BIO3302 Lec 7

Lec 6 recap
Baroreceptor reflex is one of the really important neural pathways for
the acute regulation of blood pressure
o But its not the only neural pathway
o There are chemoreceptors that detect blood and CO2 levels
that help regulate blood pressure
Baroreceptors are still the key mechanism for the adjustment of blood
pressure on a moment to moment basis
o Going from lying down to standing up
They are sensory receptors in the all of the aorta and carotid sinuses
and are activated by stretch
o Have a resting firing rate and as pressure goes up they fire
more, as pressure falls they fires less
o This degree of firing is integrated by the cardiovascular center
in the medulla and appropriate output is sent to the effector
organs(heart and smooth muscle in blood vessel walls) and they
adjust pressure
To adjust pressure heart rate and vasoconstriction of the
arterioles are adjusted and this occurs in a negative
feedback fashion
Slide 52
o Arterial blood pressure has increased
Could happen if one quickly drink a large volume of water
Or going from standing up to lying down
o Increase in bp and want to bring down to the normal value
This increase is detected by the baroreceptors
Causes the firing to increase
Firing is detected and integrated by the cardiovascular
center in the brain stem
o It adjust the sympathetic and parasympathetic activity in the
heart and blood vessels
o Heart
If blood pressure increased, decrease cardiac output must
occur to bring heart rate down
Parasympathetic control
So heart rate has to slow down by increasing the
parasympathetic activity through the vagus nerve
and m2 receptors
o Need to increase vagal tone
The increase in parasympathetic activity will in turn
decrease heart rate and decrease cardiac output
Sympathetic control

Decrease in sympathetic activity will lower heart

rate and stroke volume
1 receptor activation allows for this
all of these process will lower heart rate and in turn lower
blood pressure
o the vasomotor center
in order to reduce bp vasodilation is needed in this center
vasodilation is achieved by decreasing sympathetic
activity which decreases tonic activity in the arteries and
veins and this will cause them to dilate which lowers
resistance and reduces bp
1 receptors are involved
when baroreceptors are at the normal resting value, then everything
is in the tonic/background level of activity and there is no need to
change activity
o as soon as activity changes and any minor changes in bp are
immediately corrected through this pathway
problem with baroreceptors is that they adapt to the change of
pressure over time
o if one has consistently high bp(hypertension) the baroreceptors
reset so that the high bp becomes the new norm
o same thing for hypotension
the adjustment of vasodilation/constriction arterials cause an
immediate effect on pressure b/c such activity affects resistance
o on the other hand the adjustment of vasomotor tone to the
venous system, venous return is affected which affects cardiac
output which affects blood pressure
Exercise
increases met rate an in turn increase O2 consumption by 5-10x
o this mean that increased oxygen delivery to the exercising
tissues
o in part this oxygen delivery is the responsibility of the circ
system
to meet the high O2demand caused by exercise an increased cardiac
output is needed so more o2 can get to the tissues
o there is also a redistribution of cardiac output
some tissues are not used very much where other are
heavily used
the blood is redistributed to meet the needs of the tissues
slide 54
o the blood flow priorities during rest+ exercise
Large increase in cardiac out put
Significant changes where the blood is going to

But these changes occur with only small

consequences on blood pressure
P=QR
P remains the same
Increase in Q
R would decrease
Circulatory responses to exercise
Hyperemia
o Exercising muscles need increased blood flow
o Active hyperemia is one method of achieving such
It is a local metabolic effect
o Even before you start exercising there is an increase in
sympathetic activity in anticipation of exercise
This causes dilation of some of the blood vessels in
skeletal muscles b/c some of the sympathetic neurons can
release ACh
As the sympathetic system is activated there is some
vasodilation to the skeletal muscle
o As soon as the muscle starts exercising active hyperemia takes
over and massive blood flow to exercising muscle can occur
Increases Cardiac Output
o This increase in blood flow has to be met with increasing
cardiac output
o The increased sympathetic activity increases heart rate and the
force of contraction of the heart
Peripheral Vasoconstriction
o This will be achieved through the1 receptors
o Blood flow going to abdominal organs will be reduced
o It could cause vasoconstriction in muscle fibers but active
hyperemia takes over
o Does cause constriction of the veins; this is a benefit because it
increases venous return and this helps to increase cardiac
output
As you exercise the skeletal muscle pumps in the legs also
promote venous return and this helps cardiac output
An increase in cardiac output tends to increase bp, however at the
same time there is an increase in cardiac output there is an overall
fall in peripheral resistance
o The fall in peripheral resistance is driven primarily by
vasodilation in skeletal muscles
o There is vasoconstriction to abdominal muscles but this
constriction is offset by the vasodilation in the skeletal muscle
So over all resistance falls and cardiac out increases and
pressure stays the same

Gas Exchange
Basic Principles
Large animals, with high met rates need a circulatory system to
deliver oxygen to the tissues b/c diffusion isnt fast enough to keep up
o They also have a dedicated gas exchange system
This is the point at which O2 enters the animal and CO2
leaves the animal
Regardless of looking at a small animal w/ a small met rate or a larger
complex animal what drives oxygen movement is the same
o He partial pressure difference between the environment and the
tissues
o Cells use O2 meaning there is a partial pressure gradient
between the external environment and the cell
O2 moves down that partial pressure gradient from out of
the cell in
CO2 moves from the cell other external environment

The Oxygen Cascade

o What drives o2 into an animal is diffusion along its partial
pressure gradient
o And this o2 movement can be thought of as a series of steps
called the O2 Cascade
High O2 levels in the external environment
Low O2 in the mitochondria where o2 is being used for
metabolism
o This difference of partial pressure between the environment and
the tissue site of o2 use that allows for o2 movement in other
tissues
o Depending the complexity of the animal there will be a series of
steps
Oxygen is delivered to the exchange surface by some type of
ventilation
Transfer of respiratory gases is Done in 4 steps in vertebrates
o Ventilation
Brings o2 to gas exchange surface
o Diffusion
Across the respiratory epithelium
o Carrying of O2 in the blood to the tissues
o Diffusion from the blood into the tissues
When this is broken down one ca see 2 steps where diffusion is
involved
o At the gas exchange surface
o At the tissues
And there are 2 steps where o2 is being carried by the bulk flow of
fluid
o Ventilation of air and water
o Blood flow
These are convective steps
Diffusion
o This is the movement of molecules by random Brownian motion
o Movement of gas by diffusion is driven by the diffusion gradient
which in the case of gases is the partial pressure gradient
pgas
o Diffusion depends on permeability
Kgas=estimate of permeability
Diffusion of gas is much faster in are than it is in water
and this reflects the permeability
Permeability in part depends on how readily the gas
dissolves into the medium(air, water or blood)
Gases are more mobile in air than in water b/c they
are more mobile in air

o Depends on surface area

Large the surface area the greater diffusion can occur
o And diffusion is inversely proportional to thickness
For fast gas diffusion, a thin barrier is preferred
o Fick equation: Mgas = Pgas Kgas SA/T
o Diffusion depends on P, not C
Convection
o The gas is being moved by the bulk flow of the medium and this
medium can be air water or blood
o The individual o2 molecules are carried by the medium
o This is a much faster transport pathway allows higher rats of
gas transfer
o In terms of o2 delivery; the movement/flow of medium and the
conc of gas in the medium
So how much o2 is present the medium
The flow of the medium times the concentration difference
tells you how much gas is being delivered
o Mgas = Vmedium Cgas
o Convection plays a role in boundary layers
Boundary layers are regions next to the gas exchange
surface that becomes depleted in o2
Area where o2 has diffused from and is now low inn o2
b/c they can become depleted in o2 they slow down
diffusion
o convection eliminates boundary layers by delivering o2 directly
to the gas exchange site/tissues
how are partial pressure and convection are related
o for gases partial pressure determines movement
o in terms of metabolism what really matters is how much gas is
present i.e. the conc of gas
o these two variable are related
see graph in slide 6
o capacitance is a way of relating concentration to partial
pressure (slide 6)
Capacitance = C/ P
if pressure and capacitance is known, one could calculate
conc
Capacitance of Air and liquids need to considered separately
o Air
looking at o2 and co2 in air they have exactly the same
capacitance b/c in air they follow the ideal gas law
when the ideal gas law equation is rearranges on can find
the slope of the relationship= 1/rt
so ALL gases have the same capacitance in air

o Fluid(blood/water)
If air is put overtop of a fluid where initially there is no o2
O2 will move into the fluid according to its partial
pressure gradient until the partial pressures are the same
in the fluid and the air
This will occur by diffusion
Partial pressure of o2 in the fluid is going to
equilibrate with the partial pressure of o2 in the air
over top so there is the same partial pressure in
both locations
The concentration of o2 in the gas vs the liquid will be
different b/c the conc of gas in the liquid will depend on
the solubility of the liquid for oxygen for o2 and
whether there is anything in the liquid to which o2
can bind
Gas will physically dissolve in the liquid and this is
determined by solubility
Knowing solubility you can calculate the conc of gas
in the liquid
There is a chance that o2 will react with the liquid and
this will increase the conc of o2 in the liquid
2 cases
O2 physically dissolves in the liquid
o Amount hat physically dissolves is determined
by the solubility coefficient=
o depends on the particular gas, temperature
and salinity
o as temp goes up solubility goes down
o from we can calculate the physically
dissolved o2
C= P
O2 is involved with additional chemical binding
o Chemical biding of the gas
The gas for o2 in blood and for CO2 in
water and in blood

Lec 8

When water is air equilibrated the CO2 concentration is water and air
is equal but the concentration of O2 in water and air differ
Conc of o2 is water depends on how much o2 can be physically
dissolved in the water and this is given by the following equation:
o [O2]dissolved= PO2 x
When going beyond water you end up with binding of o2 to
respiratory pigments like hemoglobin
If the gas chemically reacts with something in the solution then
physically dissolved gas no longer describes all the gas that is present
o You will have to add in a term to described the amount of
chemically bound gas that is present
o Ex blood contains hemoglobin and oxygen binds to hemoglobin
therefore the conc of o2 in blood is the amount of oxygen that
physically dissolves in the plasma plus the amount of o2
chemically bound to hemoglobin
CO2 chemically reacts with water
o They react to form carbonic acid which then dissociates in
bicarbonate and then this further dissociates to carbonate ions
o So the conc of co2 is not only the physically dissolved CO2 but
on top of that you have to add the amount of co2 that has
chemically reacted with the water
This includes the bicarbonate ions, and the carbonate ions
o Note: the pH of a physiological system is one in which we are
only worrying about the bicarbonate
It dominates b/c the carbonate ions are pretty small and
can be considered negligible most of the time
Co2 in blood
o It is physically dissolved
o Co2 reacts with the water in blood and so the conc of
bicarbonate and carbonate ions are included

o Co2 chemically reacts with respiratory pigments such as

hemoglobin and co2 that is bound to hemoglobin is called
carbamino co2
Carbamino co2 describes the amount of co2 that is bound
to hemoglobin
When there is more than just physically dissolved as, capacitance is
especially useful
o If there is only dissolved gas then one can rely on the solubility
coefficient to give the conc of gas present
o Beyond that(^^) the value of capacitance describes all of the
different ways the gas can be carried in the liquid
It includes things like O2 bound to hemoglobin, or co2
that is chemically reacted with water
is a functional measure of solubility
it will tell you how much gas is in the liquid whereas
the solubility coefficient will only tell you the amount
of gas that physically dissolved in the liquid
movement of o2 into animal can be divided into 4 steps
o oxygen is brought to the gas exchange surface
this involves ventilation so it involves air or water moving
across the gas exchange surface
this is a convective step
o the o2 has to move across the respiratory surface
this is a diffusive step and so it relies on the Fick equation
o o2 is carried in the circulatory system to the tissues sites of use
another convective step b/c the gas is being carried by the
blood
o o2 moves from the blood into the tissue site of use
this is a diffusive step relying on the Ficks equation
o can use this exact same model for co2 however its in reverse
for any convective step, the amount of gas that Is moved Mgas=flow
of medium carry it (air, water or blood) X the concentration
o mgas= amount of gas that is moved
Gas transfer revisited
MO2 = Vm (CiO2-CeO2)
o i=inspired
o E=expired
o How much air youre breathing multiplied by the difference
between your expired and inspired are in the amount of o2 that
is present
o Or it's the amount of water a fish is breathing multiplies by the
difference between inspired water and expired water in the o2
content

Sometimes its difficult to measure concentration and its often easier

to measure pressure
o Because we have a relationship between concentration and
capacitance, concentration can be replaced with capacitance
o Vm mO2 (PiO2-PeO2)
This tells how much O2 is being carried to the gas
exchange surface by the flow of air/water
o V=flow(ml/min)
MO2 = Vb (CaO2-CvO2) = Vb bO2 (PaO2-PvO2)
o Here we can calculate amount of O2 in the blood
o Here we use blood flow so Vb
As well as arterial(a)and venous(v) content Or Pressure
o The flow of blood multiplied by the difference between the
arterial venous blood in terms of how much blood is being
carried
Arterial blood brings O2 to the tissue and the Venous
blood flows away from the tissue
The difference between tells how much o2 the tissue
has acquired
In a well-designed gas exchange system, the amount of O2 moving
through the system will be the same the whole way
o So at each step we can look at a calculation for mO2 but if our
calculate the amount of oxygen that is being carried to the gas
exchange surface we should also note the amount of o2 that is
diffusing into the tissue(in s4)
o The amount of O2 moving should be constant within the system
The end game is to get o2 to the tissues. Everything
preceding that is just moving it into the system
this is a handy property b/c it means we can use things
that are easy to calculate such as the amount of o2 being
delivered to the lungs in the air as a proxy for things can
are really difficult to calculate like the amount of o2 being
delivered to the tissues by diffusion
o its quite difficult to calculate movement by diffusion even when
given the Fick equation b/c parts of the Fick equation are quite
difficult to calculate
MO2 constant across system so can rearrange equations to solve for
unknown variables.
MO2 = DPO2 KO2 SA/T
o Here is a eq of o2 consumption as a function of blood flow and
blood o2 content
o If you want to calculate blood flow; the rearrangement of the eq
will allow it
Blood O2 transport

O2 is carried in the blood both as physically dissolved gas and gas

that is bound to a respiratory pigment(i.e. hemoglobin but there is a
ton)
Hemoglobin increases the amount of o2 the blood can carry
o See slide 14
The amount of just physically dissolved o2 in the blood is about 0.3 vol
%
The amount of o2 present in the blood when you have a respiratory
pigment is 20 vol%
o Vastly more oxygen available b/c f chemical bind fo2 to the resp
pigment
o Hgb is an awesome o2 carrier
Without Hgb in order to deliver the necessary amount of
o2 blood flow must increase
Ex crustacean + fish
o Crusts have to have a higher blood flow b/c
their hemoglobin holds less o2
How high does blood flow need to be in anemic human
beings in order for the human to meet the normal o2
consumption of 1mmO2/g/hr.
See
There is a fish that lacks Hgb
o The ice fish see the blood in slide 16
o Its clear w/out any Hgb
This fish can survive without any Hgb by relying on
dissolved o2 only
This means that the fishes cardiac output will be very high
This means the heart of an ice fish is fairly large
The heart is actually 3x larger than the hearts of
similar red blooded fish to accommodate for the
need of a higher cardiac output
o It is an ectothermic living in very cold temperatures
Has a low met rate
Though the water is old and the solubility of o2 is really
high
Respiratory Pigments
Hemoglobin is not the only respiratory pigment but it is the most
common
It is the respiratory pigment of vertebrates; also found in a lot of
invertebrates
Called a respiratory pigment because it changes colour depending on
whether o2 is bound to it or not.
Hgb where O2 is bound(Hb-O2) is bright red

o Deoxygenated blood deoxy-Hb is a blue-red (so purple...)

o In crustaceans there is hemocyanin
This hemocyanin is copper based meaning when
oxygenated their blood is blue
Clear when deoxygenated
o In annelids they have chlorocruorins which are green when
oxygenated and clear when deoxygenated
o Worms have hemerythrins and this is violet color when
oxygenated and clear when its not.
The Hgb molecule is a tetrameric molecule, so there are 4 subunits
o 2 alpha and 2 beta subunits
o And associated with each globin is an iron based prosthetic
group called the heme group
This is where o2 binds
o 1 molecule of hemoglobin can bind 4 molecules of o2
Due to the subunits each with their own heme group