Conduction Mechanism: electronic Resistivity: depends on temp, composition, Temp. Dependence of semicond.

-> In intrinsic: concn of carriers with

(flow of es or holes), ionic (diffusion degree of cold work (disloc density). * temp temp. Intrinsic+extrinsic: At low temp (freeze-out): thermal E insufficient to
of charged ions, liquids+solids with # of es above Ef but thermal vib. &vacancy excite e movement from donor or into acceptor. At intermediate temp
temp) Energy Band: At separation, conc. decrease e which is dominant.
(extrinsic region): carrier concn depends on dopant conc, intrinsic excitations
atoms are independent. Close atoms Conduction in Semicond&insulators: No
are negligible. At high temp (intrinsic region): intrinsic excitations dominate
(solids), individual electron states
In extrinsic: conductivity at intermediate temp depends on dopant concn. At
available empty states adjacent to filled
vd=eE
may split into series of close states (E valence band. Band gap energy (difference in high temps, in intrinsic region, dependence on dopant concn disappears. in
=t+i+d band). Extent of splitting depends on
E between 2 states)=E required to promote e conductivity approaching intrinsic region. Thermal fluctuation scattering,
t=0+aT interatomic sep. distance. Valence to conduction band (nonelectrical source i.e. despite constant level of charge carriers. Solid State Devices: Diode-> p and
n-type regions in contact (p-n junction). Single crystal with different dopants.
i=Aci(1-ci) Band: occupancy based on
heat, light etc). Eg>3eV -> insulator. # of
A->comp. outermost shells of atoms (interact at excited es into conduction band depends on Behaviour of junction depends on direction of bias voltage. Forward bias: low
independentclose range). Conduction Band:
Eg & temp. Eg= . Intrinsic->Elec behavior resistance. Electron-hole recombination occurs at interface. New electrons
and holes are injected at end contacts. Reverse bias: insulator, rectifier.
(dependent range of e- energies where e- moves dependent on properties of pure material.
on impurity freely Fermi energy (Ef)->E of last Eg<2eV. At T=0, conductivity=0. At T>0, heat Electrons and holes leave region near the junction. No source to create new
+host metal)(highest) filled state at 0K. Conductor helps es jump band gap (creation of e-hole defects there. Depleted region behaves like intrinsic semiconductor.
if band is partially full or overlap,
pairs). Every e excited into conduction band, a Transistor-> Same principles of p-n
=n|e|e
insulator
or
semiconductor
if
valence
hole is left behind (# holes=#es) Extrinsic-> junction, applied to complicated
+ p|e|h
designs. Junction transistor/MOSFET.
Intrinsic band is full and conduction band is Elec behavior dictated by impurity/solute
carrier concempty. *Little energy is required to atoms (dopants). Commercial semiconds are Can amplify a signal, or act as a
all extrinsic. Can be n-type (excess es) or p- switch. Two states (conducting/non)
promote
ni=n0e^(
) es to empty states (E field provides type (excess holes). Electron-binding E-> E allow binary info to be represented
2
(basis for arithmetic ops). Integrated
required to excite e from impurity state to
for extrinsic sufficient E). Frictional forces
replace Eg: counter acceleration of es due to E state within conduction band (ED) ->no hole circuits-> created from Si, using
created. ED<<Eg. (donor state) *p-type has photolithographic. Diffusion/ion
n-type: ED field, result of scattering es by
p-type: EA imperfections in lattice. (e- loses KE acceptor state above valence creating hole in implantation can implant elements.
and changes direction, causes
valence (only charge carrier produced, free e Modifies elec properties of diff
regions. Can create n/p, cond/resis.
resistance to E current)
is not created in conduction band).
Turbine blades are made of single crystals for high durability & coated Slow Coarsening-> large precipitates grow and smaller ones shrink. Driven by minimization of total
with ceramic with low thermal conductivity. Creep-> time-dependent interface energy and prevalent at high temps. Part of superalloys strength and resistance to creep is
tendency of solid to deform permanently when subject to high stress due to low ' coarsening rates. Coherent - ' interfaces have low interfacial energy, and low driving
and temp. Can cause matls to fail below yield stress. Primary-> creep force for detrimental coarsening of '. Retains strength due to continued presence of small second
rate due to strain hardening. Secondary-> constant strain rate. Longest phase ' precipitates. Single Crystal Blades-> Grain boundaries act as highway for diffusion,
stage. Balance between strain hardening and recovery. Tertiary->
weakening material. Can be avoided by making single crystal turbine blades w/o grain boundaries.
acceleration of strain rate leading to failure. ' phase (strengthening)->Order Hardening-> coherent - ' interface provides little resistance to passage of dislocations. If
responsible for alloys elevated strength and resistance to creep
dislocation moves through lattice, Al atoms move to Ni sites (vice versa), creating Ni-Ni and Al-Al.
deformation. phase-solid solution with FCC lattice and random
Called anti-phase boundary (energetically unfavourable). Excess energy required to create anti-phase
distribution of different species of atoms. ' & have similar size, and boundary gives rise to dislocation drag. Order hardening is dominant hardening mechanism in super
therefore low interface energy where phases meet (coherent) Qsolid=3kT alloys.
Csolid=3R q=-k(dT/dx) TS=El(T0-Tf) <-rapid T Concrete-> strong in compression, weak in tension

Temperature->avg KE associated with atomic motion.

Shock Resistance->capacity to withstand

C=dQ/dT 3R=25J/mol.K
= lT
= VT TSR= Thermal
Thermal E-> sum of KE and PE. Heat-> thermal E in
0
0
failure due to sudden change in temp. Making Glass
process of transfer or conversion. Dulong&Petit law Glass-> made by cooling molten silica below GTT (molecular
Stronger: Tempering-> surface in compression,
fails at low temps where C is temp-dependent. At movement slowed and matl solidifies). Has to be processed.
interior in tension. Ion Exchange Stuffing-> stuff large
temps use Debye, C=AT3. Thermal Conductivity-> Thermal expansion effects in solids is small. Thermal expansion ions into glass surface, creating surface compressive
ability to transport heat across temp gradient (from coefficient ()->amount by which matl expands in response to strain and interior tension. Large K ions replace
temp change. For isotropic thermal expan.-> v=3l. Thermal
high to low). In solid, heat is conducted by lattice
smaller Na ions
vibration waves, free es. Metals: free es, ceramics: expansion is due to asymmetric curvature of PE trough (NOT
phonons(vibrational), polymers: vibration/rotation. increased atomic vibrational amplitudes w/ rising temp).
Composite matl->hybrid consisting of 2 phases: dispersed Phase transformation->conditions of physical system (temp, pressure,
Activation E for nucleation in
reinforcement phase, surrounded by matrix. Majority of
composition) change, such that current phases are no longer at eqm. Solidification: precipitation can be by:
polymers are amorphous but semi-crystalline is possible.
form single-phase solid from liquid. Precipitation: form second-phase within single- supersaturation (Gv) by
Type of polymer depends on length of chain (molecular
phase solid. Both bashed on nucleation (critical) and growth. Activation energy-> E moving further into 2-phase
weight) and degree of crystallinity. Alignment of polymer
increase needed to undergo phase transformation. Nucleation-> when nucleus first region, interface or strain
chains at yield point causes dip in stress-strain.
forms, volume transformed from liquid to solid causes in free E. Interface between E (done by heterogenous
Thermoplastics: linear/branched, soft. Thermosets: cross- solid and liquid forms, which free E. Free E reduction depends on nucleus volume, nucleation on lattice
linked, hard. Deformation of Semi-Crystalline begins in
defects). Homo nucleation is
and interface E on nucleus surface area. Activation energy, at a certain value of r,
amorphous region, crystalline blocks rotate and segment,
increase in free E is max. Radius at which this occurs is critical nuclei radius, r*. For more common in precip.
amorphous regions stretch. Biomaterial-> intended to
r<r*, net increase in free E (nucleus dissolves back into liquid). For r>r*, net decrease than solidification
interface w/biological systems to evalulate/replace etc. any in free E (nucleus is stable, will grow). Nucleation (and solidification) occur more
163
part of body. Bioinert->little/no host response. Bioactive-> easily and rapidly when activation energy is smaller. Activation E for nucleation can G*=
3( + )2
active host. Bioresorbable->absorbed & replaced in vivo. be reduced if instead of forming spherical nuclei within liquid (homogenous), nuclei
2
Wear/bear surface-> desirable properties are wear
form on pre-existing solids (heterogeneous). Rapid solidification leads to finer grain r*=- +
resistance, friction, no wear particle generat. Stem matl size/more uniform. To G* Gv by temp. Can also rate of heterogeneous
()
with toughness, Youngs mod reduces stress shielding. nucleation by adding additional sites where nuclei can form (inoculant particles).
solidificat.: Gv=
Ohm: V=IR

1
R=
=

J= E E=

Lever rule: %weight of solid

Boiling point of water is function of pressure (pressurebp). Melting point of water is function of composition.
Phase diagrams describe conditions under stable phase. Phase->region of substance that is uniform in chem comp., phase: Xs=0 (red line)

physically distinct, mechanically separable. Component-> chemically distinguishable constituent of substance. Solid
solution->solid where 2 or more components are compatible and form single phase. Solubility limit-> max concn
of solute atoms that dissolve in solvent to form solid solution. Unary phase diagrams display temp vs pressure. Two
types of binary phase diagrams: isomorphous (complete solubility of 3 components), eutectic (limited solubility of 2
components). Complete solubility: similar crystal structure, atomic radii, electronegativity. Iso-> 3 phase regions:
Alpha, Liquid, Alpha + L. For binary system of known comp. and temp. at equilibrium, you can identify: phases,
compositions of phases, relative amounts of phases. Eutectic occur when 2 elements completely dissolve in liquid
state but have only limited solubility in solid. More than one solid phase exists here.

Melting temp
bond energy = melting temp
bond energy favours gas
bond energy favours solid
Thermal Expansion
Curvature is broad & asymmetric = can
have thermal expansion coefficient
temp = atoms vibrate more &
average position can deviate
Modulus of Elasticity
Steeper E Curve = Elastic Mod
FN(r)= FA(r)+ FR(r) e=1.602x10-19
|1||2| 2

EA = -

A=

40

0 =8.85x10-12

Diffusion
J= =
=
Depends on: 1) Diffusion mechanism ( Substitutional vs.

q=number or mass of Interstitial ) 2) Temperature 3) Type of crystal structure
atoms passing through of host lattice (interstitial diffusion is easier in BCC than
material per unit time FCC) 4) Type of crystal imperfections:

Faster along grain boundaries than elsewhere inside a
J= -D = -D

crystal Faster along dislocation lines than through the

bulk Excess vacancies will enhance it

=JA

5) Concentration of diffusing species

D=D0exp(- )
Self-diffusion: diffusion in a single component material & all

Qd=activation energy atoms that exchange positions are the same type
(J/mol or eV/atom) Elements diffuse faster in -Fe than in -Fe because -Fe
Impurity Diffusion: has a more open structure (-Fe is close packed) so the
activation barrier for diffusion is lower
the diffusion of
one type of atomic Interstitial diffusion is faster than vacancy diffusion
Ficks first law: diffusion flux is proportional to
species within a
concentration gradient
multi-component
Diffusion coefficient varies with T
material
1

HCP Crystal
FCC Crystal
Simple Cubic BCC Crystal
4
Atoms/cell: 1 Atoms/cell: 2 Atoms/cell: 4 Atoms/cell: 6/2
3
APF=0.68
APF=0.74
APF=0.74
APF=0.52
APF=
CN=8
CN=12
CN=12
CN=8
4
a=2R
a=2R

a=22R
a=
=
3
x close-packed
close-packed c/a=1.63 (ideal)

close-packed
A= atomic weight n=atoms/cell Anisotropy (opposite of isotropic) close-packed
Na=Avogs# (6.02x10^23) Physical properties of a material differ depending on

n=2dsin d= 2 2 2 crystallographic direction in which measurements

+ + taken (e.g. conductivity, elastic modulus, index of
refraction)
Structural symmetry anisotropy

Vatoms= R3

Nv=Nexp(- ) {or kT} Point Defect

Line Defect
Include vacancies,
Unlike point, dislocations are
N=
interstitials, self-interstitials thermodynamically unstable

N=#atomic sites/unit vol. Factors affecting solubility Edge: associated with lattice

Atomic size factor, crystal distortion produced in vicinity of

Xsol=exp(- )

structure, electronegativity, the end of an extra half-plane of

Planar Defect
valences
atoms (burgers vector
Include external surfaces (have more dangling bonds perpendicular)
that have excess energy), grain boundaries (atomic
Screw: associated with lattice
mismatch in a transition region where grains meet), distortion created when normally
twin boundaries (produced by applied mechanical
parallel planes are joined together
shear forces or during annealing heat treatments)
to form helical ramp (burgers
Most solids are polycrystalline (many grains
vector parallel)
separated by grain boundaries)

Elastic Modulus
Plastic deformation Toughness: Energy
Related to dF/dr
Crystalline->slip
required to fracture
Slope of stress-strain line Amorphous->viscous unit volume of
Strain: =
Measures stiffness
flow mechanism
material (Area under
0
Linear stress-strain for Metals-> gradual
stress-strain )
Shear Strain: =tanelastic deformation
transition
Metals are tougher
=E =G Depends little on alloying Dislocation motion than ceram,polymer

Depends weakly on temp. Edge->B vector and disloc. Resilience:
line are perp. (disloc. line Capacity of matl
R= cos()cos() Dislocation density(): Slip occurs when shear stress on v=- =-
(Emelt=0.5E0K)
moves parallel to B vector)to absorb energy
min stress to
slip plane excees critical resolved for iso: E=2G(1+v) Eceram>Emetal>Epoly
dis. length/volume
Screw->opposite of edge when deformed
initiate yielding:
shear stress threshold
Tensile Properties
or # of dis/area
2
elastically &

*Occurs
on
specific
planes
and
*Dis. cause distortions
Ur=
(linear) Yielding->onset of plastic deformation
y=
upon unloading
2
directions (slip system)
cos()cos()
Yield strength(y)->stress required to produce specific recover the
that store energy
Ductility
*Most
dense
plane
&
direction
w/
plastic
strain
(strain
offset
of
0.002
usually
used)
*Lattice
Strain(areas
of
max stress: y=2CRSS
How much
energy. Mod. of
highest linear density
Strength is property of metal. Steel->2 yield points, is resilience (U )material
H-P: y= 0+ky1/ T&C) created around dis.
r
FCC->111 plane, 110 direction
yield strength Tensile Strength->stress at max on
plastically
> strain energy
D=avg grain diameter *If dis. exerts attractive BCC->110 plane, 111 direction
stress-strain
curve
(matls
max
load)
->Necking
begins
force ->annihilation
deforms before
per volume
y= 0+ks
*Grains elongate in direction of
After yielding, matls harder to deform (work hardening) (J/m3) Area
(perfect crystal)
fracture
C=solute concn
Deform metal: Strain Estrain bc of deformation in poly
Brittle-> little to no plastic
0

under stress%EL=
x100 %AR=
x100 deformation before fracture
Adding jog: Ujog= Gb3dislocation density *Resolved Shear Stress(R) is shear

strain up to
0
0
component
of
applied
tensile
stress
conductivity
point of yielding
y= 0+kw
resolved
along
slip
plane
that
is
other
corrosion resistance
=disloc. density
than
perp
or
parallel
to
stress
axis
*Applied
stress
is

Cleavage:
Fracture->crack
formation
*Reverted by annealing

*
is value of R at which yielding & propagation bc of stress crack propagation
amplified at the tip of Kt=
%ColdW=
x100 Single Crystals->each CRSS
0
0
the crack
shear band results from begins (prop of matl)
Ductile Frac.-> stable (resistcorresponding to
Annealing

2
Annealing: Us=Gb generation of lots of
successive & repeated ->dependent on crack =2
cont. unlessstress)
1. Recovery->dislocs organize

breaking atomic bond orientation & geometry

->plastic
deform,
%AR&EL
Graingrow:Dn-D0n=Kt dislocations & their
and annihilate (relief of internal
->Stress Concn factor a=crack length
propagation in slip
along
specific
planes
->E
absorption
strain energy by heat)
Grain size red.->disloc.
(Kt) is measure of
system with max R.
t=crack
* strength,# dislocs, ductility ->caused by damage accum. Ductile-> single piece,
cant glide across grain
degree to which an
Poly->grain orient. is
extensive
deformation
tip radius
->nucleation,
growth,
*Grains are unchanged
boundary*Fine-grained
exernal stress is
random. Some grains
*Electric&thermal cond. restored coalescence of microvoids Brittle-> many pieces,
matls have greater grain
amplified at tip of crack
have low cos()cos()
->particles & imperfections little deformation
boundary area (slows Work/Strain->ductile 2. Recrystallization->new strain
Static
loading->strain
rateStress at tip of crack can break
assist
in
void
nucleation
dislocation motion) *H- metal becomes stronger free grains nucleate (equiaxed)
bonds. Crack propagates if elastic
->If
matls
are
loaded
and
->Fracture
is
rough&fibrous
*low disloc. density *new grains
P eqn to determine red. as it is plastically
E released during fracture >
deformed
rapidy
(
strain
->Shear 45 to tensile direc.
* toughness & strengthdeformed bc # of disloc. (low ) grow into old(high )
surface E created
rate),
ductile
materials
can
Brittle
Frac.->
unstable
*Rapid strength *Ductility
Solid-Solution and mobility
Crack grows if: =
behave
in
a
brittle
manner
->plastic
deform,
E
absorp.
>hardening metals as a *Cold-Working *Disloc. restored *Similar character.
(K=Kc) Grif Crit.
Impact tests determine
->bc
of
rapid
crack
propagat.
of
pre
cold-worked
*depend
on
result of solute atoms slip is stochastic
K=stress intensity factor,
material
response
to
temp.
->Amorphous:
shiny,smooth
(i.e. alloying addition) *New disloc. made at temp&time *softness, ductility
Kc=critical stress factor or
-> Intragranular->through and strain rate
*driving
force=stored
E
*Substitution or
grain boundaries &
->Charpy & Izod (difference fracture toughness, Gc=toughness
grains
(inter
follows
Hot
Working->
Interstitial
particle clusters *yield
Kc:property that measures matls
in specimen support)
boundaries)
plastically deform material above
*Resistance to slip
strength ductility
resistance to brittle fracture
Ductile-to-Brittle transition
recrystallization temp.
Particle/Precipitate->act as obstacles and
occurs when temp. of matl when crack is present
when disloc. are pinned at 2 ends by particles, *annealing occurs simult. w/
->BCC fail by cleavage along *When thickness>>crack
deformation *large deformations
multiple in Frank-Read Source
<100> plane (not FCC, HCP) dimension, Kc becomes
T>0.6Tm = Hot Work T<0.4Tm= Cold
*Measured fracture strengthindependent of thickness
3. Grain Growth-> avg. grain size of
is always than expected *Plane strain fracture
polycrystalline matls (require heat)
toughness(Kic) with
bc of microscopic flaws
*Does not need to be preceded by step 1&2
strain rate and temperature
*large grains grow at expense of smaller
Kc=Yc (units: MPa)
*small strength *total grain boundary area
*Factors affecting fracture:
yielding E *driving force=minimize grain
stress concn, critical crack
boundary E *Grain bound. E related to area &
length, fracture toughness
curvature *Boundaries migrate towards center
*If max stress>yield strength in
*At room temp, fine-grained metal
ductile, plastic deform. occurs (if in
strength,toughness than coarse-grained
brittle matl, cleavage/fracture)
Stress: =

0
0