeo-channel courses based on earlier studies and
remote sensing data.Eight such locations were identified in the Western Rajasthan, spreading
over Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Barmer, Bikaner, Ganganagarand Hanumangarh districts.
To confirm the indications of palaeochannels a joint program of ground water
exploration and isotope studies was undertaken by Central Ground Water Board in
collaboration with BARC Mumbai, RRSSC Jodhpur and other organizations to delineate
palaeochannels, with emphasis on lost Saraswati river.
The studies carried out in Kishangarh-Tanot-Longewala-Ghotaru area of Jaisalmer
district, included Remote sensing, field traverses, geophysical surveys, exploratory drilling,
geophysical well logging and Isotope analysis.

4.2.2 Hydrogeology
In the area Quaternary sediments comprising alluvium and aeolian sediments form the
aquifer almost in the entire area. The thickness of quaternary sediments varies from 40 to
more than 300 m.
Due to high salinity of ground water in deeper levels and predominance of argillaceous
material, promising deeper aquifers in the area are not encountered.
Water level monitoring stations of CGWB indicate unconfined groundwater conditions
prevailing in almost entire area undertaken for studies.
Depth to water in the area varies from 29.62 to 67.96 mbgl. Deeper water levels occur in
southern parts of the area and ranges from 60.38 mbgl at Asutar to 67.96 mbgl at
Mithuwala. In the area lying north of Kishangarh (KhariaBeri-RatanwalaTala) the depth to
water is around 30 m.

4.2.3 Surface Resistivity Survey

39

For identification of the buried channels geophysical electrical resistivity surveyswere

conducted in the inferred palaeochannel areas in northwestern parts of Jaisalmer district by
Rajasthan Ground Water Department and Central Ground Water Board. Rajasthan Ground
Water Department carried out resistivity surveys in following sections falling in the area.
1. KuriaBeri to Kishangarh
2. Kishangarh to SakirewalaKhu
3. Kishangarh to Kaladhartobba
4. KuriaBeri to Tanot
5. Ghantiyali to Tanot
6. Ranau to Ghantiyali

The resistivity survey data interpretation indicated that the first layer comprising of fine
blown sand corresponds to a general resistivity range of 135-3000 ohm-m.

The second layer is represented by a general resistivity range of 550-2550 ohm-m, which
corresponds to fine to medium sand and at places it may be coarse grained sand.

The third layer, comprising of clay shows a general resistivity range of 10-100 ohm-m.
The lower range of resistivity indicates presence of highly conductive clays at the depth
of investigation.

In Ranau-Tanot section fourth layer comprising clays and shales was interpreted and layer
resistivity varied from 1 to 36 ohm -m.
Central Ground Water Board has carried out spot resistivity soundings at 31 locations

in Kishangarh- Tanot- Ranau- Ghotaru area at favorable locations. The soundings were
carried out in interdunal areas where the ground level was almost flat. During the surveys it
was found that the formation resistivity in the range of 15 to 25 ohm - m represents fine to
medium grained sand containing the fresh water. The zone lying immediately above the water
table has a resistivity value in the range of 70 to 80 ohm-m may represent the moisture
conditions. The resistivity below 10 ohm-m was interpreted to be clay/silt containing poor
quality of ground water. Dry sands in upper layers indicated very high resistivities. Based on
above interpretation layers with resistivity ranging from 15 to 25 ohm-m and showing
considerable thickness were suggested for exploratory drilling. In general it was interpreted
that there is a general deterioration of groundwater quality with depth. In addition resistivity
surveys were also conducted in Longewala and Ranau-Ghantiyali area.

4.2.4 Ground Water Exploration

40

The exploratory drilling was undertaken in the area based on the remote sensing, field
studies and geophysical surveys. Geophysical well logging of the bore holes was done for
identification of water bearing zones and interpreting water quality for well construction.

During the study 18 exploratory boreholes were constructed at different sites. The depth
of drilling of the boreholes varied from 120 to 200 m. Depth of wells constructed varied
from 70(Ranau 7 Km on Tanot road) to 136 m (Gamnewala).

The thickness of these coarser zones varied from 6 to 22 m and the depth of zones varied
from 25 to 125 m. Presence of these coarse sediments are the positive indication of
existence of old buried channels in the area along Ranau, Nihal Khan Ki Dhani&Ghotaru.

Hydrogeological cross sections along Tanot-Ranau and KhariaKua-Kishangarh (Fig.)

reveals that thickness of fine sands increases towards KuriaBeri- Kishangarh area.
Kankars are generally found to be occurring in association with silt and fine sands.

In Gamnewala area the formation is predominately clayey. Tertiary clays, claystone,

impure soft limestone and sandstone were encountered at comparatively shallow depth in
Ranau-Ghantiyali area.

Further electrical logs of the bore holes drilled in the area also points to the existence of
clean sands attributed to water action in depth range of 42 to 63 m and going down up to
about 100 m.

Unconfined groundwater conditions prevails in the area with the depth to water in the
wells constructed varying from 30.22 (Kishangarh) to 65.10(Ranau 4 km on Ramgarh
road) m bgl. Shallow water levels (up to 40 m) occur in northern and northwestern part
of the area whereas deeper water levels occur in southern part (Fig 11).

The discharge in the wells drilled during the present study ranges from 60 (Gamnewala)
to 1000 (Kishangarh) lpm.

Low discharge in Gamnewala area was mainly due to predominance of argillaceous

formation, the water quality met here was also highly saline. The discharge of the well
constructed at KuriaBeri was also comparatively high.

The higher discharge with fresh groundwater quality in Kishangarh-KuriaBeri area forms
it groundwater potential area. The electrical conductance of groundwater encountered in
the wells constructed varies from 1210 to 9500 micro mhos/Cm. at 25C.

41

Mechanical analysis of lithological samples encountered at various depths during the

drilling was carried out for determination of the grain size distribution of various
fractions.

It is observed that in the northwestern parts in Kuriaberi-Karthai-Ghantiyali-Ranau area

the uniformity coefficient of the upper saturated zone sediments varies between 2 to 3
indicating well sorted nature of sediments.

In Longewala- Ghotaru area forming southwestern part uniformity coefficient was found
to be higher up to 6.0 indicating heterogeneous nature of sediments.

4.2.5 Geophysical Well Logging

Interpretation of electric and gamma ray logs of all the bore holes has revealed poor
lithological contrast within the saturated formation. However, following characters have
been demarcated on the basis of above logs.

The surface layer A Zoneis characterized by sand ranging in thickness from 35 to 50

meters with a resistivity value of >50 m. This zone generally marks the unsaturated
horizon.

The underlying B zone with a resistivity range of 20-50 m represents partially

saturated alluvium. This zone extends to a depth of 50 to 65 m bgl. This horizon contains
flushed arenaceous sediments and is encountered only along Kishangarh to KuriaBeri
section.

In other sections zone A is directly followed by zone C with a resistivity range to 10 to

20 m. The SP character of this zone indicates an increase in salt content due to change
in depositional environment.

The lower part of zone C is relatively compact and poorly flushed. However,
predominantly this zone contains flushed to semi flushed sediments and the formation
water quality is generally brackish.

The lowermost zone D has a resistivity value of <10 m and is represented by

unflushed semi compact sediments, predominantly argillaceous in character.

The formation water quality of this zone is saline. The top of zone D represents the
saline water interface. The formation water quality above this zone is generally having

42

EC value of less than 3000-m. mhos/cm at 25C and the water quality deteriorates with
depth.

4.2.6 Chemical Quality

The chemical quality of ground water in the area varies largely from fresh to highly
saline. The electrical conductance varies from 1000 to 42200 micro mhos/cm at 25c in
the area.

During exploratory drilling fresh ground water was encountered at Ranau, Ranau 4.6 Km
on Tanot road, Longewala, Kishangarh, KuriaBeri, Ghotaru and Ranau 4 Kms on
Ramgarh road.

Coarse sand and gravel were encountered at Nihal Khan Ki Dhani but the ground water
quality at this place was found to be highly saline with electrical conductance 9500
m.mhos/cm at 25c. Electrical conductance of water encountered during the present
drilling varied from 1210 to 9500 m.mhos/cm at 25c.

Concentration of fluoride and nitrates was found to be low.

Map prepared on the basis of exploratory drilling and the existing wells data indicate
presence of fresh groundwater in a linear NE-SW pattern surrounded by comparatively
saline water on either side (Fig 12). The DharmiKhu, Kishangarh, KuriaBeri and Ranau
area represents fresh water zone falling in northeastern part of the study area. In
southwestern part a small area in Ghotaru-Asutar zone the groundwater quality is fresh.

In general even in fresh water area there is a deterioration of groundwater quality with
increase in depth. It has been observed that the deterioration in groundwater quality starts
beyond depth of 100 m in general.

4.2.7 Isotope Studies

During the yield testing of the exploratory wells, 16 nos. of water samples were collected
for isotope analysis and were sent to BARC Mumbaifor tritium isotope. The results of
analysis received from BARC are given below (Table ).
TABLE 4 : Results of Tritium Isotope Analysis of Groundwater Samples From The
Tubewells Constructed During Palaeochannel Studies, District Jaisalmer Rajasthan.
S.No

Sample Location

1.

Ranau-I

TRITIUM
(TU TU)
0.7 0.9
43

Depth range of sample

(m.)
65-101

NathuKaBera
43-74
0.4 0.9
Ghantiyali -I
62-85
0.6 0.3
KuriaBeri
55-93
2.3 0.8
Karthai
78-84
0.8 0.3
Gaje Singh Ka Tar
82-112
1.1 0.3
Longewala-I
66-95
0.8 0.3
Longewala-II
65-104
1.3 0.3
Nihal Khan Ki Dhani
63-96
1.5 0.3
Ghotaru
90-114
0.9 0.3
Gamnewala
97-134
1.0 0.3
Ranau- 4.6 Km
71-84
1.2 0.3
Longewala-III
54-78
0.7 0.3
Ranau- 7 Km on Tanot Road
50-68
0.8 0.3
Ranau- 4 Km on Ramgarh
79-104
0.7 0.3
Road
16.
Kishangarh
50-101
0.7 0.3
Most of the above samples show negligible tritium contents indicating absence of modern
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

recharge. Sample from KuriaBeri show higher tritium value and this indicates
components of recent recharge. Owing to the complex problem of defining tritium
concentration at the time of ground water recharge, most studies make only a qualitative
estimate of ground water age.

For determination of ground water age by Carbon-14 analysis 8 no. of water samples
were sent to BARC Mumbai and results are awaited???for the same.

During the earlier studies conducted by the BARC Mumbai in the area water samples
from the existing dug wells were collected and analyzed for Tritium isotope. The water
from these wells represents the upper most saturated zone. The results of studies
conducted are as under (Table 6).
TABLE 5 : Results of Tritium Isotope Analysis of Ground Water Samples From
Shallow Dug Wells, District Jaisalmer (Rajasthan.)
S. No.

Sample Location

Tritium
0.5 TR)

1.

DharmiKhu

2.1

50.00

2.

Kishangarh

1.1

35.00

3.

KuriaBeri

0,5

39.00

4.

NathuKaBera

0.3

35.00

5.

Ghantiyali

0.6

38.00

6.

Gaje Singh Ka Tar

2.1

40.00

7.

Ranau

1.7

55.00

44

(TR Depth range of sample

(m.)

8.

Sadewala

0.8

45.00

9.

Longewala

1.0

45.00

10.

Ghotaru

1.1

42.00

11.

Dost Mohammad

1.0

47.00

12.

Asutar

0.3

65.00

13.

KoluTala

0.3

70.00

14.

Langtala

1.0

23.00

15.

Maithuwala

0.6

72.00

A perusal of the above indicates that in general both the dug well and tubewell water
indicate low (less than 1.0 Tr) Tritium values, indicating absence of modern recharge.

However, a few dug wells i.e. DharmiKhu, GajesinghKa Tar and Ranau do show some
small component of recent recharge, which may be due to local terrain conditions of
recharge.

4.2.8 Conclusions:

There was frequent migration of the old river courses due to tectonic disturbances and
climatic changes in the past. The major cause given for drying up of the Saraswati is
diversion of its water to Satluj and Yamuna, former to west and later to east. This is
believed to be caused due to tectonic disturbance in Haridwar-Delhi ridge zone. The
stream piracy by Yamuna River at later stage is considered to be the cause for the
ultimate loss of water and drying up of Saraswati River. The discharge area of Saraswati,
the Cambay Kutch region is one of the most tectonically active regions of world and
tectonic disturbance in this region might have also contributed in disappearance and
shifting of the river.

Remote sensing studies with the help of aerial photographs and landsat imageries have
given indications of existence of palaeochhnnel courses in western Rajasthan.

Out of various areas Kishangarh-Tanot area forming north western parts of Jaisalmer
district was found to be most suitable for palaeochannel studies with emphasis for lost
Saraswati due to substantial thickness of quaternary sediments and possible alignment
traced on the basis of remote sensing and other studies. Among the remaining areas,
except for the Anupgarh- Suratgarh area of Ganganagar and Hanumangarh district, other
areas have no significant groundwater potential. This is due to very shallow thickness of

45

quaternary sediments and saline ground water in these areas. Also the areas lying towards
east in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur district are falling in Luni river basin.

The Kishangarh-Tanot-Longewala forms northwestern part of Jaisalmer district adjoining

international border with Pakistan.The depth of drilling of the exploratory boreholes
varied from 120 to 200 m. Depth of wells constructed varied from 70 to 136 m.

The coarser zones varying in thickness from 6 to 22 m, in the depth of zones 25 to 125
mindicate existence of old buried channels in the area along Ranau, Nihal Khan Ki
Dhani&Ghotaru.

Tertiary clays, claystone, impure soft limestone and sandstone were encountered at
comparatively shallow depth in Ranau-Ghantiyali area.

Unconfined groundwater conditions prevails in the area with depth to water levels
varying from 30.22to 62.22 mbgl.

The discharge of well ranges from 60 lpm to 1000 lpm (Kishangarh). Discharge of the
well constructed at KuriaBeri was also comparatively high.

The higher discharge with fresh groundwater quality in Kishangarh- KuriaBeri area forms
it groundwater potential area.

Geophysical well logging indicates deterioration in groundwater quality beyond 80 to 100

m.

Electrical conductance of water encountered during the present drilling varies from 1210
to 9500 micromhos/cm at 25C. Over the greater part of the area the groundwater quality
is saline.

The DharmiKhu, Kishangarh, KuriaBeri and Ranau area represents fresh water zone
falling in northeastern part of the study area. In southwestern part a small area in GhotaruAsutar zone the groundwater quality is fresh.

The samples were analysed for tritium isotope indicate absence of modern recharge
except atKuriaBeri.

The loose and dry dune sand is major constraint in resistivity surveys as current
penetration is very erratic and depth of penetration of current is low. Thus the soundings
were done mainly in the interdunal depressions along the roads. Another constraint in the
area is the restricted stretch of sounding spreads in limited interdunal areas. High sand
dunes forming undulating terrains pose approachability problem.

46

47

Fig. 4.4: Panel Diagram Deciphering Lithology in KishangarhTanot-Longewala, District

Jaisalmer

48

Fig.4.5: Panel Daig. Deciphering Lithology in Kishangarh-Tanot-Longewala, District

Jaisalmer

49

Fig.4.6: Hydrogeological cross section along Khariakua- Kishangarh, District Jaisalmer

50

Fig. 4.7: Hydrogeological cross section along Tanot Ranau, District Jaisalmer

51

4.3 Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) Ltd.

4.3.1 Introduction
ONGC Project Saraswati was formulated in 2002with mission to provide a sustainable solution
of water availability in Rajasthan desert as ONGCs contribution to people.
Objectives of the ONGC Saraswati Project were

To examine feasibility of identifying and recharging aquifers in Rajasthan (along the

course of Warswati route/Channel/ IG Canal and adjoining areas)

To implement such schemes as feasible for the puropose of providing a sustainable

solution in drought prone areas of the semi-desert/ desert parts of Rajasthan

4.3.2 Deeper Aquifer Exploration

The inspiration for ONGC project Saraswati aiming at deep fresh water aquifers not exploited by
any other agency so far came from two major success stories in desert areas

i.

Great Man Made River (GMR) Project of

Libya-four major underground basins have been

located during exploratory drilling for oil in Libya
containing fresh water at depth from 600 m to
2500 m, which led to a gigantic irrigation project,
known as the Great Man-made River (GMR).
Fig.4.8: Four major groundwater basins
ii.

Artesian Conditions in Pakistan side of

identified in Libya.

Thar: Discovery of deep seated relatively fresh

groundwater under artesian conditions has been reported in Thar desert across the borader in
Pakistan.

52

4.3.3 Deep aquifer Evaluation in

Jaisalmer Basin Based on
ONGC data
A short-term study was taken up in a small
block in Western Rajasthan to evaluate deep
groundwater occurrence (200m to 1000 m
depth) based on information from drilled
wells of ONGC. Drilled well data available in

Fig.4.9: Artesian well in Thar area in Pakistan

Jaisalmer basin of Rajasthan were scanned

and 24 well completion reports, 7 Foramtion Evalution Reportr and wire line longs from 13 wells
were studied to identify water bearing horizons and its nature.

The study on the basis of well logs reveals that, the formation water has less salinity (up to 5 g/l)
in the shallow intervals (surface to 600 m average) and 10 g/l upto 1000 m; beyond this interval
the salinity of the formation water increases from 11 g/l to 140 g/l and even more. The salinity
increases rpidly with depth beyond 1000m, whereas it is gradual up to 400m.
The salinity values were grouped into 3 broad classes depending upon usage. The thickness of
Class-I zone varies from a few meters in the southwestern part of the area to a maximum
thickness beyond 500m

in the eastern nad northern part of the area. Class-I zone mostly

contained salinity between 3-5 g/l, however isolated occurrences of fresh aquifers may not be
ruled out specially and the Palaeo-channels at Shallow depths. Prospectivity of Class-II type of
water through not fit for most of the usage exist in this are and thickens towards west ad southern
part. Class-III in Kharatar, Ghotaru, Manhera Tibba and Bankia area appear promising from
point of view of finding reasonably non-saline water aquifers in the depth zone upto 1000m.

The study recommended that the low salinity area Kharatar, Ghotaru, Manhera Tibba and Bankia
and further east may be considered as the p[ilot area to carry out intensive study including
geophysical survey, drilling and testing of wells upto 1000m and preparation of project plan to
exploit groundwater resources.

53

4.3.4 Field Geological Studies

Under ONGC Project Saraswati, a short term study of three months was initiated in KDMIPE
under the guidance of Dr. Jagdish Pandey, Fromer GGM, ONGC to verify a model of palaeo
water accumulation in Wester Rajathan, as propounded by him. Based on this study three
locations were proposed for drilling: i) near Jaisalmer town ii) at west of Gadra Road (Barmer
district) and iii) at Lunar area of Myjlar sub basin. These locations were designated Saraswati-1,
Saraswati-2 and Saraswati-3 respectively.
Based on the above recommendations, a pilot project was undertaken. The pilot projct was under
taken through WAPCOS. An MoU was signed between ONGC and WAPCOS in November
2005 for detailed studies encompassing geophycisak surveys, drilling and testing of wells for the
project.

Initially

13

districts-

Bikaner,

Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Barmer,

Pali, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Siakr, Churu,
Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Sirohi and Jhalore
were

selected

(Fig.4.10).

The

possibility of existence of deeper fresh

water

aquifers

was

ultimately

prioritised for 3 pilot districts, namely

Barmer, Bikaner and Jaisalmer.

One well was drilled in location

Saraswati-1 (i.e. near Jaisalmer town).

Fig.4.10: 13 districts infitially selected for detailed

studies.

The well was drilled upto 499m. A

zone of 37 meters from 461 to 498 was tapped. During yield test the static water level was
89.34m and at a discharge of 76 m3 /hour, the well recorded a drawdown of 8.67 m. TDS of the
water was measured to be 3050 to 3540 mg/l.

54

Fig.4.11: VES curve and litholog of the well drilled at Saraswati-1 (near Jaisalmer)

55

4.4 Major Findings of the Study by NRSC

4.4.1 Introduction
Regional remote sensing centre (RRSC-W) NRSC / ISRO, Department of Space, Govt. of India and
CAZRI campus, Jodhpur jointly carried put a study titled river saraswati: an integrated study based
on remote sensing & GIS techniques. The report was released in the year 2014 and was co-authored
by Dr. J. R. Sharma Chief General Manager NRSC/RCs, Hyderabad Dr. B. K. Bhadra Scientist /
Engineer `SF RRSC-W, NRSC/ISRO, Jodhpur, Dr. A. K. Gupta Ex. Scientist / Engineer `SF
RRSC-W, NRSC/ISRO, Jodhpur Dr. G. Sreenivasan Scientist / Engineer `SF

RRSC-C,

NRSC/ISRO, Nagpur. The Stuy was taken up with the following objectives.
Delineation of palaeochannels using IRS P6 AWiFS, LISS-III and LISS-IV data.
Physiographic study using SRTM DEM.
Preparation GIS database for road, rail, settlement, administrative boundary, existing drainage,
location of archaeological and drilling sites.
Field validation of the palaeochannels using historical data, archaeological sites, sedimentology
(drilling/litholog), hydrogeology and geochronology data.
Study of available geochronological ages of sand, water, artifacts.
Possible River Linkages of Vedic Saraswai with Somb, Tons/Yamuna, Drishadvati and Sutlej
Rivers.
Reconstruction of palaeodrainage network from Mann Sarovar to Dwaraka.

4.4.2 Methodology
In the present study, satellite data from IRS P3 WiFS, IRS P6 AWiFS (56m), LISS-III (23.5m) and
LISS-IV (5.8m) of February, 2004 have been used to delineate the course of the palaeochannels in
NW India. For specific area, Landsat ETM and Radarsat SAR data also have been used for
palaeochannel mapping. The extent of Thar Desert and the present day drainages in NW India have
been shown on Landsat imge (Fig.4.12). All these data have been digitally processed in
ERDAS/Imagine software (version 10.0). Digital image processing techniques like histogram
equalization, piece/scene wise linear stretching, contrast and brightness enhancement, different band
combinations and edge enhancement etc. have been applied on the satellite data.

Present day

drainages are traced from IRS P6 LISS-IV data (5.8m resolution) and the Survey of India topomaps
56

(1969). For integrated study, GIS database of various thematic layers (administrative boundary,
settlement, road, rail, drainage, well location, archaeological sites etc.) have been prepared by using
ARC/MAP software (version 10.0). The delineated palaeochannels are validated with various ground
data and collateral information from archaeology, sedimentology, hydrogeology and petrography.

4.4.3. Major Findigns of the Study

A. Palaeo-course of the Vedic Saraswati River.
The entire course of Vedic Sarasvati River has been delineated using latest satellite images. The
mapped course is validated with a variety of ground data such as archaeological sites, drilling and
hydrogeological data. River Saraswati originated in the Higher Himalayas and flowed through the
western part of Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains along several tributaries like Satluj, Yamuna, Chautang
and Drishadvati. The Saraswati river system passed through the states of Himanchal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan and finally discharged into Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat. Maps pf the
delineated Palaeo-drainage are given in four successive maps. Palaeochannels in Rajasthan (Fig.4.13)
Palaeochannels in Haryana and Punjab (Fig.4.14), Saraswati Delta Structure in Rann of Kachchh
(Fig.4.15) and an Integrated Simplified map of Saraswati Palaeochannel (Fig.4.16)

B. Geochronological Events Related to Saraswati Drainage

Geochronological evenets related to Saraswati Drainage Evolution in NW India during Quaternary
Period (Pleistocene = 10000years to 2 m.y. and Holocene = 0-10000 years) has been reconstructed
by collating age data from various sources and their correlation with other features. The isotopic ages
(H3, O18 and C14) of 17 groundwater samples from the existing wells along the palaeochannels in
Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan were analysed by the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC),
Mumbai on the basis of Pearson model. The analysis indicates the variation in groundwater ages
from 1340 to 18880 BP at different localities from NE to SW. These areas lie either on the
palaeochannel or very close to it viz. Kuriaberi (1340BP), Ghantiyali (550BP), Ranau (1930BP),
Sadewala (18800BP), Longewala (12400BP), Ghotaru (8910BP), Dost Mohd. (2000BP) etc. Hence,
age analysis of water samples indicate towards a palaeo source of water along the channels that may
be linked to Ghaggar (Saraswati) palaeochannels. The ground water do not have isotopic signature of
present day Himalayan Rivers. However, the deep groundwater indicates towards origin from
Himalayan source. Based on the relative radiocarbon ages, ground water movement (velocity) along

57

the palaeochannels has been estimated as 5m/yr. The Chronology of the events as proposed in this
report is given in Table 6.

C. Saraswati River Linkages

i. Linkage of Saraswati Nadi with Somb River at Adi Badri

Topography of Adi Badri area is studied based on the satellite data of SRTM of February, 2000.
SRTM derived hill shade view shows the emergence of ephemeral 1st order drainages of saraswati
Nadi and Somb River from the Siwalik foothill zone Fig.4.17a). Close contour pattern of this area
(Fig.4.17b), generated from SRTM DEM, indicate gentle topography between Adi Badri (360m) and
Rampur Herian (330m). A height difference of only 20m has been observed from the tip of Saraswati
drainage line at Rampur Herian (330m) and the Somb River bed (310m) in the E-W direction. Thus,
the drainage pattern of the area indicates the possibility of joining the upstream of River Somb with
the Sarasawti Nadi in the past.

ii. Linkage of Saraswati Nadi with Yamuna River

Pebbles of metamorphic rock have been found at several places viz. Adi Badri, Sudanwala,
Garibnath etc. between Tons-Yamuna River confluence (Paonta Sahib) and Bata-Markanda River
divide, which is anomalous in view of present hydrography of the area. However, study of
neotectonic activity along major and active faults like Yamuna Tear Faults shows upliftment or
subsidence of the terrain. As a result, drainages have been shifted eastward and capture by other
stream (river piracy) due to accelerated headward erosion. (Fig. 4.18)

iii. Linkage of Sutlej Palaeochannel with Vedic Saraswati

optical data as well as SAR images could able to pick up a subsurface palaeochanne between Ropar
and Patiala and is known as Sutlej palaeochannel. It is a N-S trending palaeochannel of nearly 75 km
length and 1-6 kn width. The Sutlej palaeochannel is connecting the present day Sutlej River near
Ropar and the Ghaggar River (Vedic Saraswati) in the south of Patiala. Thus, Sutlej palaeochannel
possibly acted as a major link between the Himalayayan glacier and the Vedic Saraswati (Fig.4.14b).

iv. Linkage of Vedic Saraswati from Mannsarovar to Dwaraka

58

Rising in the Himalayas from the holy lake of Mansarovar in Tibet, the Satluj river enters the plains
near Ropar (Punjab), when it takes a sharp rightangled turn and flows westward a distance of 150
km before being joined by the Beas river. The Ghaggar River rises in the Siwalik from the Morni
Hills and enters the plains near Ambala (Haryana). Based on the analysis of several satellite images
coupled with the Remote Sensing techniques, the entire course of Sarasvati palaeochannels have
been delineated from the Himalayan foothills to the Rann of Kachchh, passing through the Thar
Desert in NW India (Fig.4.19)

59

Fig.4.12:Satellite Image showing major drainage systems in NW India

60

Fig.4.13: Palaeo-drainage map of Thar desert region using IRS P3 WiFS satellite Image

61

Fig. 4.14a: IRS P6 LISS-III image with delineated palaeochannels in northern Haryana and
parts of Punjab.

Fig. 4.14b: Optical (IRS P6) and SAR (Radarsat) images showing the delineated Sutlej
palaeochannels between Roap and Shatrana in Punjab. Note a large number of archaeological
sites lie along the palaeochannels.

62

Fig. 4.15: Satellite image showing the Saraswati palaeo-drainage network (blue lines) in Rann of
Kachchh area , Gujarat.

63

Fig.4.16: Simplified map of Vedic Saraswati River from Manosarovar to Dwarka in northwest India

64

Fig.4.17:: (a) SRTM DEM with draped Landsat ETM image showing 3D view of Siwalik foothill
around Adi Badri area. (b) Elevation controur map (5m) between Adi Badri and Rampur Herian (c)
IRS-P6 LISS-IV image showing vegetation anomaly (yellow dash line) indicating possible link
between Somb River and Saraswati Nadi

65

Fig.4.18: IRS P6 LISS-III image showing Markanda-Bata divide and its misfit wide valley around
Paonta Sahob. The NNW-SSE trending Yamuna Tear Fault possibly responsible for the diversion of
Yamuna towards south.

66

Fig.4.19 : Saraswati Palaeochannel network with major drainage system in northwest India

67

Table 6: Geochronological Events Related to Saraswati Drainage Evolution in NW India during

Quaternary Period (Pleistocene = 10000years to 2 m.y. and Holocene = 0-10000 years)
Duration (BP)
1,340 to 18,880
1,500 3,500
< 2,900
2,900 to 4,300
2,900 to 5,900
3,000 to 4,000
3,500
3,500 5,000
3,528
3,792
< 4,000
4,000 7,000
5,000
6,000 8,000
7,000 to 10,000
7,000 to 13,000
8,670 to 17,000
10,000
10,000 18,000
15,000-20,000
21,000
26,000-28,000
40,000

40,000BP1.7m.y
(Pleistocene)

Events
Isotopic age (3H, 18O and C14) by BARC. Groundwater in the
palaeochannels in Jaisalmer region, Rajasthan
Sea level rise (4-5m). Dwaraka submerged.
Ghaggar-Saraswati drainage system become weak with the
beginning of semi-arid climate
Desiccation of the Saraswati channel
Vedic Saraswati Channel buried with relict landform in subhumid climate. Existence as Saraswati palaeochannels.
Sea level was lower (4-5m). Lothal port dissociated from sea.
Land reclamation by Lord Krishna to build Dwaraka city.
Major river diversion of Sutlej and Yamuna
The major phases of aeolian activities after the Holocene
Climatic Optimum
Thermoluminiscence dating of potteries. Existence of Bet
Dwaraka
Astronomical dating for Mahabharata War (1792BC)
Saraswati dwindled and dried up due to river shifting, river
piracy, Rajasthan greenery lost with onset of arid
environment.
Sea level rise (4-5m). Submergence of Neolithic settlement in
Gulf of Khambat
Continuous flow of Saraswati upto Little Rann
Saraswati was in full majesty.
Sea level was lower (0-30m). First human settlement
(Neolithic) near Surat in Gujarat coast.
Groundwater in Indo-Pak Thar region
Groundwater in Jaisalmer region:
Medium aquifer (170m) = 9000-17000years
Mighty Himalayan rivers were flowing in western Rajasthan.
Sea level was lower (60-80m) than today
Reduced fluvial activity. Major aeolian activities took place.
Aeolian deposition started after LGM.
Aeolian phase with sand dunes and sand sheets accumulation.
Prevalence of arid climate
Fluvial activity became weak and terminated around LGM
Existence of Himalayan-fed channel network including older
palaeochannels
Himalayan Rivers originated by melting of glaciers due to
warming. Groundwater in deeper aquifer (480m) in Jaisalmer
region >40,000 years
Major tectonic events in the Himalaya. Himalayan mountains
under glacial cover. Climate was fluctuating between glacial
and interglacial phases

68

References
Rao and Kulkarni (1997) Nair et al.
(1999).
Nigam (2012)
OSL dating by Saini et al. (2009)
OSL dating by Saini et al. (2009)
OSL dating by Saini et al. (2009)
Nigam (2012)
Sinha et al. (2013)
TL and OSL dating Singvi and Kar
(2004)
Rao,
S.R.
(http://veda.
wikidot.com/dwaraka)
Ashok Bhatnagar (2014)
Sankaran (1999)

Nigam (2012)
Sankaran (1999)
Radhakrishna (1999),
(1999), Valdiya (2002)
Nigam (2012)

Sankaran

Geyh & Ploethner (2008)

C14 dating by Reddy et al. (2011)
Sankaran (1999); Nigam (2012)
TL and OSL dating by Singvi and
Kar (2004)
OSL dating by Saini et al. (2009)
OSL dating by Saini et al. (2009)
OSL dating by Saini et al. (2009)
Sankaran (1999); C14 dating by
Reddy et al. (2011)
Sankaran (1999), Mitra and Bhadu
(2012)