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ELEMENTS

Lecture 7.12: Trusses and Lattice Girders

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce two-dimensional trusses: types, uses and principal design considerations.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
None.
SUMMARY
This lecture presents the types and uses of trusses and lattice girders and indicates the members that are most
often used in their construction. A discussion of overall truss design considers primary analysis, secondary
stresses, rigorous elastic analysis, cross- braced trusses and truss deflections. The practical design of truss
members is discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION
The truss or lattice girder is a triangulated framework of members where loads in the plane of the truss or
girder are resisted by axial forces in the individual members. The terms are generally applied to the planar
truss. A 'space frame' is formed when the members lie in three dimensions.
The main uses are:
in buildings, to support roofs and floors, to span large distances and carry relatively light loads, see
Figure 1.
in road and rail bridges, for short and intermediate spans and in footbridges, as shown in Figure 2.
as bracing in buildings and bridges, to provide stability where the bracing members form a truss with
other structural members such as the columns in a building. Examples are shown in Figure 3.

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The principle of a truss is simple. The structure is composed of top and bottom chords triangulated with
diagonals in the webs so that each member carries purely axial load. Additional effects do exist but in a well
designed truss these will be of a secondary nature.
A global moment on a truss is carried as compression and tension in the chords. A global shear is carried as
tension or compression in the diagonal members. In the simplified case, where joints are considered as pinned,
and the loads are applied at the panel points, the loading creates no bending moment, shear, or torsion in any
single member. Loads applied in such a way as to cause bending, shear, or torsion will usually result in
inefficient use of material.
Trusses and lattice girders are classified in accordance with the overall form and internal member
arrangement. Pitched trusses are used for roofs. Parallel chord lattice girders are used to support roofs and
floors and for bridges, although in continuous bridges, additional depth is often required at the piers. In the
past, proper names were given to the various types of trusses such as the Fink truss, Warren girder, etc.. The
most commonly used truss is single span, simply supported and statically determinate with joints assumed to
act as pins.
The Vierendeel girder should also be mentioned. It consists of rigid jointed rectangular panels as shown in
Figure 1d. This truss is statically indeterminate and will not be further considered in this lecture, although it
has a pleasing appearance and is often used in foot-bridges.
The saving over a plate girder is clear when the webs are considered. In a truss the webs are mainly fresh air hence less weight and less wind force.
A truss can be assembled from small easily handled and transported pieces, and the site connections can all be
bolted. Trusses can have a particular advantage for bridges in countries where access to the site is difficult or
supply of skilled labour is limited.

2. TYPICAL MEMBERS
Truss, lattice girder and bracing members for buildings are selected from:
open sections, primarily angles, channels, tees and joists.
compound sections, i.e. double angle and channels.
closed sections, in practice structural hollow sections.
For bridges, members are selected from:
rolled sections.
compound sections.
built-up H, top hat and box sections.
Typical sections are shown in Figure 4.

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The selection of members depends on the location, use, span, type of connection and the appearance
required. Hollow sections are more expensive than open sections but are cheaper to maintain and have a
better appearance. However, in exposed trusses corrosion can occur at the crevices which are formed at
gusset positions. Angles are the sections traditionally used for small span truss construction.

3. LOADS ON TRUSSES AND LATTICE GIRDERS

The main types of loads on buildings are shown in Figure 5, namely:

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1. Dead loads. These are caused by self-weight, sheeting, decking, floor or roof slabs, purlins, beams,
insulation, ceilings, services and finishes. Dead loads for the construction to be used in any particular
case must be carefully estimated from material weights given in handbooks and manufacturers'
literature.

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literature.
2. Imposed loads. These are given in Eurocode 1 [1] for floors in various types of building and for roofs
with or without access. The imposed load may cover the whole or part of the member and should be
applied in such a way as to cause the most severe effect.
3. Wind loads. These are given in Eurocode 1 [1] and can be estimated from the location of the building,
its dimensions and the sizes of openings on its faces. Wind generally causes uplift on roofs and this can
lead to reversal of load in truss members in light construction. In multi-storey buildings, wind gives rise
to horizontal loads that must be resisted by the bracing.
In special cases, trusses resist dynamic, seismic and wave loads. A careful watch should be kept for unusual
loads applied during erection. Failures may occur at this stage when the final lateral support system is not
fully installed.
For bridges, in addition to the dead loads and the vertical effects of live loads due to highway or railway
loading, horizontal effects of live load have to be considered. These include braking and traction effects,
centrifugal loads and accidental skidding loads. Temperature effects are significant in some bridges.

4. ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES
4.1 General
Trusses may be single span, statically determinate or indeterminate, or may be continuous over two or more
spans, as shown in Figure 6. Only single span, statically determinate, trusses are considered in this section.

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A truss is usually statically determinate when:

m = 2j - 3,
where m is the number of members in a truss
j is the number of joints.
However compliance with this formula for the truss as a whole does not preclude the possibility of a local
mechanism in part of the truss.
Manual methods of analysis for trusses, where the loads are applied at the nodes, are joint resolution, the
method of sections and the force diagram. Joint resolution is the quickest method for analysing parallel chord
lattice girders when all the forces are required. The method of sections is useful where the values of the forces
in only a few critical members are required. The force diagram is the best general manual method. Computer
programs are also available for truss analysis.

4.2 Secondary Stresses in Trusses

In many cases in the design of trusses and lattice girders, it is not necessary to consider secondary stresses.
These stresses should, however, be calculated for heavy trusses used in industrial buildings and bridges.
Secondary stresses are caused by:
Eccentricity at connections
Loads applied between the truss nodes
Moments resulting from rigid joints and truss deflection.
They are discussed in detail below:
1. Eccentricity at connections
Trusses should be detailed so that either the centroidal axes of the members or the bolt gauge lines meet
at a point at the nodes. Otherwise, members and connections should be designed to resist the moments
due to eccentricity. These moments should be divided between members meeting at joints in proportion
to their rotational stiffnesses. Stresses due to small eccentricities are often neglected.
2. Loads applied between the truss nodes
Moments due to these loads must be calculated and the stresses arising combined with those due to

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Moments due to these loads must be calculated and the stresses arising combined with those due to
primary axial loads; that is the members concerned must be designed as beam-columns. This situation
often occurs in roof trusses where the loads are applied to the top chord through purlins which may not
be located at the nodes, as shown in Figure 7. The manual method of calculation is first to analyse the
truss for the loads applied at the nodes which gives the axial forces in the members. Then a separate
analysis is made for bending in the top chord which is considered as a continuous beam. The ridge joint
E is fixed because of symmetry, but the eaves joint A should be taken as pinned; otherwise, moment
will be transferred into the bottom chord if the joint between the truss and column is assumed to be
pinned. The top chord is designed for axial load and bending. Computer analysis is mentioned below.

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3. Moments resulting from rigid joints and truss deflection

Stresses resulting from secondary moments are important in trusses with short thick members. Approximate
rules specify when such an analysis should be made. Secondary stresses will be insignificant if the slenderness
of the chord members in the plane of the truss is greater than 50 and that of most of the web members is
greater than 100. In trusses in buildings, the loads are predominantly static and it is not necessary to calculate
these stresses. The maximum stresses from secondary moments occur at the ends of members and are not
likely to cause collapse. However, where fatigue effects are significant, these secondary stresses have to be
considered. The method of analysis for secondary moments is set out below.

4.3 Rigorous Elastic Analysis

Rigid jointed, redundant or continuous trusses or trusses with loads applied between the nodes can be
analysed using a plane frame program based on the matrix stiffness method of frame analysis. The truss can
also be modelled taking account of joint eccentricity. Member sizes must be determined in advance using a
manual analysis. All information required for design is output including joint deflections.
It is important that a consistent approach is adopted for analysis and design. This means that if secondary
moments are to be ignored then the primary axial forces to be used in design must be obtained from the
simple analysis of the truss as a pin jointed frame. The axial forces obtained from a rigid frame computer
analysis may be modified considerably by the joint moments.

5. SECONDARY CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Cross-Braced Trusses in Buildings
In the bracing provided to stabilise multi-storey buildings, the panels often have cross-diagonals as shown in
Figure 8a. It is customary to consider the truss as statically determinate, with only the set of diagonals in
tension assumed to be effective. When the wind reverses the other set becomes active.

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Another common case is the lattice girder with an odd number of panels. The centre panel is cross-braced as
shown in Figure 8b. Under symmetrical loading there are no forces in these diagonals. If imposed load is
placed over part of the span, only the diagonal in tension is assumed to be effective.

5.2 Lateral Bracing for Bridges

Stringer bracing, braking girders and chord lateral bracing are needed to transmit the longitudinal live loads
and the wind and/or earthquake loads to the bearings and also to prevent the compression chords from
buckling.
For the top laterals, a diamond system with kickers at the panel points halves the transverse effective length
of the compression chord as shown in Figure 9.

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For railway bridges, Figure 9 illustrates an economic lateral system at deck level which consists of a simple
single member which doubles up as part of the braking girder. The lateral is supported by the stringers, so the
effective length is only about a third of the panel length.
Wind loading on diagonals and verticals can be split equally between top and bottom lateral systems,
remembering that the end portals (either diagonals or verticals) have to carry the load applied to the top chord
down to the bottom chord.
Obviously where only one lateral system exists (as in semi-through or underslung trusses) then this single
system must carry all of the wind load.
In addition to resisting externally applied transverse loads due to wind, etc., lateral bracing stabilizes the
compression chord. Its presence is necessary to ensure that reasonably small effective lengths are obtained for
the truss members. Lateral bracing is also required at all kinks in the chords where compressive loads are
induced into the web members, irrespective of whether the chord is in tension or compression.

5.3 Deflection of Trusses

The deflection for a pin jointed truss can be calculated using either the strain energy or virtual work method.
The deflection using the strain energy method is given by:

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d = S FuL/EA
where:
A is the area of a truss member
E is the modulus of elasticity
L is the length of a truss member between nodes
F is the force in a member due to the applied loads
u is the force in a member due to unit load applied at the truss node and in the direction of the required
deflection.
The Williot-Mohr graphical method can also be used to determine truss deflections. If a computer analysis is
carried out, joint deflections are given as part of the output.
A truss may be cambered during fabrication to offset deflections due to applied loads. The term cambering
means that a given upward deflection can be built into, say, a nominally horizontal truss during fabrication by
adjusting the member lengths slightly to cause the truss to bow upwards.

6. DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS

The truss should be analysed for the separate load cases. These cases are combined to give the most severe
conditions for design of each element. Some important aspects of design are set out below.

6.1 Compression Members in Buildings

Maximum slenderness ratios are normally defined in codes, and these often limit the minimum size of the
members that can be used in light trusses.
Acceptable maximum slenderness values are:
Members resisting dead and imposed load - 180
Members resisting wind load - 250
Any member normally acting as a tie but subject to reversal of stress due to wind - 350
These limits ensure that reasonably robust members are selected when only light loads are involved. Wind
loads are transient and larger slenderness values are permitted than for dead and imposed loads. These rules
also reduce the likelihood of damage occurring during transport and erection. In this regard it has been
common practice to specify that the minimum sizes for angles should be as follows:
equal angles 50 x 50 x 6L
unequal angles 65 x 50 x 6L
For the design of members in trusses where secondary bending stresses are insignificant, the following
assumptions are made:
For the purpose of analysis, the joints are taken as pinned.
For calculating effective lengths, the fixity of connections and rigidity of adjacent members may be

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For calculating effective lengths, the fixity of connections and rigidity of adjacent members may be
taken into account.
Where the exact position of point loads on the rafter relative to the connection of the web members is
not known, the local bending moment may be taken as WL/6.
In accordance with Clause 5.8.2 of Part 1.1 of Eurocode 3 [2], the buckling length of chord members
may be taken as the distance between connections to web members in the plane and the distance
between purlins or ties out of plane of the truss.
For web members the buckling length for in-plane buckling may be taken as 0.9L, where L is the length
between truss nodes.
Figure 10 shows roof trusses in place in a building with the purlins providing lateral support to the top chord,
and a lower chord bracing system providing lateral support to the bottom chord.

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Two common internal truss members are the single angle discontinuous strut connected to a gusset or another
member and the double angle discontinuous strut connected to both sides of a gusset or another member.
These should be connected by at least two bolts or the equivalent in welding. Eurocode 3: Part 1.1: Clause
5.8.3 states that the end eccentricity may be ignored and the struts designed as axially loaded members in
accordance with that clause [1].

6.2 Compression Members in Bridges

Generally the truss members in bridges are much larger than in buildings, and much more attention has to be
paid to the detailed design of the member. Eurocode 3: Part 1.1 [2] applies to buildings, and the very
conservative buckling length values of L and 0,9L are not very significant for relatively small span trusses [1].
However, for bridges, where absolute economy in steel weight is vital, it is assumed that the matter of
effective length will be dealt with fully in Eurocode 3: Part 2 [3].
When making up the section for the compression chord, the ideal disposition of material will be one that
produces a section with radii of gyration such that the ratio of effective length to radius of gyration is the
same in both planes. In other words, the member is just as likely to buckle horizontally as vertically.
The depth of the member needs to be chosen so that plate dimensions are sensible. If they are too thick, the
radius of gyration will be smaller than it would be if the same area of steel was used to form a larger member
using thinner plates. The plates should be as thin as possible without losing too much material when the
effective section is derived.

6.3 Tension Members for Buildings

Structural hollow sections connected by welding may be fully effective. The 'effective area' is to be used for
angles connected through one leg. Theoretically rounds or cables could be used; but these are unsuitable for
practical reasons, because they lack stiffness and are easily damaged. The same minimum sections for angle
members set out above for compression members should be adopted for tension members.

6.4 Tension Members for Bridges

Tension members should be as compact as possible, but the depths will have to be large enough to provide
adequate space for bolts at the gusset positions. The width out-of-plane of the truss should be the same as that
of the verticals and diagonals so that simple lapping gussets can be provided without the need for packing.
Allowance has to be made for the nett section when bolt holes are removed. It should be possible to achieve a
nett section about 85% of the gross section by careful arrangement of the bolts.

6.5 Members Subject to Reversal of Load

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6.5 Members Subject to Reversal of Load

For buildings, Eurocode 3: [2] only requires fatigue assessment for:
a. Members supporting lifting appliances or rolling loads.
b. Members subject to repeated stress cycles from vibrating machinery.
c. Members subject to wind-induced or crowd-induced oscillations.
Even in these cases, assessment is not required if the stress range or number of stress cycles is low.
Otherwise, members subject to reversal of load should be designed for the worst condition.
For bridges fatigue assessment is required for all members subject to reversal of load.

7. PRACTICAL DESIGN
a. Buildings
1. It is not always economic to make every member a different size. The designer should rationalise the sizes
and use only two or three different sections in small span trusses.
2. Minimum sizes should be adopted to prevent damage during transport and erection. Recommendations are
set out above.
3. Safe load tables are very useful and members subjected to axial load can be selected directly. Members
subjected to axial load and moment must be designed by successive trials. Select the initial size by assuming
the compression resistance is 60% of full resistance.
4. Large trusses must be sub-divided for transport. Bolted site splices are used to assemble the truss on site.
b. Bridges
1. The optimum value for the span-to-depth ratio depends on the magnitude of the live load that has to be
carried. It should be in the region of 10, being greater for road traffic and less for rail traffic. (For twin track
rail loading the ratio would drop to about 71/2.) However, one should always make a check on the economic
depth for the given bridge.
2. An even number of bays should be chosen to suit the configuration of diagonals. If an odd number is
chosen there will be a central bay with crossed diagonals. This is not usually desirable except perhaps at the
centre of a swing bridge. The diagonals should be at an angle between 50 and 60 to the horizontal.
3. Grade 50 steel should be used for the main members with Grade 43 used only for members carrying
nominal load, unless the truss has to be fabricated in a country where the supply of higher grade steel is a
problem. For a truss designed using Grade 50 steel, the amount of Grade 43 steel used would normally be
about 7%.
4. The problems that may confront the bridge maintenance team should be fully appreciated. Details which
could trap rainwater, dirt and debris should be avoided. All exposed areas should be fully accessible for
painting. Box sections make painting easier, but rolled hollow sections leave nasty crevices at gusset positions
unless the joints are welded.

8. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

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8. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Trusses and lattice girders are important elements in building where they are used to support floors and
roofs and provide bracing.
For bridges, trusses can be economic for spans of 30m to 200m. They can be assembled from small
pieces and are particularly advantageous where site access is difficult.
Statically determinate trusses are generally used. Keep the configuration simple, using a minimum of
members and connections.
Avoid eccentricity of loading and connections to reduce secondary stresses. Secondary stresses due to
loads applied between the nodes must be calculated.
Careful consideration must be given in design to the provision of lateral support.
Fatigue effects have to be considered in bridges and in some elements of buildings.
Configuration of members and careful design of connections are particularly important.
Avoid potential corrosion areas on all exposed steelwork.

9. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures": CEN (in preparation).
[2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures", Part 2: Bridges, CEN (in preparation).
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