Blood vessels

3 types (arteries capillaries and veins)

All of them are lined by endothelial cells
o The cells the blood is in contact with
o A type of epithelial cell lining on a basement membrane
In capillaries the endothelial cells are the only cells present
In arteries and veins on top of the endothelial layer there are layers of
connective tissue and smooth muscle
o Connective tissue has elastic elements for flexibility and
collagen so there is too much flexibility
Blood leaves the hear through the aorta which then splits into arteries
and then arteriole and the arteriole leading to the capillaries
o The capillaries are the smallest vessels but they are the most
numerous and a result the surface area is highest in this place
Capillaries coalesce into venoules and veins and eventually lead back
to a single vessel that returns blood to the heart7
Capillaries are the site of exchange between the blood and the tissues
o A large surface area facilities effective exchange
This also means that the velocity of blood flow in the
capillaries is very low
Flow from human heart= 5L/min
This means that there is 5 L/min throughout the whole
circ system
o When blood is flowing in single vessels it flows at a high velocity
o When blood flows through capillaries which count as a broad
channel when all capillaries are taken into account, the velocity
of flow is very slow
Think in terms of a river
Water passing down the grand canyon is channeled
through a narrow river and so the speed of the
water is very high;
As it approaches the ocean it opens up into a delta
which is a very large area with very low flow
As area gets larger in the capillaries the velocity of
movement falls
This is important because it is a point of exchange
Low speed of blood through the capillaries allows
time for exchange to occur
Pressure generated by the heart is what drives the blood through the
circ system and this pressure drives blood flow through resistance
o The smaller vessels(arterioles, capillaries and venoules) provide
the most resistance
As blood passes the aorta and blood comes back through
the veins Bp falls.

The relationship between pressure, resistance and flow are important

in figuring out the circ system works
Resistance is proportional to the length
o It is inversely proportional to radius4
As the radius gets smaller the resistance increases to the
fourth power
Meaning small changes in radii results in large impacts in
resistance
o Viscosity also affects resistance
Thicker it is, higher the resistance
Poiseuilles equation describes flow as a function of the driving force
and the resistance(length, viscosity and radius4)
There are a number of assumptions linked with poiseuilles equation
o Laminar flow
o Straight rigid tubes
Assumes laminar flow
Laminar flow is one that shows the parabolic profile found
in slide 31
All the layers are sliding past each other in an organized
fashion giving parabolic velocity profile where blood in
the center is moving the fastest
Most places in the circ system flow is laminar and so this
assumption is needed
o Viscosity
The internal friction to try and get these layers of blood
sliding past each other
Resistance to sliding
The circ system gives high resistance in that plasma has
2x the viscosity of water and when the blood cells are
added resistance become 3-4x more than water
We tend to assume that viscosity is constant in the entire
circ system
One exception to this is present in vessels that are
quite small
Vessels that are around 0.3mm in diameter
o In these bv, the blood cells line up in the
middle of the vessel- so not scattered
o So what is left on the edges is plasma and the
viscosity of plasma is less than blood.
o This is a good thing because it lowers the
amount the work the heart has to do since
resistance has been lowered
o Making It easier to get blood through the
small blood vessels

o This is known as the Fahraeus Lindgvist effect

o Turbulent flow
In a clinical setting turbulent flow is used to measure Bp
Bp pump is used based on turbulent flow
o Also assume that the lengths of the blood vessels dont change
and so the main determinant of resistance in the circulatory
system is the radius of the vessels
o Another
Straight rigid tubes
o BV are rarely straight and they are not rigid
o This assumption has consequences for the productions that are
made based on Ps equation
o In slide 32 the two tubes have the same P however the low
pressure vessel will have lower flow than the high pressure
vessel
In a vessel that can change sizes high pressure will
expand the vessel and so a higher starting pressure, this
tends to stretch the vessel and increases the radius and
lowers resistance.
This fact can screw up the assumptions one makes when
using Ps equation
This fact is taken into consideration by calculating
compliance
o Compliance is the change in volume for a given change in
pressure
In highly compliant vessels one can see high changes in
volume for only small changes in pressure.
This is the bases of giving blood
The venous system is compliant
Large changes in blood volume with very little
pressure
Meaning you can take a litre of blood out of the
venous system with affecting overall blood pressure.
Because of this high compliance the venous system
tends to act like a reservoir
And the arterial end acts as a pressure reservoir
o Important in maintaining function of the circ
system
Blood vessels by function
Windkessesl vessels
o These dampen pressure oscillations
o These are the aorta and the largest arteries
They function to dampen pressure oscillation therefore
maintaining blood flow

o Ventricle pushes blood into the aorta

The aorta though elastic has low compliance
This mean that when the heart ejects blood into the aorta
the aorta stretches a little bit to accommodate that volume
When the heart relaxes and starts to fill again, the stretch
rebounds
There is elastic recoil, and this maintains blood
pressure and blood flow while the heart is relaxed
and not contraction
It is this recoil that maintains blood in ones body while
the heart is in diastolic.
o If blood flow relied solely on the ventricles it would flow when
the heart is contracting and stop flowing when the heart
relaxes.
The elastic recoil from the aorta prevent pressure from
dropping and therefore maintains blood flow
o The ability to dampen pressure oscillations are due to the elastic
element in the wall of the aorta and large arteries(the
Windkessesl vessels)
If these vessels disappear or harden heart functions is
affected
These vessels also have very thick walls b/c they are high
pressure vessels and they have a large radius
o The large radius is another important function on its own
These vessels distribute blood to the heart out to the
periphery
The most effective way to do that is to be low resistance
vessels
The large radius=low radius
o Large radius+ low pressure= thick walls
As blood leaves the aorta and large arteries it passes into
progressively smaller arteries and then the arterioles
Pre-capillary resistance vessels
o These are the smallest arteries and arterioles
o Their small size provide a high amount of resistance
Small radius=high resistance
o Pressure drops abruptly as it goes through the precapillary
vessels
o These vessels set and regulate blood pressure and in turn
regulate blood flow
o In a fight or flight system blood is redirected away from your
intestines and towards the exercising muscles and this
redirection of blood is accomplished by the pre-cap resistance
vessels

Alternatively when one has just had lunch and the gut is
busy digesting, blood is being directed to the blood and
away from skeletal muscles
This too is done by the pre-cap resistance vessels
o Structural feature involving their ability to set blood pressure
and blood flow is the smooth muscle that lines the walls of these
vessels allows the radius to be adjusted
The smooth muscles in walls regulated by both the
nervous system and the endocrine system (sympathetic
system or hormones)
They are also regulated by environmental condition
o When one is working out and the muscles are
metabolically active and produce more CO2
and waste products local metabolic conditions
will regulate blood flow so increased blood
flow will get to the exercising muscles
Pre-capillary sphincters
o These are just little bands of smooth muscle leading into the
capillary bed
o They set blood flow at a local level
o They are not innervated and respond to local condition
o Help to determine where blood goes within the capillary bed
o This takes blood to the capillaries
Capillaries
o Thin walled vessels
o Very numerous
o Form an extensive network so that any cell is predicted to be 3
or 4 cells
o Site of exchange
Thin walls and high surface area help with the exchange
High surface area results in low velocity of flow are also
important for exchange
o More is coming later
Post-capillary resistance vessels
o Blood exists the capillaries and flow into the post-cap resistance
vessels
o These are the venoules and the smallest veins
o The walls of these vessels contain smooth muscle and so the
radius can be adjusted to help control pressure within the
capillary bed
If constricted there is higher pressure in the capillaries
Capacitance
o These are the large veins
o Highly distensible the walls are relatively thin

o Their walls contain smooth muscles and so the radius can be

adjusted to the amount of blood that is present
o Allows them to function as capacitance vessels
Large changes in volume but little change in pressure
o This is important they act as a volume reservoir
When giving blood, blood is taken from the venous
reservoir
When one exercises and an increase in blood flow is
needed, volume is immobilized from the venous reservoir
to increase blood flow to exercising muscles
If volume of the system is not adjusted to the volume of blood that is
there
o Standing still/perfectly for two long and the skeletal muscle
pumps cannot return blood to the heart
o Blood will pool in the lower extremities and the consequence of
that is fainting
o This happens because
Blood pools in the venous system which is very complaint
and due to gravity blood will be pulled down
Typically the muscles pump the blood pooled into the
venous system back to the heart
But in the case of standing perfectly still the muscles
are not moving and so cannot do this
This results in a decrease of venous flow to the heart and
when this falls it results in a decrease in cardiac output
This decrease in cardiac output reduces blood flow to the
brain and the consequence of this is fainting.
If there is no constant flow to the brain the circ system
rearranges the position in order to redistribute the blood
back to the brain
The brain is very sensitive to lack of oxygen and
requires constant flow
Loss of blood also results ^^
Capillary function
These are the key to the circ system b/c its in the capillaries that
exchange between tissues and blood occur
Capillaries are important in the exchange of nutrients, gasses, waste
products
o This occurs by diffusion
o The Fick equation basically tells you how much is diffusing and
this is dependent on:
The amount that is being transferred

the amount that is transferred by diffusion depends

on the gradient and the gradient is set by partial
pressure or concentration
if the cells are using oxygen you are given a partial
pressure gradient for oxygen movement from the
blood to the tissues
using up glucose will give a concentration gradient
Permeability
Lipid soluble (O2 +CO2) vs lipid insoluble
substances(or water soluble like glucose or urea/
ions/amino acids)
Lipid soluble molecules can simple move through
the walls of the capillaries through the cell
membrane
Water soluble compounds can only move through the
walls of the capillaries either by being transported
or by moving though water channels
Capillaries vary in permeability and water channels
that are present
Depends on surface area
Larger surface area the more diffusion
Inversely proportional to the thickness of the walls
Diffusion is harder to accomplish in a thick wall vs a
thin wall

Types of capillaries
o Continuous capillaries
Capillaries where there are no major gaps
Just narrow intercellular clefts between the cells about
4nm in width
Will allow water and ions to pass through
But no proteins can enter through these clefts b/c the
clefts are small
In some areas there are no intracellular cleft ex the blood
brain barrier
This occurs b/c the capillaries in the brain have tight
junctions instead of intracellular clefts
o Fenestrated capillaries
These have holes/pores 80nm in diameter
Increases the ease in which water soluble molecules can
cross the walls

 These holes are still too small for proteins to go through

o Sinusoidal capillaries
Has gaping holes between the cells
And these holes are large enough for a blood cell to get
through s well as an incomplete basement membrane

Lec 5
Capillaries manage fluid balance
In a closed system animal has blood an interstitial fluid and these two
fluids differ in compositon
o Blood contains blood cells and plasma proteins; intertsital fluid
does not
o Interstitial fluid is 3x more in volume than blood
o Losing blod causes the interstitial fluid to become a sourceof
fluid that brings the blood volume back to normal
Capillaries allow fluid to move into the interstitial fluid or out of the
interstitial fluid to maintain volume
Fluid balance in capillaries is driven by two sets of pressrues
o There is a filtration pressure that tends to meove fluid out of the
capillaries
This is created by the hydrostatic pressure for blood that
blood pressure

o There is also fluid pressure in the interstial tissues which is the

ineetrstial fluid hydrostatic pressure
Normally blood pressrure is greater than hydrostatic fluid
pressure
This difference tends to drive fluid out of the
capillaires
o Filtration persure: blood pressure- intersitical pressure
o There is a difference in osmotic pressure between he interstitial
flid and the blood his is beciase the blood has protesin and the
interstitial fluid does not
Osmotic ressure of blood is greater than that of the
intestinal fluid and that tend to draw fluid into the
capillairs
Absorption pressure= osmotic pressure of blood- osmotic
c pressure of IF
If filtration pressure is greater than abosprtive pressure water moves
out tf the capillaires and if the aborptive pressure is greater than
filtration pressure water will move into the capillaries.
Under normal odntions at the artieal end of the capillary there is a
tendency to lose water b/c blood pressure is high and the osmotic
pressure stays constant throughout the length of the capillary
o At the venous end bp is lower therefore there is a tendency for
water to move back nto the capillaries.
o So essentially there isa circulation water exited at the arterial
end and taken up at the venous end
o If these two things do not match fluid loss or fluid gain into the
circ system will occur
Starling Landis hypotheis
o There is a circulation within the capillaries with no net loss of
fluid
o However this is not true
o The lost fluid is collected by the lymphatic system
Carries the fluid and proteins that leak out and puts it
back into the circ system

Lecture 6
Lymohatic system
There is overall a net loss of fluid from the capillaris this lost fluid or
proteins needs to go back to the cirualatory system
This retuen is the function of the lymphatic system
The lymphatic system parallels the venous system;

o It has leaky lynoh capillariescollect fluid and protein that are

lost from the cicurlatory syste and they return it to the circ
system
The lymph vessels are very thin walled and non musclr but they are
compressed by surrounding muscles
o They have valves that direct fluid flow
o Fluid that accumulates in the lymoh capillarie are gradually
moved into the circularoty system
o The lymh vesels empty into the lareg veisn in the neck
This is where the lowerst pressures of the circulatory
system are found
Although lymph flow is not a large as carisct output
Cariac out put=5l/min
Lymphatic flo= 2ml/min
Without the lymph flow to collectthe fluid and proteins you end up
with odema
o Oedema occurs when the tissue swells
The importnac eof the lymphatic system becomes mre porminant
when its function is blocked
o Filariasis
A diseases in which larval nematdes invade te lymphtic
systm by blocking the lymph vessels resulting in extremely
severe oedema
Under normal condtions sometimes the lymphatic system cannot keep
up with fluid loss
Kwashiorkers syndrome
In K syndrome the individual is getting enough calories to maintain
life but is protein deficient
The consequence of this causes tissue oedema in the lower legs, feet
and esp in the abdomen
In K syndrome the lymphatic system is working normally
The physiological basis of K syndrome
o Lloss of fluid into surrounding tissues is cause dbby insuffienct
protein in the blood to balance the absorptive force and
filtration force
o The filtration becomes greater than absorbption and so there is
net loss of fluid
o As the fluid leaves the circ system and accumaltes in the tissues
the hydrostatic pressure of the ISF increases
As a result the filtration rate becomes smaller and
balance is re-established where filtration=absorption
except for the fact that tissue oedema persists
o If the lymphatic did clear away all the fluid; the cyle would just
repeat itself

o Low osmotic pressure in the blood lowers th absorptive force

and so there is net loss of fluid.
Thisnet loss of fluid into the tissues increases the
hydorsttic pressure of the fluid making the filtration force
smaller and bringing things bck into balance
But with significant tissue oedema
Control of regional circulation
Circulatory system works on a propity system so the tissues that are
least resistance to oxygen lack have the highest priority for blood
flow
o Ex the brain-very susceptible to lack of O2 top of priority
system; next in line are the Heart+ gas exchange organ.
Everything else happens to be expendable
o If there isa problem with lack of blood the blood will be cut off
from non essential tissies like the viscera in oder to maintain
blood flow to the essential tissues
Important definitions
o Ischemia
Lakc of blood flow
o Hyperemia
Higher blood flow than normal
Active hyperemia
Occurs when tissues are metaboliccaly active
During exercise
Reactive hyperemia
The higher than usually blood flow that follows
ischemia
o Reynauds syndrome
People that sufer from this have an unsually strong
response to cold
Hands become white because blood flow is
comletelt shut off
It can be so strong that the tissues can become ischemic
In odrde to reestibish blood flow one must apply an
external heating source(running hands under warm
water)
Control mechanisms of different blood flow patterns
o Local mechanism
Act at the level of the tissue;
and neural and hormornal mechnsisms; higher level of
control going donw to the tissues
these mechs operate at the arteriole and pre-capillary
sphincters

control at arterioles allows blood to be directed to

some tissues but not other
o in a flight-fight response conttrole of the
arterioles seds blood tot heexercisin mucsles
bu notto the digestive muscles or kidney
control at precapillary spincters
o is within a tissue; regilatinfg blood flow
within a capillary bed
Neural and hromaonal mechanism
o Under control of the sympatheic nervous system
o Sympathetyi neurons release noradrenaline which then acts on
1 adrenergic receptors that are present in the smooth muscle
of the arteriole walls
o When the 1 adrenorecepotrs are activated they increase
cytosoclic calcium levels in the muscles cells;;the muscles
contract and vasoconstriction occurs
Blood vessels become smaller
o Vasomotor tone
The background level of activity in the sympatheic nerve
going to the smooth muscles of blood vessels
An increase in symathic activity cause the vessels to
constrict further but it can also decrease sympathetic
acivity to decrease level of constirtcion/dilate
No paarsympatheitc comonnent. It is all being run by the
sympatheic system
o Tha 1 adrenorecprots proveds the mechanism to cause
vasoconstriction
These receptors are found in most arterioles but not in
arterioles founf in the brain, heart, or lungs/gills
The activiation of the sympathic nervous system will
result in the shut down of blood flow to the
viscera(abdomical organs) by causes vasoconsticiton
but this will not affect bllod flow to the brain, heart
or gas exchange organ
helps maintain priority
second level on control at the level or arteiroles
o based on the smypaththix nervous system but this time the
adrenal medulla rekeases a curuclatin catecholamine
o this acts on the 2 receptor
o the 2 receptor are acatteered thoughout blood vessels and are
found in the arteriole smooth muscle
these cause the muscle to relax
when they are activated the blood vessles dilate

both the 1 and 2 recepotrs can be found in the same tissuehoweeer

you will typically find slightl different distibutions between tissues
o the viscera is well endowned with -1 receptors
o skeletal muscles contin 1 receptors(how cold indiced
lessesned blood flow to the hands work
however they also contain a lot of 2 receptors which
allow you to override the vasoconstrictory response in
emergency situations
when it is a teu fight orflight situation one gets a kick
ofadrenealine
adrenal gland suddenly releases adrenaline into
circulation; when this happens adronergeic
resceptors are activated and you get vasodilation
in a true full out sympathetic panicblood flowis shut down
to thhe viscera through the 1 receprots while at the
sametime casuign vasodilation in the skeletal muscles
allowing to escape from the predator
all this is at the level of the smoot muscle of the arteriole
wall
Local Control Meahcnissm ofbloodflow
this controls arteriles and pre-capillarysphincters
heat
o promotes vasodilation
compounds produced and released from endothelial cells
o promotes vasodilation and ncreases blood flow
o ex nitricoxide
inflammatory mediators
o promotes vasodilation and ncreases blood flow
o ex histamine
metabolic control
o when tissues are metabolical active they automatically
experience vasodilation and this does not require nerves or
hormones
o this is ecause metabolic activity decreases O2 levels and
increases CO2, proton, adenosine, K+ (collecviely known as
metabolites)
o this combination f low O2 and high metabolites casues
vasodilation
o this acts on the arterioles and the pre-capillaru sphincters
o it is also very highly developed in skeletal muscles
skeletal muscles that are metabolic active experiences
increase in blood flow and this is the basis of reactive
huporemia
pulmonary capillaries respond in the opposite fashion to oxygen

o low oxygen levels casues pulomary capillaries to constrict rather

than dilate
o low O2 in the lung means that, thatpart of the lung is not
getting good air flow
th purpose of the lung is to take up oxygen theres no point
sending blood to where there is no oxygen
so this mechanism redirectsblood to where there is more
oxygen
on the other hadn in skeletal muscles, low O2 results in increased
blood flow to dieliver O2 to exercising tissue

Physiological basis of:

cold induced ischemia
o when exposed to cold the sympathetic system is activated
shutig down blood flow to the hands
this is caused by the response of 1 receptors
o lackof heat resultsin vasoconstriction
o In the case of reynauds syndrome blod would be comolelt
shut off from the hands.
Individual runs hands under warm water usinf heat to
get the vessles to dilate
reactive hyperemia
o when there is no blood flow to the tissues during ischemia,
metabolism still contiains but oxygen is just not being
supplied and those levels fall
o the metabolites are not being removed and so their levels
increase
CO2, adenosine, proton, K+ etc levels increase
o Thisis the basis of vasodialton in reactive hyperemia
o There is accumaltion of metabolite and loss of oxygen and so
when blood flow is reestblished there is a higher than normal
blood flow to bring ocnditions back normal.
Control of blood pressure
The maintence of blood flow is blood pressure
Mainatning blood pressure mainatince blood flow to the brain, herat
and lungs/gills
The other value lies in the maintanence of fluid balance between the
blood and the tissue
Regukation of blood flow is accomplished by two mechanism
o Chronic emhanism
Requires hours to days to come into effect and are based
on the kidneys
If bp is too high then one urinates more in order to reduce
blood volume and this brings b back to normal

Urine flow rate is being matched to either the

increase or decrese in volime to bring it back to
normal
This is mechanism is great for lng term control of blood
volume and blood pressure
But does not help withmoment to moment processes
o Acute mechanism
Based on neural reflex arc
They specifically regukate hert rate and the raidus of the
arterioles in order to control blood pressure
They are based on P=QR
See slide 50
Regulation of blood pressure= rgulaiton of P
In order to regulate P; Q and R must be regulated
as well
Q= SV x HR
o Im mammals geart rate is adjusted more thn
stroke volume
R(Total periphery resisyance)
o Focus is mostly on arterioles
o Construction of arterioles resistance increase;
if the arterioles are dilated resistance will go
down
Vsasoconstrcitio or vasodilation of arterioles tend to
set pressure
But do not foget the venous system
o Conriction of the venous system is important
because it moves blood back to the heart
Increasesvenous ceiling pressure and
filles the ehart fuller to help increase
crdiac output
Regulating blood pressrure is mosly dependent on the
regulation of heart rate and the radius of the arteriole
In an acute sense
Acute mechanism of bood pressure control is depende on neural reflex
arcs
o One of the most important reflex arcsinvolved in regulation bp is
the baroreceptor reflex arc
o Baroreceprors
Sensory receptors that detect pressure as stretch in a
blood vessel wall
Found in the walls of blood vessles
Thye are the sensory component of the neureal reflex arc

Under normal conditions he barorecptors fire at an

intermediate rate (pridce APs at a background rate)
If pressure goes up the vessles expand a little bit
and this casues the barorrecptorss to become mor e
active telling the brain that bp has gone up.
If bp falls blood vessles reduce in steetch and the
baroreptor firing decreases and it tells the brain that
blood pressure has fallen
To allow for the maintencneof blod flowto the brain
baroreptors are found in theaortic arch b/cthat monitors
bp in the systemic circ as a whole
The barorepors are alos found in the carotid sinus
The arteirs taking blood from the heat to the veins
are carotid arteries in the neck these arteries spilt
and just at the end where they split there is a little
widendin g called the crotid sinus
The baroreports found here are perfectly placed to
montor blood pressureto the brain.
o In this neural arc the information of blood pressureentring th
beian goes to the cardiovasucla centre of the brain in the
brainstem
Takes int information coming from the barorepots
Proceses the information and then ends out approtoare
response
These reposnes regulate heart rateand the smooth
vessles of the blood vessel walls- the arterioles in
particular